1

In Defense of Bells
Their Use and History in the Roman Liturgy

by Dr. Steven Ball, A.Mus.D.

2 I. INTRODUCTION When one considers how important an effect architecturally, liturgically and aurally that bells have played in the life of the church for at least the past fifteen hundred years 1 , it is really surprising how frequently one encounters organists and music directors who are completely oblivious even to their existence in the structure of the church in which they serve. This is a paradox, as bells have an external function which in many respects is parallel to that of the organ internally. It is this the aim of this document to provide an explanation of the origins of bells in the church, and also the translation of this European tradition to America. Further, to address fundamental misconceptions about the subject of bells and how they should be rung and to examine in detail the methods of producing bells and how they are suspended and rung. Finally, to discuss the dangers of automation, to look at the current state of affairs and why the situation is not at all optimal either for the bells themselves or the traditions associated with them and to suggest a clear path forward to comprehensively address these problems. A bell, for the purposes of this document, is defined as an idiophone in the form of a hollow resonating body which is cast, carved or shaped with a resonating edge surrounding a central cavity from the middle of which, normally, the instrument is suspended. As a rule, the profile of a bell displays at least lateral, if not perfect axial symmetry, although there do occur through intention or by accident occasional exceptions to this rule. The striking device, or clapper as it is properly known, may be ether external or internal, not infrequently suspended centrally inside the bell on the access of its external suspension. Although they may be made of any suitable resonant material, metalspecifically bronzeis found almost universally in the examples of the Western European tradition which are most relevant to us in this discussion. II. EARLIEST HISTORY It can be assumed that there was fundamentally no break with the ancient world with regard to the use and function of bells in every day life until modern times 2 . The Romans used hand bells to announce that the public baths were ready 3 , and a vast amount of archeological evidence exists to support the theory that bells were know across the ancient world in almost every culture from

1 2

Lehr, Andre. Van Paardebel tot Speelklok. (Europese Bibliotheek, 1971) pgs. 38-46. Lehr, Andre The Art of the Carillon in the Low Countries (Lannoo Printers and Publishers, 1991) p.41. 3 Caldwell, op. cit., p. 34-35

3 Egypt, China and even the Americas 4 upwards of forty-seven centuries ago 5 . In Roman society, house bells and door bells were a common feature. As a point of reference from the technical perspective, the largest surviving bell from the pre-Christian period is an external house bell found at Augst Switzerland in 1946 having a rim diameter of 16.7cm 6 . That bells were also strongly connected with ritual as well as these more practical and aesthetic functions in some cultures is recorded in Exodus 28: 3335 in which the manner of the construction and the function of the Ephod is described:
33 deorsum vero ad pedes eiusdem tunicae per circuitum quasi mala punica facies ex hyacintho et purpura et cocco bis tincto mixtis in medio tintinabulis 34 ita ut tintinabulum sit aureum et malum rursumque tintinabulum aliud aureum et malum punicum 35 et vestietur ea Aaron in officio ministerii ut audiatur sonitus quando ingreditur et egreditur sanctuarium in conspectu Domini et non moriatur 7

It is worth noting that, even here, the bells are serving a highly functional as well as ornamental role their sound was the warning to the assembled people that the high priest was about to enter the holy of holies. One wonders, then, if it is perhaps from this that the origin of the consecration bell arises. In its earliest forms, it was a small hand bell sounded to alert those not directly able to view the actions of the priest at the altar that the moment of the consecration was about to happen. These bells, so often found in medieval inventories, were (based on surviving examples) also highly ornamented as they were essentially permanent fixtures of the divine service and played an important and very visible role in the daily liturgical function. The arrangement of the interior of the churches during the middle ages when the consecration bell was introduced paralleled, much more directly, that of the ancient temple as the choir was frequently completely visually separated from the nave by the rood screen and surrounding choir stalls. The bell, then, was the
4 5

Lehr, Art of the Carillon in the Low Countries op. cit., pgs. 11-33. Caldwell, op. cit., p. 22. 6 Price, op. cit., p. 77. 7 Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam (manuscript of St. Jerome, 382) Exodus 28:33-35
33. And beneath at the feet of the same tunic, round about, thou shalt make as it were pomegranates, of violet, and purple, and scarlet twice dyed, with little bells set between: 34. So that there shall be a golden bell and a pomegranate, and again another golden bell and a pomegranate. 35. And Aaron shall be vested with it in the office of his ministry, that the sound may be heard, when he goeth in and cometh out of the sanctuary, in the sight of the Lord, and that he may not die.

4 method of communication to the assembled congregation in the outer temple. As a side note, it should also be pointed out that this singular bell was to have an important architectural effect on the churchthe central tower located at the transept crossing is properly known as the Sanctus tower, and the bell contained therein known as the Sanctus bell, its function being to sound at the singing of the Sanctus to warn those on the exterior of the church of the approach of the consecration within. These towers were to become a significant feature of the gothic architectural language and, in several places (England and parts of central Europe) would grow to be the largest or principal bell tower of the structure. Other more or less direct relationships to the ancient world can be drawn throughout the wide spread belief that the sound of bells warded off evil spirits 8 a belief which was later to translate directly to Christianity, the texts inscribed on the bell and even the words of blessing chosen by the Church herself 9 . The connection of evil and good to the religious uses of bells is then an almost effortless leap. After a dream instructing him to do so, we know that the Emperor Augustus placed bells in front of the great doors of the Temple of Jupiter in Rome 10 . In a similar way, the Apostle Paul in I Corinthians 13:1 is famously quoted as saying si linguis hominum loquar et angelorum caritatem autem non habeam factus sum velut aes sonans aut cymbalum tinniens 11 probably with regard to the ritualistic clanging which he was accustomed to hearing before his conversion.

III. APPEARANCE OF BELLS IN THE WESTERN CHURCH The exact time and place of the introduction of bells into the public ritual of the Church most likely does not pre-date the reign of Constantine as Christian worship before its decriminalization by the Edict of Milan in 313 was conducted in secrecy 12 . It was in 408 that the Emperor Theodosius finally forbade all nonChristian worship throughout the Roman empire and suppressed any pagan use of bells 13 .
8 9

Colleman, op. cit., pgs. 84-86. Pontificale Romanum De Benedictione Signi Vel Campanae (The Roman Catholic Church, 1895) Fasc. IV. 10 Price, op. cit., p. 76. 11 Vulgate, op. cit., If I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal. 12 Caldwell, Otis W. Bells, Their History, Legends Making, and Uses (Greenwood Press Publishers, 1971) p. 34. 13 Price, Percival Bells and Man Volume I (Oxford University Press, 1983) p. 77.

5 In his masterful survey of every aspect of campanological history Bells and Man, Percival Price has demonstrated more clearly than any other previous author the probable transitional phases of the introduction of the bell in its larger and heavier forms for the announcing of worship in the church. Most importantly, he outlines the important role of the semantron, a wooden plank two to five meters long (sometimes smaller when a more portable version was needed) which was sounded with a mallet. It is still to be found in some orthodox traditions 14 . It is important to note that it was the semantron which was used to call the beginning of services at the council of Nicea in the year 325. This council defined much of the early doctrine of the young church including the structure of the creed. It can be deduced from the use of the semantron at that time that its use was probably widely known and accepted by the church fathers even then 15 . Wood, being an organic substance, was highly susceptible to climate extremes and wear, and was probably supplanted by the more durable metal versions and, eventually, bells certainly by the fifth century 16 , but possibly even earlier. With the increased usage of bells, there were also great strides in the technology of the production of bells. Castings grew in size and weight as well as technical perfection. Although many of the bells of this early period were of plate construction and probably of riveted iron, cast bells were certainly being made still, and by the 9 th century some of these had reached substantial size and acquired the form of the very earliest Western bell profiles. These are know commonly by the name beehive bellsa description of their shape which resembled the medieval dome shaped beehives. This was to remain the predominant form until the evolution in of the classical Western Gothic profile in the 12 th century. Fundamentally, this could change be described as a narrowing at the shoulders and gradual flaring towards what was to become a greatly reinforced sound bow. IV. MANUFACTURE OF BELLS Technical developments were achieved through many generations of trial and error by entire dynasties of bell founders. In general, the techniques of bell
14 15

Price, op. cit., p. 80. It is important to note that the semantron has not completely disappeared in the Western tradition. Traditionally during the Easter Tridium, no bells may be sounded after the Gloria in Excelsis of the Holy Thursday Mass and the Gloria in Excelsis of the Easter Vigil. During this time, a form of the semantron known as the clapper in the form of a hammer fixed centrally to a board which is supported by a handle and swung forwards and backwards can still be seen in use in many churches in America and Europe. It is traditionally used at any of the services during this time in place of the consecration bell. 16 The first document actually indicating that signum is synonymous with campana is dated 610. Price, op. cit., p. 86.

6 founding can be viewed as having experienced five major periods of development in Western Europe. The pre-gothic, (5 th -11 th century) seen in fig 1 below, gothic (12 th -15 th century) seen in fig 2 and 3 below, renaissance and early modern (16 th -18 th century) seen in fig 4 below, industrial revolution (19 th century) and modern (20 th century-present).

Historically, the technology related to bell casting and tuning has always been a somewhat jealously guarded art. Not surprisingly, then, we begin to see from very early times the development of recognized families of bell casters. In France, most of these families came from a small cluster of villages in the region of Haute Bassigny including the brothers Franois and Pieter Hemony 17 who are responsible for the first harmonically tuned carillon bells and remain the finest and most recognized masters of their craft. Part of the reason, at least, for this secrecy lay in the fact that generally it was the bell founders who were able to also cast cannon, and therefore critical contributors to the machinery of warfare 18 . It is generally understood that bell casting in its many forms, began according to the lost wax method of casting and has been subsequently modified over the centuries to meet the specific technical requirements which increasingly heavy and more accurately molded bells demanded. Theophilus Presbyter (approx. 1070 -1125 ) was a Benedictine monk and author of a Latin text containing detailed descriptions of various medieval applied arts . In his
17 18

Lehr, The Art of the Carillon in the Low Countries op. cit., p. 124. Lehr, ibid., pgs. 60-61.

7 writings designated Schedula diversarum artium ("List of various arts") or De diversibus artibus ("On various arts") written between 1100 and 1120, we find a detailed account of the production of what is commonly known (by virtue of its shape) as a beehive bell which, technologically speaking, is very representative of the first and second stage of development 19 .

Technologically speaking, bells were executed at first by the lost wax casting technique which, along with the construction of the forced air furnaces themselves, limited the size and production of bells. The three parts of the mould, the core (inner surface), the bell itself (in this case modeled in wax), and the cope (outer surface) were probably formed over a horizontal spindle as seen in the illustration above. Theophilus describes this process in some detail 20 , and it is interesting to note that his system was probably in use even in Roman times. In the second period, we see modifications in the profile which take us away from the form of the beehive or dome shaped bell, and towards the more narrow shouldered and flaring early gothic form known as the Sugarloaf bell, again a poetic interpretation of its shape. During this time, the casting technique changed as well from that of the simple lost wax technique to the increasingly complicated false bell methodone in which a clay or loam model was made in place of a wax one, and over this clay false bell, the final wax ornamentation was applied. This allowed the model bell to be made much more cheaply as beeswax was quite expensive, but also required a certain amount of technical expertise as the mould could no longer be simply be drained of the melted wax when heated as with the earlier lost wax method, but had to be physically opened and the false bell removed. The moulds were still being formed, it is likely, over a horizontal spindle and this was the case at least through the 14 th century in places 21 . The technology necessary to achieve both a consistent and precise casting and the ability to understand the exact relationship between the shape of the bell wall and the harmonic series which it generates can be dated to only as recently as 1644 when the two brothers Pieter and Franois Hemony achieved their first carillon for the Wijnhousetoren in Zutphen, The Netherlands 22 . Before this time, it is only possible to speak of bells which were approximately in tunemore a question of chance than science. This, then, represents the beginning of the third and, thus far, most important era of bell founding. It is from this time that the greatest artistic and technical achievements were made, unsurpassed even in the modern age. These advancements were what allowed the first real carillons to be
19

Elphick, George The Craft of the Bellfounder. (Richard Clay Ltd., 1988) pgs. 9-43. See also Lehr, ibid., pgs. 60-63. 20 Lehr, Van Paardebel tot Speelklok op. cit., pgs. 47-55. 21 Lehr, ibid., pgs. 55-63 22 Lehr, ibid., pgs. 187-190.

8 created, a feat which was made possible only because of the precise tuning, both external (the key relationship of each bell to the next in series) and internal (the overtone series of the bell itself), which the Hemony brothers established. The bells of this third era were cast using the same modified lost wax technique. In this, as before, a three-part mould was constructed out of loam (a composition derived from various mixtures of sand, clay, horse manure and straw depending on the founder) was constructed but with one important difference: the mould was constructed on a vertical rather than horizontal plane. First, the founder would determine the profile of the individual bell to be cast and its weight by mathematical calculation. He would then trace the outline of the bell onto wood planks (the strickle boards) which would be cut precisely to the shape- one for the interior surface of the bell, and one for the exterior 23 . Key to all of the measurements was that which was the dimension of the thickness of the sound bowthe thickest part of the bronze. From this dimension by geometric extrapolation, all of the other dimensions of the bell could be derived. (n.b. It is important to note that we still do not precisely understand this process as it was applied by the Hemony brothers to their bells, and research in this area is ongoing.) Once the strickle boards were cut, the founder would begin the construction of the actual bell mould, starting with the innermost section or core. This shape, which would eventually become the interior surface of the bell, was built up from the floor of the casting pit a brick foundation which was hollow on the interior. Extending from the center of this brick foundation to a beam placed exactly over the center of the mould was an iron rod to which the strickle boards were attached. In this way, the strickle boards now were acting as a type of compass. As mould material was built up around this brick foundation, the revolution of the strickle boards on their axis would keep the shape of the interior consistent with the size of the bell required. And so, by slow addition of loam to the interior bricks, the cope was formed, the strickle board removed and a small interior fire built in the center of the structure to dry it completely. This was necessary at every stage as any moisture in the mold during casting would result in an explosion from entrapped steam as the molten bronze would immediately vaporize any water it comes into contact with 24 .

23 24

Lehr, Andre Van Paardebel tot Speelklok pgs. 55-80.

9 After this drying process was completed, the false bell as is seen from the accompanying illustrations taken from Diderots Encyclopdie of 1761, was built up out of a slightly different composition of loam. The process then continued much as before: the second strickle board was set in place, and finer and finer coats of loam were applied, the structure dried, any small cracks repaired, and a final thin coating of wax applied so that the casting would present a smooth and finished surface on its exterior. It was to this layer of wax that the ornamentation, in the form of cast wax figures and letters, was applied. This then, is what the finished bell would have actually looked like. In the last stage of this process, the third layer or cope was built up beginning with extremely fine loam which was applied directly to the wax surface of the false bell. By gradual stages, this was strengthened with increasingly substantial layers of loam into which iron hoops were imbedded both for structural stability and for maneuverability of the cope when the moulds had to be separated. Finally, a charcoal fire was again built in the foundation so that the entire structure could again be dried and so that the wax which formed the surface of the false bell would be allowed to escape.

10 The founder was now left with a three part mould which had to be taken apart- the iron hoops inserted into the cope would now be used to hoist this outermost layer to expose the false bell which was then broken away. Left now with the cope and the core, the founder would re-assemble the mould, thus leaving a negative space where the false bell (now destroyed) once was. Into this void space the molten bronze would run, thus creating the bell. The reassembled structure was buried completely in the casting pit by tightly packed earth and the furnace, (almost universally a reverbratory furnace fired by wood) was readied for the actual casting of the bell. Interestingly, before the 18th century, it was not abnormal for founders to be itinerant as it was not infrequently easier for them to make the preparations to cast a bell and build a furnace than for them to try to transport the finished bell to its final destination 25 . The 19th century and, more specifically, the influence of the industrial revolution brought with it some important changes to these processes. These techniques, such as
25

Lehr, Andre ibid., pgs. 55-80.

11 the widespread use of metal cast iron cases, are still practiced by English bell founders today, were originally developed by John Warner and Sons and was patented in 1853 26 . This process saves time by essentially eliminating the necessity of making the false bell. In it, the strickles traced the form of the outer surface and inner surface on loam applied directly to the metal casings which were then sent independently to kilns for drying. Both sections of the mould can be clearly seen in the accompanying photo from the Whitechapel Bell Foundry showing final assembly prior to casting. In order to add ornamentation to these finished casings, sections of the loam were carefully cut out on the interior of the cope, fresh loam applied and the ornamentation desired stamped in (backwards and in reverse), and then dried. Also a significant change in this era was the introduction of the oil fired furnace. The function of these innovations was principally to save time and aid in consistent mass production. Although still an extremely labor intensive process, most of these changes are exactly consistent with other manufacturing techniques and technology which came about during this era. The modern techniques of bell founding still rely on many of these same principles, but usually take advantage of the latest technologyboth in the design of the bell profiles and in their execution. Computers have now taken over the task of drawing bell profiles and loam has been done away with in some foundries in favor of foundry cement. Again, these changes reflect the desire of some founders to produce the maximum number of bells as quickly as possible and with the highest margin of profit. Furnace designs also have changed, and several modern companies use either gas or electric power to smelt the bronze. There is also somewhat more variation in the method of forming the actual mould itself. These changes, of course, all have an effect on the sound and finished quality of the bell. Any prospective purchaser of a set of bells should keep this fact constantly in mind and carefully compare the results of modern casting processes to those of more traditional methods still employed by the various foundries. While on the subject of bell casting, there are some important universal considerations that should be mentioned. First, the sound of a bell is determined by its profile (shape) and the material it is made of in carillon and church bells this is universally an alloy of +/- 80%CU and 20%SN known as bronze. Not infrequently, one also finds trace elements- most notably PB, AS, SB and ZN as part of the mixture 27 . These are either added intentionally on the part of the founder for tonal reasons, or appear accidentally as trace elements left over either from the refining process. Second, it is important to remember also that every step of the actual casting process influences not only the final composition of the alloy of bronze, but also the nature and shape of the crystal structure which forms when the bell cools. Therefore, bells cast by different methods yet using the identical alloy and profile will sound different. For this reason, it is
26 27

Elphick, op. cit., p. 72. Lehr, Campanology op. cit., pgs. 31-41.

12 critically important for the prospective purchaser of bells to remember that every change in the process of manufacture has a resulting change in the quality and sound of the bell achieved. Careful artistic judgment must be used in discerning the best possible methods for achieving the optimum result both musically and aesthetically. The perfect theoretical bell will produce an harmonious and precisely tuned series of overtones when struck. The type of bell used in carillons is derived directly from the gothic bell profiles of medieval Europe. In practice, of course, it is not necessary to tune all of the overtones which a bell produces. Rather, bell founders tune the lowest five partials, the other upper partials. The other upper partials (which, incidentally are what determine the sound color of the bell) will fall into place more or less naturallytheir exact position being determined by the overall design of the bell profile. These overtones include a prominent octave below the strike tone (perceived pitch), a minor third, a fifth, and an octave above the strike tone 28 . The minor third is the tone that gives carillon bells their unique, somewhat somber sound, which differs from that of many other instruments, whose overtones produce a major chord. The actual operation of tuning, it should be noted, is nothing more than an exact manipulation of the bell profile. This is usually done by turning (and thus removing metal) from the inside of the bell wall on a lathe 29 . In general, the pitch of a bell lowers as metal is removed 30 . Bells, then, are cast slightly heavier than necessary (and therefore sharp of the desired pitch) in order to facilitate this operation. Although the bell could be tuned by machining material from the exterior as well, this is generally not done for aesthetic reasons as it would destroy the ornamentation which is usually applied to this surface. V. THE CARILLONA SEPERATE CATEGORY The carillon is a musical instrument consisting of least two octaves of tuned (usually bronze) tower bells arranged in chromatic series and played from a keyboard that permits control of expression through variation of touch 31 . Eventually, starting in about the 12th or 13th century, towers were endowed with entire sets of bells upon which it became possible to play melodies
28 29

Lehr, Campanology op. cit., pgs 82-83. Lehr, ibid., pgs. 258-271. 30 Lehr, ibid., pgs. 213-219. 31 The articles of the Guild of Carillonneurs in North America define it specifically in the following language: a musical instrument consisting of at least two octaves of carillon bells arranged in chromatic series and played from a keyboard permitting control of expression through variation of touch. A carillon bell is a cast bronze cup-shaped bell whose partial tones are in such harmonious relationship to each other as to permit many such bells to be sounded together in varied chords with harmonious and concordant effect.

13 either via clockwork or by manually "chiming" with wires connected to the bell clappers. Civic bell ringers first made their appearance as musicians at least as early as 1480 (Aalst). The first definite mention of a keyboard being used to play bells (although it cannot be ruled out in the case of Aalst) is Oudenaarde in 1510 32 . Because of this, it is interesting to note that it is the carillon, and not the piano (invented in the 1720s 33 ) which claims the rightful title of being the first truly touch sensitive keyboard instrument. As the tuning in these early instruments was more or less accidental 34 , little progress was made in the early evolution of the carillon (a fully tuned, chromatic set of bells) until 1644. It was at that time that the first precisely tuned set of tower bells was manufactured in Zutphen, the Netherlands by Franois and Pieter Hemony- bellfounders from the little city of Levcourt in Haute Bassigny (now Lorraine) France. The importance of the Hemonys' discovery was the ability to define a precise relationship between the shape or "profile" of a bell and the overtones it produced. If the overtones of one bell are not in agreement with its neighbors, it is impossible to get it to sound in harmony with other bells- all producing their own individual overtone series as well. On the simplest level, a carillon is nothing more than a series of levers, wires and springs which provide a direct mechanical connection between the keyboard and bell clapper. The traditional carillon keyboard is designed to allow the carillonneur to display the full dynamic range and nuance possible with a set of bells. The keyboard has two rows of levers, an upper (sharps and flats) and lower (diatonic), arranged exactly as one would find on a piano. To play the bells, the carillonneur uses loosely-closed fists to strike wooden batons which are arranged like the keys of a piano keyboard. In addition, the lowest bells are also playable with a pedal keyboard. No electricity is required for the functioning of this ingenious system. In order to help foster the highest standards of performance and musicianship, all keyboards are designed and built according to a standard design devised, in this country, by the Guild of Carillonneurs in North America. This standard is essentially a consistent set of dimensional relationships which should be found in all traditional manually played carillon keyboards. There are two types of actions which may be present in a carillon. The first and earliest is called the Broek System (Breeches System) 35 . The keys,
32 33

Lehr, The Art of the Carillon in the Low Countries. op. cit., pgs. 90-100. The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Article on The Piano published online at: http://www.grovemusic.com/shared/views/article.html?section= music.21631.1.2#music.21631.1.2 34 Lehr, ibid., pgs. 104-106. 35 Lehr, Campanology. (Koninklijke Beiaardschool, 1983) p. 393.

14 which are nothing more than simple second class levers 36 , are connected directly to a wire which runs vertically to the midpoint of a second wire connected on one end to tail of the bells clapper and, on the other, to a fixed point such as a wall or the bell frame. This system was normal for most carillons until the late 19th century. In the second system, the keys are connected directly to a wire which runs vertically directly to a lever or crank which changes the motion from vertical to horizontal. From this crank, a wire then runs horizontally to the bell clapper 37 . This lever may or may not increase or decrease the mechanical advantage of the key and the movement of the bell clapper. Although this system is most common beginning in the late 19th century, it was know as early as 1662 where a similar system was installed on the carillon of the Oude Kerk in Amsterdam that year 38 . This system may take one of two forms, both of which are still in use today. In the first of these, the distance between the key of the keyboard and the position of the bell in the frame is accounted for by a straight length of steel the roller bar. All roller bars in these transmissions are usually installed directly above the keyboard with one arm of the lever corresponding to the position of the key at the keyboard, and the second arm of lever corresponding to the position of the bell in the instrument. Necessarily, then all wires run in straight lines, both those connecting keyboard to roller bars and those connecting roller bars to bells. The second form of this system is the directed crank, in which the lever takes the form of a simple L shaped piece of steel. The horizontal arm of this lever is positioned within the bell frame directly above the keyboard with a wire running in whatever direction is necessary to connect the tail of the clapper to the other arm of the lever.

36

In a second class lever, the fulcrum is located at one end of a bar, the force applied to the lever located at the other, and the load or mass being moved (in this case, the wire connected to the bell clapper) located between these two points. It should be noted that perhaps the primary difference between the 17 th-18th century keyboards and the 19thmodern keyboards is the presence of organ pedals in the former and Flemish pedals in the latter. Organ pedals are hinged under the bench of the performer, with the connection to the transmission being at the opposite end and the position for the feet being between the two. This causes them to be classified as 3 rd class levers. Flemish pedals, promoted especially by Jeff Denijn in the 19 th century carillon revival, are second class levers hinged at the back of the keyboard and operating in an identical manner as the baton clavier for the hands. 37 Lehr, ibid., p. 393. 38 Lehr, Andre Met Losgemaakte Ringkraag en in Hevig Zweet Jaarboek van het Vlaams Centrum voor Oude Muziek. (Jaargang I1985) p.194.

15

Pictured above on the left is the broek system, on the right, the directed crank. VI. BELLS AND ORGANSRELATIONSHIP IN THE CHURCH Not surprisingly, bells appear along with organs in some of the earliest historical accounts and inventories. Although there is some credence to the idea that bells and organs were already strongly related in the minds of clerics very early after their introduction based on the famous text of Psalm 150 39 , there is the more practical reality that they also represented the single most expensive items in a church inventory given the amount of metal, technology and skill necessary to produce both 40 . It is for this reason that bells, in particular, are exceptionally well documented albeit with the occasionally frustratingly nebulous language of the medieval scribe who could use any number of words (aeramentum, aes, campana, cloca or clocca, codon, crotalum, cymbala, nola, lebes, petasus, signum, squelle, and tintinnabulum amongst others 41 ) whose precise meaning can at times only be infered from context. How and exactly where and when the bell entered worship (or if there ever was a grand entrance in the first place given the connection to their believed
39

La Rue, Helen The Problem of the Cymbala (The Galpin Society Journal, Vol. 31. March, 1982), p. 86. Referring to Psalms 150:4 laudate eum in tympano et choro laudate eum in cordis et organo 40 La Rue, op. cit., p. 95. 41 Goguet, Jacqueline Le Carillon Des Origines a Nos Jours. (Le Cerf-Volant, 1958) p. 18. See also La Rue, op. cit., p. 89.

16 powers over evil spirits) is as much of a question as that of the introduction of the organ itself into the divine service. Perhaps the greatest paradox with regard to the later is that the organ received pride of place in former times as the musical accompaniment of the arena where so many Christians were martyred. It is interesting to point out the several curious parallel relationships between bells and organs in their simultaneous coexistence in the historical and musical fabric of the Western church. In many ways, they were and still are the voice of the church certainly of her musical muse. Bells and organs, being by nature quite loud, were both reserved for the most solemn occasions and were part of the language of celebration of the church, even from very early times. Their use was, and properly still is, strictly regulated by church law 42 . It is important to note that the question of civic bell ringing is quite a separate matter 43 , and what we are discussing pertains essentially to the prohibitions regarding ecclesiastical bell use. Organs of very early times seem to have occupied a dual role as signaling function as well. The most famous of these accounts is, of course, that of the Winchester Organ
42

Code of Cannon Law (Roman Catholic Church, 1917), Can. 612, Can. 1169 and Cannon 1185. Instruction On Sacred Music and Sacred Liturgy (Roman Catholic Church, 1958), Sections 80, 84, 86-92. 43 Many cities of Europe possessed their own bells to indicate various civic functions such as the opening and closing of city gates, executions, meetings of city councils and clock chimes. The carillon, in fact, owes it origins to the evolution of the simple clock chime and will be treated in a separate discussion later in this paper. Adding to the confusion is the fact that not infrequently, the tower of a church was owned and maintained by the city as a matter of civil defense. In some cases such as the Beurkerktoren in Utrecht, civic and church bells hang in the same tower separated in this instance by geography within the tower. In other cases, the same bell or bells might serve dual functions. Given the specific nature of the prohibitions of Cannon Law against the use of sacramentals for profane purposes except (with bells) when it was deemed absolutely necessary by the ecclesiastical authorities, this seeming duplication of resources within the same tower makes sense. An interesting and strong argument is made by David Cressy in The Journal of British Studies, Volume 29, No. 1 January 1990 in his article The Protestant Calendar and the Vocabulary of Celebration in Early Modern England on pg. 35 that the first truly secular manifestation of public bell ringing was promulgation of this activity for Queens Day celebrations at or around 1570 during the reign of Elizabeth I. It must be remembered that the then new English protestant calendar recognized only 27 of the original 125 pre-reformation holy days. This was a rather sparse celebratory landscape and the introduction of these civic holidays represented a real separation of the concept of festivals and the church year. This acceptance of bell ringing as part of the universal language of celebration in England paved the way for an increasingly unique campanological tradition know today as Change Ringing which was beginning to take hold at this time.

17
Concrepat in tantum sonus hinc illincque resultans, Quisque manu patulas claudet ut auriculas, Haudquaquam sufferer valens propiando rugitum, Quem reddunt varii concrepitando soni: Musarumque melos aauditur ubique per urbem, Et peragrat totam fama volans patriam. 44

In some cases in history, such as the famous Bull of Saltsburg, or organs connected from very early times to astronomic clockworks, their function is directly parallel to that of the bells. We also find numerous ingenious stops or bell related devices in the organs themselves. In some cases such as certain instruments of Cavaill-Coll 45 and other even earlier continental builders, individual ranks such as the Glockenton, or on various compound stops of two, three and four ranks such as the Carillon (Mixture) mimic either the sound of bells or their overtones. The glockenspiel, carillon, campanella, campanetta, cloches or chimes refer properly to actual idiophones struck by some mechanical means within the organ and are treated as a dedicated stop and are most frequently placed inside the case 46 . These reached the zenith of their development in the theater organs of the first quarter of the 20 th century, with the famous example of the Regal Marble Arch Theater, London which, installed in 1928, contained a 4/36 Christie ( Hill & Norman and Beard Ltd.) instrument with its full compliment of tuned percussions on one side of the proscenium, and a 32 bell Gillett & Johnston cast bell carillon on the other, all playable from the same centrally located console. It must also be noted that some of the most famous pieces in the organ repertoire were directly inspired by the sound of bell ringing. Vierne, Boellman, Couperin and Dupr have all contributed significantly to the literature. Finally, there is the significance of both instruments as teaching tools and fixed pitch instruments. The importance, especially of this point, cannot be overemphasized. Along with organs, bells in the form of the cymbala and
44

Audsley, George Ashdown The Art of Organ-Building, Volume First (Dover Publications, Inc. New York, New York 1905, 1965) p. 21 To such an amount does it
reverberate, echoing in every direction, that every one stops with his hand (to) his gaping ears, being in no wise able to draw near and bear the sound, which so many combinations produce. The music is heard throughout the town, and the flying fame thereof is gone out over the whole country.
45

Audsley, op. cit., pgs 450-451, 511-512, 534. Audsley gives several examples of the composition of these mixtures, pointing out that that The results (of the attempts made so far) have only been moderately successful and that the bell effect is confined to the tenor and the lower treble octaves 46 A notable and historic exception to this rule is the famous 18 th century organ of Wingerden Abbey in Germany where the bells take the form of stylized clusters of grapes suspended above the console.

18 monochord were some of the few portable fixed pitch instruments available in the middle ages, the former two appearing frequently in the remaining iconography 47 . It is a curious and important question as to what pitches the early cymbala produced as the one extant example excavated at Bethlehem 48 in 1906 and now on display at the Musem Flagellation in Jerusalem has nothing which can be compared by virtue both of its condition and no other surviving examples which are anywhere near as complete. There is strong evidence to suggest that the earliest forms of the keyboards appearing in the manuscripts along with the cymbala were A-G compass 49 , but frequently the compass of the bells in the illuminations can not be so accurately determined. There is also the fact that the entire subject of bell scaling and tuning itself which, although several manuscripts discuss in great detail 50 , it can really only be regarded as guesswork until the advent of the much more exacting and scientific approaches of the 17 th century. The organ and bells, then, can trace an almost equally ancient lineage and do share several significant parallels of existence. It is safe to say that these parallels extend to the present day. Like all truly acoustical instruments, the sound of tower bells can not be duplicated by electric means which is also the case with the pipe organ. In addition to the inferior nature of their sound, these devices do not represent a sound financial investment. While a real bell can last for centuries when properly installed and rung, every version of an electric or non-acoustic carillon ever produced has been outdated within a matter of years. This is a serious consideration for any individual or organization desiring an instrument which will make a lasting artistic contribution for generations and not months to come. VII. THE CURRENT UNDERSTANDING OF CAMPANOLOGY So why is it, then, that most organists and music directors in America are not infrequently completely oblivious to the bells which hang in their church buildings? What has caused this distressing condition of apathy? Why have so very many bells in towers throughout this country fallen silent? In many places, the bells have fallen silent because their very existence is forgotten, in others because whatever automation was in place has long since deteriorated, in others because of lack of basic maintenance or even knowledge about when and how they are to be used. These should all be questions which are addressed directly by the music staff or a church in consultation with the pastor and maintenance staff and a qualified campanologist if at all possible. An accurate understanding
47 48

La Rue, op. cit., p. 94. Lehr The Art of the Carillon in the Low Countries op. cit., pgs. 79-80. See also Lehr Van Paardebel tot Speelklok op. cit., pg. 154 and plate 89. 49 Page, Christopher The Earliest English Keyboard (Early Music, Volume 7, No. 3, July 1979), p. 313 50 La Rue, op. cit., p. 91.

19 of the history and nature of the set of bells in question is critical and, if they are to be used and be an integral part of the ministry of the church, a clear plan of action must be in place to address how and when the bells are to be used and maintained. The first necessary step is to understand the nature, function and history of the bells in question. Church bells in the Western tradition, as has been touched upon by the history given above, are by definition swinging bells. Why? There are, surprisingly, important practical and musical reasons for this. Perhaps, the most important of these is the musical. As an idiophone, the vibrations of the bell wall itself are what produces sound. When swung, the bell is subjected to the Doppler effect which causes the (stationary) listener to perceive changes in the frequency of the wavelength of the sound waves being produced by the bell. In other words, the bell actually changes pitch depending on its positing in the arc relative to the listener as well as its speed. This automatically creates an aurally pleasing effectsomething which is frequently referenced in onomatopoeia as the ding-dong effect 51 . This effect is completely lost if the bell is struck dead or stationary. There are instances for striking stationary bells, specifically tolling and clock or carillon chiming, but these will be discussed later. To begin with, we must divide all swinging bells into two categories 52 from which we will later (in the section regarding forces on structures during ringing) derive simple sub-categories. In both, the motion of the bell and clapper can be understood to be that of a double pendulum 53 . The first of these categories is the flying clapper in which the bell is fixed to a flat beam which is mounted to pivots and able to swing freely. This beam, usually constructed traditionally of solid hardwood or (since the 19 th century in many instances) cast iron, is called the headstock or yoke and is mounted on bearings fitted securely to the bell frame. The bell frame, whose function is to direct the weight of the bell into the building and safely to the ground, is usually constructed of solid timbers, galvanized iron or stainless steel and is designed in such a way that it ties directly into the structure of the tower in which it is housed. The clapper of the bell, being fitted to the inside of the bell at its upper most central point, is free to swing back and forth and, since the yoke is flat, hangs on its pivot below the
51

Lehr, Andre Campanology (Koninklijke Beiaardschool Jef Denyn 1997) pgs. 380382. 52 Lehr, Andre. ibid. p. 359-360. 53 Ivorra, Salvador and Maria Jose Palomo, Gumersindo Verdu and Alberto Zasso Dynamic Forces Produced by Swinging Bells (Meccanica Volume 41, Number 1, February 2006) p. 49.

20 pivot point of the bearings which support the yoke. A large pulley or lever is fitted to the yoke to which is attached the rope used to sound the bell. When the bell is to be rung, it is rocked back and forth on its pivots by the regular pulling of the rope, and acts as a simple pendulum. The clapper, being attached below the axis of the bearings, is functioning as the compound pendulum and is literally thrown to the upper lip of the bell as it swings to and fro thus, it is said to fly. At the moment of impact of the sound bow, the kinetic energy of the this contact causes the clapper to immediately rebound from the bells elastic and vibrating surface so that it may ring freely. As it moves, the bell has already come to the top of its flight and has changed direction. The process repeats on the other side of the bell until it has ceased swinging. In general, this was the first manner in which swinging bells were hung, and also universally the way in which they were hung in all of central Europe until the mid 19 th century. Several important things should be noted about this. First is the motion of the clapper. Bells, by virtue of the high tin content of the bronze alloy used to produce them are actually quite fragile by nature and easily shattered. For this reason, great attention is given by founders to the shape and weight of the clapper which, for swinging bells, in general is calculated as 3.5-4% of the total bell weight 54 . If the clapper were to sit on the striking rim of the bell, its continued contact would not only serve to dampen the reverberation of the bell but also, under certain circumstance, possibly crack it. The practice of tying a rope to the bell clapper and ringing it by pulling the rope to move the clapper (instead of the bell) is known as clappering 55 and is extremely dangerous to the bell. Several important bells, the most well know is the Liberty Bell, have been destroyed in this way. Under no circumstances is this acceptable. Again, this is not to be confused with tolling and the use of the internal clapper for carillon playing which was discussed in section V. It is also important to note that the clapper is always made of a material which is softer than the bronze of the bell itself. This is to prevent, or at least minimize, work hardening of the bronze, or damage to the surface of the bell itself which would eventually cause tuning problems and, again, possibly risk cracking the bell. There is, sadly, no real solution for cracked bells. Bell bronze is highly elastic and relatively brittle. Cracks occur for two primary reasons. Either the bell is being improperly rung, or there is an environmental problem in the structure of the bronze itself, as for example rust expansion at the location of the clapper staple or steel suspension bolts 56 . Once the crystal structure of the bronze has been broken, the only possible repairs are either welding or recasting, neither of which returns the bell to its original condition. The practice of repairing cracks by welding is still somewhat unstable, and has met with moderate success by only one company (although several have attempted it). In general, it is safe to take the position that if the bell is of any great historic
54 55

Lehr, Campanology op. cit., p. 358. Coleman, op. cit., p. 121. 56 Elphick, George The Craft of the Bellfounder (Richard Clay, Ltd. 1988) p. 117.

21 interest, it should be preserved for posterity and replaced with a replica. If of less value historically, welding might be considered. Recasting should be reserved for only the most drastic failures which are of no historic interest. This first manner of ringing swinging bells is always considered preferable, as the strike of the clapper is always perfect, the maximum volume of sound is always safely achieved from the appropriate weight clapper and, in general, it poses the least risk of cracking the bell. Additionally, the periodicity of the swing is considerably faster than any other method and, obviously, is subject to eventual and natural graduation depending on the size of the bell. This is considered preferable for strictly musical reasons. It possesses the sole disadvantage that the total weight of the bell produces a substantial amount of horizontal and vertical thrust, which must be accounted for in the instillation. This will be discussed in more detail later in this paper. The second method of bell ringing, known by the term falling clapper 57 was developed with the aim of eliminating, or at least minimizing, the horizontal and vertical thrust created by a flying clapper bell. Curiously, this was an idea suggested by Leonardo da Vinci already as early as 1495 58 . A falling clapper can be accomplished either by placing a large counterweight above the bell and attaching this to the headstock, or by forming the headstock or yoke in the shape of an arc, thus allowing the bell to pivot with a high center of gravity, the top of its mass nearly counterweighting its bottom. This latter system, in particular, represents the vast majority of bells installed in America from the mid 19 th century to the present. As an historical aside, it is interesting to note that with the exception of the very earliest bells of the Spanish missions on the West coast in the th th 16 -18 centuries which were hung dead and chimed by clappering, the majority of bells before this period tend to be hung in the more traditional European manner. Two things will be observed. First the periodicity of the swing is now much slower due to the effect of the counterbalancing of the pendulum stroke of the bell. Second, the pivot of the bell clapper now rests
57 58

Lehr, ibid., pgs. 350-360. Lehr, Van Paardebel tot Speelklok op. cit., pgs. 91-92.

22 above the pivot of the bell itself, thus the clapper literally falls to the bell wall each time the bell changes direction when being swung. Given the slow nature of the periodicity of the swing, once the clapper initially makes contact with the bell wall, it is no longer suspended in flight as before but remains there. For this reason, almost all falling clapper bells have springs installed inside to hold the clapper away from the bell wall in order that it may reverberate freely after the initial impact. In ringing the bell in this way, not only is its musical interest diminished by the slow periodicity of the swing, but also the total volume of sound produced is reduced as well, as the clapper no longer hits the bell wall with the same force as before having neither the same speed nor distance to accelerate. That being said, the combined horizontal and vertical forces have been reduced to an absolute minimum 59 . This is considered the primary, but singular, benefit. Now, it is possible and desirable to provide some swinging bells with a means to be struck stationary. This procedure is known as tolling or (in the case of a series of swinging bells so equipped as to perform simple melodies) chiming and is accomplished by the instillation of a secondary external hammer which normally moves no more than a few inchesalways in a controlled and predictable path which is out of the way of the free swinging of the bell except at the point of impact on the sound bow. A single bell, when swinging, will sound completely different when struck stationary. It is thus possible to give multiple signals with the same bell. Tolling, in the Western campanological tradition, is used specifically in any instance where a precisely controlled number of strokes is necessary. These instances can be summarized as funeral tolling (normally characterized by its extremely slow tempo not infrequently one strike every 15-30 seconds depending on the weight of the bell), the ringing of the angelus (normally rung as 3 X 3 strokes succeeded by 9 strokes) 60 and the telling of time which, it must be remembered, was largely a civic function from which, it should also be again mentioned, the tradition of the carillon emerged. An 18 th century source
61

summarizes the routine uses of church bells as:

1. To gather the people to the sacred functions of the church. 2. To signify and distinguish its festivals. 3. To rouse the souls of the faithful to render devout thanks to the Highest for benefits received. 4. To implore divine help against the tempests of the air and the ferocity of the spirits of hell. 5. To decorate the solemn entry of princes and prelates 6. To increase the happiness and gaiety of public processions, and in songs of praise to the Lord.
59

Ivorra, Salvador and Maria Jose Palomo, Gumersindo Verdu and Alberto Zasso, op. cit., p. 54 60 Price, op. cit., pgs. 119-120 61 Remondini, D. G. Della Nolana ecclesiastica storia. i (Naples, 1747) p. 498

23
7. To make fervid the piety of the faithful in relation to the dead.

In fact, their function has not changed at all since that time, although modern society and the various denominations of Christianity may choose to not observe all of these customs. By definition, the carillon and its cousin the chime are secular and not properly liturgical. They have come, however, especially in some protestant denominations, to serve in the role of the traditional swinging bells. Electric substitutes for bell ringing will be dealt with later in this paper. It should also be mentioned here that both carillons and chimes use the internal clappers to sound the bell, but this is not considered the negative clappering which was previously mentioned as the clapper always travels on a pre-determined path and never more than a few centimeters. Under such controlled conditions and providing that the clapper is made from appropriate materials and installed correctly, there is never any danger of cracking the bell. It should also be mentioned that in the Eastern Christian tradition, a very specialized type of chiming has developed which can trace its origins directly back to the semantron 62 and which did, in fact, immigrate with many of these Christian communities to America. In it, very much like carillon bells, a controlled and rhythmic chiming is preformed which is known as Zvon ringing 63 . Exclusive of these above mentioned functions of the stationary bell, all other liturgical uses of the church bell in the Western tradition involve swinging bells. It is here, then, that we enter into the subject of automation and the impact that it has had on bells and bell culture, especially since the second quarter of the 20 th century. VIII. THE DANGERS OF AUTOMATION Automation as a concept is not by any means a new thing. Hero of Alexandria Phylo of Byzantium (c.200 BC) is recorded as having constructed an hydraulic automaton which caused a bird to whistle 64 . Indeed the entire subject of clockworks, automation and bells is intimately connected. For our purposes, however, it is not until the replacement of the water clock with the weight driven foliot escapement probably some time in the 13 th century 65 that we see the stage set for the mechanically driven clock chime which later became a fixture of virtually every prominent civic bell tower across Europe. Substantially, the automation of clock chimes and carillons to a limited extant (automation being incapable of dynamic expression and, until recently, rapid repetition or
62 63

Price, op. cit., pgs. 80-82. Willis, Stephen C. Bells Through the Ages (Minister of Supply and Services, 1986) pgs. 20-22. 64 Lehr, Carillons op. cit., p. 80. 65 Lehr, ibid. p. 82.

24 utilization of the full compass of an instrument) has remained constant in the world of the carillon in general. The nature of automation with regard to swinging church bells is, however, a completely different subject. There has, admittedly, always been some level of fantasy connected to this subject as the many legends of bells spontaneously ringing of their own accord could attest 66 . Attempts to mechanize or, in some case, eliminate the need for church bells have been a constant theme in the world of campanology since at least the third quarter of the 19 th century 67 . It is difficult to talk about any normal type of automation until the introduction of electric motors to swing the bells, and even then the practice did not become widespread in this country until probably after WWII. Examples which are still extant before this time indicate that a substantial amount of experimentation was conducted with regard to the surprisingly complicated task of reproducing the motion of a human bell ringer pulling and releasing a rope 68 . The first widespread systems involved the instillation of electric motors with cables running to both sides of the bell wheel. The direction of the motor would be governed by an analog switch, each time the bell passed its center of gravity and approached the upper edge of its swing, the switch disengages the motor, sending current in the other direction and applying force to the bell wheel in the other direction. This system has survived to the present day with only minor modifications. It has the substantial disadvantage that should any mechanical problems develop, the motor is not capable of sensing a problem and
66

Editors California Bell Legends: A Survey (California Folklore Quarterly, Vol. 4. No. 1, January, 1945) pgs. 24-25. See also Coleman, op. cit., pgs- 247-267. See also Barry, Phillips Bells Ringing Without Hands (Modern Language Notes, Vol. 30, No. 1, January 1915), pgs. 28-29. 67 One outlandish example of this was the invention of the steam calliope by Joshua C. Stoddart in 1855. Speculation amongst current historians is that the original concept for the machine was a type of improved church bell. 68 One of the first documented examples of this is the successful attempt to motorize according to Jill Johnston, author of Englands Child (Cadmus Editions, 2008) p. 95, is the 1931 Gillett & Johnston five bell peal associated with the worlds heaviest carillon at the Riverside Church in New York. Frederick C. Mayer, consultant to Mr. Rockafeller on this matter, specified his desire to have the peal motorizeda feat which before this time Ms. Johnston suggests G&J had never accomplished. Indeed, it would have been difficult to swing the immense 20 ton bourdon bell in any other way! That being said, the author has seen earlier examples which predate this. Most notably, the 34,776 LB (17.38 ton) Founders Bell of the Wanamaker Store in Philadelphia which was at the time (1926) the largest bell in America, the largest tuned bell in existence, and one of the ten largest bells in the world. As the yoke and all hardware of the current installation appear to be the same as the originals which appear in the factory photos (the bell was moved from the roof of the store in the 1930s to its current location on the PNB bank), the author has no reason to doubt the date 1926 as being an early example of successful automation in this case, and also admits for the possibility that others may pre-date this.

25 will just continue in its operation, possibly dangerously wearing the swinging mechanism. Frequently, these machines can apply too much force too quickly to the bell and this can cause undue stress on the hardware. This, coupled with the exposure to extremes of climate in the belfry, also cause these systems to have a rather limited lifespan, seldom exceeding 50 years under the best possible circumstances. The second, and far preferable method of swinging bells which has been pioneered by several German bell founders involves the instillation of linear motors. This system is superior on almost every level; there are moving parts (the bell is set in motion by the force applied to the resistance plate from the motor electromagnet), the manual ringing apparatus may remain in place and unaltered and the motion of the bell is monitored by a computer which will deactivate the system if it senses any deviation from normal operation. For these reasons, this system if far preferable when it is found necessary to automate historic swinging bells. The technology has not been around long enough to withstand the test of time, but it seems as if in general these systems will be expected to outlive the earlier generation of hard-wired motors and pulleys by a considerable degree as there are no moving parts to maintain or wear out. The most disturbing and offensive recent development of the past decade has been the trend by certain American companies which provide automation services to swinging peals and install stationary electric solenoid hammers inside of swinging bells, rendering them permanently stationary and essentially reducing them to automated chimes. There have also been instances at least since the 1950s of newly installed single bells and peals being equipped only with an internal magnetically driven clapper, the bells being permanently fixed in place. This system is much cheaper to install than the traditional ringing hardware. In doing so, there is a reliance upon the confusion of the public with regard to any sort of bell ringing. Chimes carillons and peals have come to mean the same thing to the un-initiated. Playing off a lack of understanding of the campanological traditions associated with swinging bell culture, the most frequent justification for this type of automation is that the towers are unable to withstand the thrust exerted by the swinging of the bells. Let us look at that question in more detail. The thrust exerted by a swinging bell can be reduced essentially to a horizontal and vertical component. From the two basic classifications of swinging bells with flying and falling clappers the recent study Dynamic Forces Produced by Swinging Bells 69 has added in the former category the subclassifications of Central European and English and to the latter category, Spanish. Of these sub categories, the English system represents the most extreme with regard to structural forces and the Spanish the least. The English system provides the most technically extreme conditions as,
69

Ivorra/Palomo/Verdu/Zasso, op. cit.

26 when being rung properly, the bell actually revolves a full 360 degrees on its axis which is normally an flat headstock. In his book Bell Towers and Bell Hanging, an appeal to Architects", Sir Arthur Heywood describes the vertical forces exerted by bells hung in this fashion as 4 their combined weight, and the horizontal as 2 their combined weight 70 which numbers are substantially in agreement with the data presented in the study Dynamic Forces Produced by Swinging Bells mentioned above. Although this seems considerable when one remembers that most church bells weigh many hundreds, if not thousands of pounds, it is negated when one considers how many hundreds of tons the average tower which houses the bells weighs. Provided that the structure of the bell frame appropriately and adequately directs the thrusts downward, there is no danger, although this structural analysis must be performed by a qualified expert. The Central European system is precisely what is described in the section above on flying clappers and, being so rare in this country, can be passed over except to remark that as the bell does not revolve more than 160 degrees (sometimes as little as 50 degrees), it exerts considerably less vertical and horizontal thrust than the English system. The Spanish system involves a heavy counterweight attached to the yoke above the bell, but in technical terms can be regarded as very similar to the American circular yoke. 71 For this reason, we may consider them together. The most extreme examples of thrust measured in the study for this type of bell averaged 15% of the bell weight in directional thrust 72 . Considering, for example, an average bell sounding A weighing 1,000 Lbs, this would mean a maximum of 150 Lbs of thrust being exerted in any direction under the most extreme ringing conditions. Depending on surface area and of the tower, it could be easily argued that the force of a strong wind acting on the building along produces more horizontal thrust than the entire combined weight of a peal hung in the American manner when ringing, or even the English manner for that matter. It is for this reason, especially, that it is highly un-ethical that swinging peals are being made stationary by companies anxious to sell their chiming clappers on the sales pitch that the historic buildings cant take the strain of the bells ringing. This is simply not true in any but the most extreme of cases. Again, the qualified expert here is not the representative of the company wishing to automate the bells, but the third-party structural engineer. It should be noted that two substantial things are lost under automation.
70

www.whitechapelbellfoundry.com.uk/design.htm Whitechapel Bell Foundry WebsiteDesign Factors 71 The author wishes to point out that although there is a technical distinction between the Spanish system using counterweights and American system using circular balanced yokes, but that the differences would be negligible and, if anything, favoring the American system slightly with regard to structural load as it eliminates the additional mass of the counterweight. 72 Ivorra/Palomo/Verdu/Zasso, op. cit., p. 54

27 First the human element of sounding a bellany mechanical system produces an exactly regular striking pattern on the bell. There is no variety in the dynamic of the sound of the ringing bell, either if rung singly or in peal. When rung by a human hand, significant variation on the same bell is possible. In addition, if it is not precisely regulated at the time of instillation and meticulously maintained, the striking point at which the mechanism is set may drift either up or down, leading to the bell either being swung up too high or too low and not striking without anyone taking notice. It is also possible for significant mechanical problems to develop and exacerbate themselves unchecked, creating exponentially more expensive repair bills. The additional automation also automatically requires additional maintenance for this very reason. A final, more spiritual consideration is the human element is interacting with the bell itself. Considered by the church from ancient times as a venerated and sacred object, the act of ringing a bell is a calling to prayer and, in some traditions, an act of prayer in and of itself. If a bell is ringing, there is someone at the other end of the rope who is there for a specific purpose. It must be remembered, of course, that the ringing of church bells was the function specifically of the porter which was one of the minor orders. In the Pontifical Romanum, we find: "Percutere cymbalum et campanam, aperire ecclesiam et sacrarium, et librum ei aperire qui prdicat" 73 . It is also possible to very easily become careless with this type of automation, and this is perhaps the most significant danger. In the places where a switch and not a computer is still used to control the bells, who thinks carefully about which switches to turn on based on the liturgical year and for how long and why? Are progressive degrees of solemnity being observed with regard to the number and weight of bells being rung, or the duration of the ringing? In the event that a computer is controlling the bells, almost without exception, one can expect an identical performance for each. The importance and wealth of a church was represented, historically, by the number of bells which it possessed. The ringing of bells grew to be such an important part of church life that by the middle ages, it was felt that no service could be conducted without the sounding of a bell. Cannon Law of the time even specified that minimally an oratory or small chapel must contain at least one, a parish churches at least two or three and cathedral churches at least five 74 . A specific regional language was developed. In general, it has been the custom since ancient times that the greater the celebration or event being rung for, the greater in number and heavier and weight would be the bells chosen to ring
73

New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia Published online at: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12284b.htm to ring the bell, to open the church and sacristy, to open the book for the preacher... 74 Rose, Michael S. Bring Back the Bellsand the Bell Tower, too. Adoremus Bulletin Online Edition. Volume VII, Number 7, October 2001. pg. 2

28 together. 75 Peals rung on all of the bells were reserved for only the most solemn feasts. With just a few bells, astonishing variety is possible. Of course in many protestant traditions where multiple bells were discouraged and the observances of the church year were kept in a much more austere manner, these customs could not be observed 76 . What is so frequently the case in modern bell towers possessing automated swinging peals is that the language and vocabulary of celebration which was so diverse with manual bell ringing has given way to simple homogenization. Not infrequently, one hears every bell in a peal rung for every service on every week in the church year, destroying the continuity of the language of ringing. In most instances, computers control these peals of bells which are automated on a weekly cycle and are expected to perform their function for church services with no supervision. Often times, the bell ringing which was once literally a call to the church has been restricted to a barely noticeable 30 second sound bite just a moment before the service begins. It is a sort of musical babble being produced by the bells as a resultthey say only the same thing with no variation or change and approach time telling devices rather than musical objects which reflect the annual cycle of the liturgical calendar. One is reminded of Tibeten kohr or prayer wheel which simply by virtue of their mechanical rotation perform an act of prayer and are in places just simply turned with any mechanical means of motive power, even existing in digital virtual format. Is this really what is desired? Especially in Europe, but also increasingly in America this type of automation is being recognized as a destroyer of campanological tradition associated with the bells there is seldom left any record of how and why the bells were used before automation. An article which appeared in February of 2008 77 outlined in broad and brilliant strokes the thoughts of the sacristan of Notre Dame regarding this dangerous trend towards homogenization. A similar article by Gerard Conde of the Guardian 78 also touched upon many of the same issues and reached a broad audience. Both articles also mention specifically the serious erosion to the individuality in the language of the bells but also, just as importantly, the extreme and pointless damage which is being caused by many of these poorly designed and installed systems. X. SIMULATED BELL INSTRUMENTS In America, unlike almost any other country, one finds speakers and
75 76

Price, op. cit., pgs. 107-109. Price, ibid., pgs. 129-133. 77 Tagliabue, John No Quasimodo, He Brings Music to Notre Dame (New York Times, 8 February, 2008) 78 Conde, Gerard Saving Frances Bells from Decay and Standardization (The Guardian, 25 September, 1983)

29 electric carillon systems installed in and around the original bells, or in some cases in place of them when the budget did not permit them to be installed in the first place. The noise which these produce, of course, does not even approach the complexity and beauty of real bells, but does have the advantage of being non-invasive with regard to the original ringing hardware. There is however, no value in these machines. In their modern form, they are little more than elaborate CD players, and do not represent a sound financial investment which, in most cases is upwards of $14,000. It would be the opinion of the author that were a congregation considering the purchase of such a device, they would be far better advised to purchase a single cast bronze bell which will last infinitely longer and sound far superior. It will also not lose its value, either monetarily or aesthetically. Although one could reasonably expect a bell to survive five hundred or even a thousand years of constant service, the same could not be said for any modern electric counterfeit. Of particular importance, and disgracefully ignored, are the specific prohibitions regarding the use of these devices:
it is strictly forbidden to substitute any kind of machine or instrument which merely imitates or amplifies the sound of bells mechanically or automatically 79

Bells, being sacramentals, may not, and should not be counterfeited any more than any of the other liturgical appointments. XI. ON ESTABLISHING A CLEAR DIRECTION FOR THE FUTURE How then might one recommend that a church proceed with the care and ringing of its bells? First an inventory of what exists in the belfry should be drawn up. Next, any supporting documents regarding the history of the bells and how they were rung should be located. A critical assessment should be undertaken if the bells have not sounded for a long time. Has maintenance been performed? If not, this should be done in most cases this means minimally that all bearings must be lubricated and the bolts which fasten the bells to the yokes must be checked for tightness. There are qualified professions who can undertake this type of inspection, but be immediately wary of any sales pitch or offer of automation. In most instances, it can be performed by the staff custodian if he is careful and diligent in his work as well as competent navigating simple mechanical systems. Then, a plan must be set in place as to how and when to use the bells. It is at this stage that a look at the historic record is most useful continuity with the past is important in this regard. Finally there is the question of how the bells are to be rung. In the event that the
79

Instruction on Sacred Music and Sacred Liturgy (Roman Catholic Church, 1958). Article 91.

30 existing automation is in proper adjustment and is not damaging the bells, there is no reason why not to consider using it so long as one does so in a fully informed manner. That being said, it is impossible to say too much in favor of the idea that the bells should be able to be rung manually whenever possible. This is always preferable to any form of automation, both for tonal and mechanical reasons. It should also be pointed out that, from the standpoint of a music program, it represents a fantastic opportunity to engage members of the congregation who may not necessarily have a musical background into the musical life of the church. It is simultaneously an act of prayer and music to ring bells, and in many places strong and loyal guilds have formed for this purpose in both America and Europe around the towers and bells which are rung in this manner. Additionally, as has so often been pointed out with a great deal of dark humor among bell ringers, ropes break less frequently than motors or speakers. The conclusion of this survey of campanological tradition in the Western church is, then, an exhortation to act conservatively. Frequently, the bells are ignored only because nobody has taken ownership of them, and because of this as we enter the 21 st century, we are in great danger of loosing our ancient campanological traditions. The author encourages the reader to use this information as a tool and guide. Education is the first and most important step in the beginning of a restoration of campanological tradition. Change in this regard can only begin, after all, one tower at a time.

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31 Camp, John Discovering Bells and Bell Ringing. Haverfordwest: C. I. Thomas & Sons Ltd., 1968 reprinted 1971, 1975, 1977, 1979, 1981, 1984 and 1988. Catholic Liturgical Library, The Bells, When to Ring. The Catholic Liturgical Library. http://www.catholicliturgy.com/index.cfm/ FuseAction/LawText/Index/6/SubIndex/95/LawIndex/11 Coleman, Satis N. Bells Their History, Legends, Making, and Uses. Chicago & New York: Rand McNally & Company, first published 1928, reprinted 1971. Cressy, David The Protestant Calendar and the Vocabulary of Celebration in Early Modern England. The Journal of British Studies. Volume 29, Number 1, January 1990. Conde, Gerard. Saving Frances Bells from Decay and Standardization. Guardian. September 25, 1983. The

Darasse, Henri and Laurent Pie Chants des Cloches, Voix de la Terre. Montpellier: Les Presses du Languedoc, 1997. Diderot, Denis LEncyclopdieEncyclopdie; ou, Dictionnaire raisonn des sciences, des arts et des mtiers. Paris: EDDL, 2001. Reprint of 1762, and engravings 1751-1757. (Editors), California Bell Legends: A Survey. California Folklore Quarterly. Volume 4, Number 1, January 1945. Elphick, George The Craft of the Bellfounder. Chichester, Sussex: Richard Clay Ltd., 1988. Goguet, Jacqueline Le Carillon Des Origines a Nos Jour. Dole-du-Jura: Le Cerf-Volant Editions, 1958. Hart Leen t Campanology A Handbook for the Carillonneur. Michigan: The University of Michigan, 1970. Ann Arbor,

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32 La Rue, Helene The Problem of the Cymbala. The Galpin Society Journal. Volume 35, March 1982. Lehr, Andr The Art of the Carillon in the Low Countries Printers and Publishers, 1991. Tielt: Lannoo

Lehr, Andr Campanology. Mechelen: Koninklijke Beiaardschool, 1997. Lehr, Andr Met Losgemaakte Ringkraag en in Hevig Zweet Jaarboek van het Vlaams Centrum voor Oude Muziek. Jaargang I1985 Lehr, Andr Van Paaardebel tot Speelklok. De Geschiedenis van de Klokgietkunst in de Lage Landen. Zaltbommel: Europese Bibliotheek, 1971. New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia, http://www.newadvent.org. The. Published online at:

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33

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34

ILLUSTRATIONS
Page 7: Rendering of four bell profiles taken from George Elphicks Craft of the Bellfounder, p. 12. Page 8: Rendering of horizontal mould taken from George Elphicks Craft of the Bellfounder, p. 17. Page 9: Engraving taken from Diderots Encyclopdie. 137. Fonte des Cloches, p.

Page 10: Engraving taken from Diderots Encyclopdie. Fonte des Cloches, p. 136. Page 11: Photo from the Whitechapel Bellfoundry taken from George Elphicks Craft of the Bellfounder, p. 74. Page 17: Line drawing of transmission systems taken from Andre Lehrs Campanology, p. 393.

35

Page 23: Line drawing of a flying clapper bell taken from Andre Lehrs Van Paardebel tot Speelklok, p. 90. Page 25: Line drawing of a flying clapper bell taken from Andre Lehrs Van Paardebel tot Speelklok, p. 91.