I

1.

xx

I.

- ?

zz

1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5. . .
1.6.
1.7.
1.8.
1.9.
1.10.
1.11.
1.12.
1.13.
1.14.
1.15.
1.16.
1.17.
1.18.

xx

I.
1.

- ?

zz

1.1.
1.1.1.
1.1.2.
1.1.3.
1.1.4.
1.1.5.
1.1.6.
1.1.7.
1.1.8.

xx

I.
1.
1.1.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.1.

- ?

zz

1.1.1.
- , . , .

. (15961650).
.
: , , .
,
, , , , .

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.2.

- ?

zz

1.1.2.

.
, , .
, ,
.
, A B, d(A, B).
, , ,
.
A B AB.
, .
.
. ,
.
.
.
AB ( AB) , , , , ,
,
(
d(A, B), AB
AB =
d(A, B), AB

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.2.

- ?

zz

1.1. AB , BA .

A
b

.
1. : |AB| = d(A, B).
2. AB = BA.
. AB BA
. , .

1.1. A, B, C
AB BC AC,
AB + BC = AC.
. 1. B A C.
AB, BC AC
d(A, B) + d(B, C) = d(A, C).
b

,
d(A, B) = AB,

d(B, C) = BC,

d(A, C) = AC

AB + BC = AC.

,
d(A, B) = AB,

d(B, C) = BC,

AB BC = AC

d(A, C) = AC
AB + BC = AC.

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.2.

- ?

zz

2. A B C,
BA + AC = BC

AC = BA + BC = AB + BC.

3. C A B,

AC + CB = AB

AC = AB CB = AB + BC.

, , .

. ,
O .
,
. , ,
.
xM M OM, xM = OM.
1.1. ,
M , , M
, , M .

1.2. M1 (x1 ) M2 (x2 ), .
M1 M2 ,
M 1 M 2 = x2 x1 .

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.2.

- ?

zz

. 1.1 O, M1 M2 , ,
OM1 + M1 M2 = OM2 . , M1 M2 = OM2 OM1 .
OM1 = x1 , OM2 = x2 . , M1 M2 = x2 x1 .

1.2.1. d(M1 , M2 ) M1 (x1 ) M2 (x2 )
d(M1 , M2 ) = |x2 x1 |.
1.2. AB, A(1) B(3).
.
AB = xB xA = 3 1 = 4,
d(A, B) = | 4| = 4.

,
M1 M2 , . , M
M1 M2 ,
M1 M
,
=
MM2
M1 M MM2 M1 M MM2 . M
M1 M2 , , M1 M2 , M
M1 M2 , , .
M1 , M M2 .
1.3. , , .
AC
. A, C, B =
. C AB,
CB
AC CB . , . .
AC CB , = 1.

.
1. 1.

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.2.

- ?

zz

. = 1,
M1 M
= 1
MM2

M1 M = MM2

M1 M = M2 M,

M1 M2 ,
.

2. M M1 M2 , M2 M1 M
1
.

M1 M
.
= ,
MM2
M2 M
MM2
MM2
1
=
=
=
MM1
M1 M
M1 M


3. M1 , M M2 , M
M1 M2 , , M
M1 M2 .
. M M1 M2 , M1 M
MM2 . : , ,
, . , M1 M
=
. M
MM2
M1 M2 , M1 M MM2 ,
, M M1 M2 .

1.2. 3


 M1 M 
 = |M1 M| = d(M1 , M) .
|| = 
MM2 
|MM2 |
d(M2 , M)

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.2.

- ?

zz

, , ,
, .

, , , .
1.3. M(x) M1 M2 , M1 (x1 ) M2 (x2 ), M
x=

x1 + x2
.
1+

. , =

M1 M
. MM2

1.2
=

x x1
x2 x

x x1 = (x2 x)

x(1 + ) = x1 + x2

x=

x1 + x2
.
1+


1.4. C, = 2 AB,
A(1) B(3).
.
1 + (2) 3
5
xC =
=
= 5.
1 + (2)
1

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.3.

- ?

zz

1.1.3.

.
Ox, Oy .
.
y

0
b

0
x

,
, , .
.
y
M

My b

Mx

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.3.

- ?

zz

M , , Mx My M Ox Oy . x y M ( M(x, y )) ,
OMx OMy Ox Oy ,
x = OMx ,

y = OMy .

x , y M.
1.3.
.

1.4. d(M1 , M2 ) M1 (x1 , y1 )

M2 (x2 , y2 )
d(M1 , M2 ) =

(x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 .

. M1 M2 .

y
M2
p
b
b
d(M1 , M2 ) = d(M1 , N)2 + d(M2 , N)2 .

M1b
b

N
0

M1 N
M1 M2 Ox.
Ox x1 x2 . , d(M1 , N) = |x2 x1 |.
, d(M2 , N) = |y2 y1 |. ,
d(M1 , M2 ) =

(x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 .

,
. 1.2 ,

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.3.

- ?

zz

, . ,
, .
1.5. M(x, y ) M1 M2 , M1 (x1 , y1 )
M2 (x2 , y2 ),
x=

x1 + x2
,
1+

y=

y1 + y2
.
1+

. M1 M2 Oy . M1 , M2
M Ox.

Mb
b

M2

M1
b
b

N1

N N2

M M1 M2 N
M1 M N1 N

N1 N2 ,
MM2 NN2
. , ( , )




 M1 M  d(M1 , M)
d(N1 , N)  N1 N 

=
 MM2  d(M, M2 ) = d(N, N2 ) =  NN2  .

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.3.

- ?

zz

, N N1 N2 , M M1 M2 .
, M N Ox 1.3
x1 + x2
.
x =
1+
M1 M2 Oy .
x1 = x2
x1 + x1
x1 (1 + )
x1 + x2
x=
=
=
= x1 .
1+
1+
1+
, M y =

y1 + y2
.
1+

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.4.

- ?

zz

1.1.4.
.

.
Ox, Oy , Oz.
.

0
y

x
y

, Oz
Ox Oy , , .

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.4.

- ?

zz

.
, M , Mx , My Mz Ox, Oy Oz .
x, y , z M ( M(x, y , z)) , OMx , OMy OMz Ox, Oy Oz ,
x = OMx ,

y = OMy ,

y = OMz .

x M, y ,
z .

z
Mz
b

M
b

My

Mx
x

1.4.
.

1.6. d(M1 , M2 ) M1 (x1 , y1 , z1 )

M2 (x2 , y2 , z2 )
d(M1 , M2 ) =

(x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z1 )2 .

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.4.

- ?

zz

,
. 1.2 ,
. ,
, .
1.7. M(x, y , z) M1 M2 , M1 (x1 , y1 , z1 )
M2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ), ,
x=

x1 + x2
,
1+

y=

y1 + y2
,
1+

y=

z1 + z2
.
1+

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.5.

- ?

zz

1.1.5.

.

O, Ox . O , Ox .
M .
M r ,
M , ,
O OM. r
M, .

Mb
0b

1.5. , , 2k, k Z.
1.6. M , r = 0,
.

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.5.

- ?

zz

, ,
Ox. M , (x, y ) , (r, )
.

y
M
b

Mx

x = r cos ,

y = r sin .

r=

p
x 2 + y 2,

cos = p

x
x2

y2

y
sin = p
.
2
x + y2

.


5
. (
4
).
.

2
5
xM = 2 cos(
) = 2
= 2,
4
2

5
2
yM = 2 sin(
)=2
= 2.
4
2
1.5. M

2,

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.5.

- ?

zz

1.6. M 1, 3 . (
).
.
q

r = 12 + ( 3)2 = 4 = 2.
M
cos =
=

2
.
3

1
x
= ,
r
2

sin =

y
3
=
,
r
2

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.6.

- ?

zz

1.1.6.

.
, O
Ox, , Oz, O
.
, M , M1 , M2 Oz.
(r, , z), r M1 O Ox (
Oz), z M2 Oz.

z
M2 b
M

0
x

M1

, M , M1 , M2 Oz.
(r, , ), r O M,
M1 O Ox (
Oz), OM
Oz.

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.6.

- ?

zz

,
O, Ox Ox, Oz Oz
, (x, y , z)
(r, , z)
x = r cos ,

y = r sin ,

z = z,

(r, , )
x = r cos sin ,

y = r sin sin ,

z = r cos .

1.7. M (1, 1, 1). (

).
. M1 M Oxy . (1, 1, 0).
p

r = d(O, M1 ) = 12 + 12 + 02 = 2.

cos =
=

xM1
1
= ,
r
2

sin =

yM1
1
= ,
r
2

. z zM ,
4
z = zM = 1.

1.8. M 1, 1, 2 . (
).
. r
q

r = d(O, M) = 12 + 12 + ( 3)2 = 4 = 2.

. :
4

zM
2
cos =
=
.
r
2

0 6 6 , = .
4
, 1.7: =

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.7.

- ?

zz

1.1.7.
L , F (x, y )
.
L
F (x, y ) = 0,

(1.1)

, , . ,
(1.1) L.
1.9. x 2 + y 2 = 1 , 1
, . , .

, (1.1) . ,
x 2 + y 2 = 0 , ,
x 2 + y 2 = 1, .
, ,
, , .

x = (t),
y = (t)
, t .
1.10.


x = cos t,
y = sin t

1 , x 2 + y 2 = 1.

, , ,
, . t
.

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.8.

- ?

zz

1.1.8.

S , F (x, y , z) .
S
F (x, y , z) = 0,

(1.2)

, , . ,
(1.2) S.
1.11. x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 , 1
, . , .

, (1.2) . , x 2 + y 2 = 0 , Oz,
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 0 , , x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, .

. F1 (x, y , z) =
0 F2 (x, y , z) = 0 , . ,

F1 (x, y , z) = 0,
F2 (x, y , z) = 0
, .

xx

I.
1.
1.1.
1.1.8.

- ?

zz

x = (t),
y = (t),

z = (t)
, t .
, , ,
, . t
.

1.2.
1.2.1.
1.2.2.
1.2.3.
1.2.4.
1.2.5.
1.2.6. , ,
1.2.7.
1.2.8.
1.2.9.
1.2.10.
1.2.11.
1.2.12.
1.2.13.
1.2.14.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.1.

- ?

zz

1.2.1.
, ,
: . , . , ,
, , , , .. , ( ) .
, , , , .
.
,
.
.
.

A B AB. AB |AB|.

, |AB| = d(A, B)
, .
.
, 1, .
b, a ( a),
a, a.
, , .
, .
, , .
.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.1.

- ?

zz

.
2.1. . ,
, . ,
, , .

a O , O
a.

a b . O, a = OA,

b = OB. O OAB a b
d
(a,
b).

0b

d
, 0 6 (a,
b) 6 .

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.2.

- ?

zz

1.2.2.
a ( a)
a, ||, a, > 0,
a, < 0.
a b ( a + b), . b a. ,
a, b ( )
a + b.
b

.
.
1. a + b = b + a ( ).
2. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) ( ).
3. a + 0 = a.
4. a + (a) = 0.
5. ()a = (a).
6. ( + )a = a + a.
7. (a + b) = a + b.
8. 1 a = a, (1) a = a, 0 a = 0.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.2.

- ?

zz

.
a b ( a b), b
a, , b + (a b) = a.
a b : a b = a + (b). ,
b a, a ,
b.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.3.

- ?

zz

1.2.3.
, , .
, ,
. , ,
. , , .
2.1. a1 a2 ,
, a1 = a2 .
. . a 1 a 2 ,
|a 1 |
|a 1 |
, . a 1 =
a 2 , a 1 =
a2 .
|a 2 |
|a 2 |
.

, , .

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.4.

- ?

zz

1.2.4.
a , . a A,

a = AB. A1 B1 A B . A1 B1
a .

Ab

A1

B1

a , , A1 B1 a .
a ( a) A1 B1
.
a b ( b a) a, , b.
2.1. a
d
a = |a| cos(a,
),
d
(a,
) a .
. O
a.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.4.

- ?

zz

1. a , (.
GA41), OA1 . ,

a = |OA1 | = |OA| cos = |a| cos .

A
b

A1

2. a (.
GA42), OA1 . ,

a = |OA1 | = |OA| cos( ) = |a| cos .

A
b

a
b

A1

2.1.1. a b
d
b a = |a| cos(a,
b).

2.2. (a) = a.
. 2.1
\
\
a = |a| cos(a,
) = |||a| cos(a,
).

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.4.

- ?

zz

d
\
> 0, || = (a,
) = (a,
). ,
d
a = |a| cos(a,
) = a.
d
\
< 0, || = (a,
) = (a,
). ,
d
d
a = |a| cos( (a,
)) = |a| cos(a,
) = a.

2.3. (a + b) = a + b.

. a = AB, b = BC. a + b = AC. A1 , B1 , C1

A, B, C ().
a = A1 B1 ,

b = B1 C1 ,

(a + b) = A1 C1 .

1.1
A1 B1 + B1 C1 = A1 C1 . ,
a + b = (a + b).


xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.5.

- ?

zz

1.2.5.
a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a n
1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + + n a n ,
1 , 2 , . . . , n .
b a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a n , ,
.
a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a n , 1 , 2 , . . . , n , 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + +
n a n , ,
.
2.4. a1 , a2 , . . . , an , .
. a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a n , a 1 ,
.
1 a1 + 0 a2 + + 0 an
.

2.5. , .
. . a 1 a 2 , 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 c
2
. , 1 6= 0. a 1 = a 2 . 1
, 2.1 a 1 a 2 .

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.5.

- ?

zz

. a 1 a 2 . 2.1
, a 1 = a 2 . , a 1 a 2 = 0, a 1 a 2 c
.

2.6. , .
. . a 1 , a 2 a 3 ,
1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + 3 a 3 c . , 1 6= 0. a 1 =
2
3
a2
a 3 . , a 1 , a 2 a 3 .
1
1
. a 1 , a 2 a 3 .

O a 1 = OA1 , a 2 = OA2 , a 3 = OA3 . A3 , OA1

OA2 . M1 M2 OA1 AO2 .

a 3 = OM1 + OM2 .

OA1 OM1 . , 2.1 1 ,

OM1 = 1 OA1 . OA2 OM2 , 2 ,

OM2 = 1 OA2 .

a 3 = 1 OA1 + 2 OA2 = 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 ,
, a 3 1 a 1 2 a 2 = 0, a 3 1 a 1 2 a 2 c
.

2.7. , , .
2.7 2.6.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.6. , ,

- ?

zz

1.2.6. , ,
, ,
.
2.4 , . , .
, ,
.
2.5 ,
.
.
2.6 ,
.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.7.

- ?

zz

1.2.7.
2.8. , ,
, , .
. , ( ).
a , (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) . 2.7
a, e 1 , e 2 , e 3 , a+1 e 1 +
2 e 2 + 3 e 3 = 0, .
, = 0. , 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + 3 e 3 = 0, 1 , 2 , 3
. (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) . , (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) .
, 6= 0 , ,
a=

1
2
3
e1
v e2
e 3.

, . a
(e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ):
a = 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + 3 e 3 ,
a = 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + 3 e 3 .
,
(1 1 )e 1 + (2 2 )e 2 + (3 3 )e 3 = 0.
, , ,
1 1 , 2 2 , 3 3 . , 1 = 1 , 2 = 2 , 3 = 3
.

.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.7.

- ?

zz

.
2.9. a + b
a b.
. a b (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) (1 , 2 , 3 )
(1 , 2 , 3 ) .
a = 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + 3 e 3 ,

b = 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + 3 e 3 .

, a + b = (1 + 1 )e 1 + (2 + 2 )e 2 + (3 + 3 )e 3
(1 + 1 , 2 + 2 3 + 3 ) a + b (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ).

2.10. a
a .
. a (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) (1 , 2 , 3 ).
a = 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + 3 e 3 .
,
a = 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + 3 e 3
(1 , 2 , 3 ) a (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ).

2.10.1. a1 (1 , 2 , 3 ) b(1 , 2 , 3 )
, :
1
2
3
=
=
.
1
2
3
. 2.1 ,
, a 1 = a 2 . 2.10
1 = 1 ,

2 = 2 ,

3 = 3 .

, .

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.8.

- ?

zz

1.2.8.
Oxy z.
i , j , k Ox, Oy Oz . i , j , k
, , , .
(i , j , k), , Ox, Oy Oz.
.
2.11. X, Y, Z
Ox, Oy Oz .
. X, Y, Z a.

, a = OA. A1 , A2 , A3 A .

. OA = OA1 + OA2 + OA3 .

OA1 i , 2.1 t , OA1 = ti .

i 1,
(

|OA1 | OA1 i ,
t=

|OA1 | OA1 i ,

t = i a = Ox a , , OA1 = (Ox a) i . , OA2 =

(Oy a) j , OA3 = (Oz a) k.

OA = (Ox a) i + (Oy a) j + (Oz a) k.

a i , j , k ,
X = Ox a,

Y = Oy a,

Z = Oz a.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.8.

- ?

zz


M , O . - M (

rM ) OM.
2.11.1. - .
. M x, y , z,

OM X, Y, Z. x, y , z OMx , OMy , OMz , Mx , My , Mz M

. 2.11
.

2
2
2
2.11.2. (X, Y, Z) a, |a| = X + Y + Z .

. a a = OA. |a| = d(O, A).

2.11.1 A (X, Y, Z). 1.6
d(O, A) =

(X 0)2 + (Y 0)2 + (Z 0)2 =

X 2 + Y 2 + Z2.

2.12. M1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) M2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) . M1 M2

(x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 ).

. OM2 = OM1 + M1 M2 . ,

M1 M2 = OM2 OM1 . OM2 OM1 - M2 M1

2.11.1 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) (x1 , y1 , z1 ). , 2.9 2.10 OM2

(x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 ).


xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.9.

- ?

zz

1.2.9.
2.11 2.1 , a
|a| cos , |a| cos , |a| cos , , , a Ox, Oy Oz .
a cos , cos , cos , , , a Ox, Oy Oz .
, a,
, a cos , cos , cos .
2.13. 1:
cos2 + cos2 + cos2 = 1.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.10.

- ?

zz

1.2.10.
a b ( ab),
,
ab = |a||b| cos(a, b).

1. ab = ba.
2. (a)b = (ab).
. 2.1.1 b a = |a| cos(a, b). , ab = |b|b a. , (a)b = |b|b (a). 2.2 b (a) = b (a). ,
(a)b = |b|b (a) = |b|b (a) = (ab).

3. (a + b)c = ac + bc.
. 2.1.1 c a = |a| cos(a, c). , ac = |c|c a. , bc = |c|c b (a + b)c = |c|c (a + b). 2.3 c (a + b) = c (a) + c (b). ,
(a + b)c = |c|c (a + b) = |c|c (a) + |c|c (b) = ac + bc.

4. ,
.
. . ,
/2. 0 , ,
0.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.10.

- ?

zz

. .
, . , ,
, /2.


.
2.14. a b (X1 , Y1 , Z1 ) (X2 , Y2 , Z2 ) . ab :
ab = X1 X2 + Y1 Y2 + Z1 Z2 .
. , a = X1 i +Y1 j +Z1 k,
b = X2 i + Y2 j + Z2 k, i , j , k , Ox, Oy Oz .

ab =

(X1 i + Y1 j + Z1 k)(X2 i + Y2 j + Z2 k) =
(X1 X2 )i i + (X1 Y2 )i j + (X1 Z2 )i k+
(Y1 X2 )j i + (Y1 Y2 )j j + (Y1 Z2 )j k+
(Z1 X2 )ki + (Z1 Y2 )kj + (Z1 Z2 )kk.

i , j , k , .
1, 1,
dk) . ,
(ic
, i ), (jc
, j ), (k,
ab = X1 X2 + Y1 Y2 + Z1 Z2 .

2.1. a(1, 2, 3) b(3, 2, 1)
ab = 1 (3) + 2 2 + 3 1 = 3 + 4 + 3 = 4.

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.11.

- ?

zz

1.2.11.
(a, b, c) . . ,
c, a b , (a, b, c) ,
, .
, (a, b, c), (b, c, a), (c, a, b)
, (b, a, c), (a, c, b), (c, b, a) .
, ,
(i , j , k) .
, (i , j , k) . ,
(i , j , k) .

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.12.

- ?

zz

1.2.12.
a b ( [a, b]), :
d
1) |[a, b]| = |a||b| sin(a,
b);
2) [a, b] a b.
3) (a, b, [a, b]) .
.
1. [a, b] = [b, a].
2. [a, b] = [a, b], [a, b] = [a, b].
3. [a + b, c] = [a, c] + [b, c], [a, b + c] = [a, b] + [b, c].
4. a b ,
.
2.15. a b (X1 , Y1 , Z1 ) (X2 , Y2 , Z2 ) . [a, b]


 


 Y 1 Z1 
X1 Z1  X1 Y1 





 ,
[a, b] = 
,
,
Y2 Z2
X2 Z2 X2 Y 2

 
 

Y1 Z1  X1 Z1  X1 Y1 





 .

,
,
Y2 Z2 X2 Z2 X2 Y 2
. , a = X1 i +Y1 j +Z1 k,
b = X2 i + Y2 j + Z2 k, i , j , k , Ox, Oy Oz .

[a, b] =

[X1 i + Y1 j + Z1 k, X2 i + Y2 j + Z2 k] =
(X1 X2 )[i , i ] + (X1 Y2 )[i , j ] + (X1 Z2 )[i , k]+
(Y1 X2 )[j , i ] + (Y1 Y2 )[j , j ] + (Y1 Z2 )[j , k]+
(Z1 X2 )[k, i ] + (Z1 Y2 )[k, j ] + (Z1 Z2 )[k, k].

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.12.

- ?

zz

4 [i , i ], [j , j ], [k, k] .
[i , j ]. |i | |j | sin(ic
, j ) = 1 1 sin(/2) = 1.
[i , j ] i j , k,
k. (i , j , k) , [i , j ] = k. ,
[i , k] = j , [j , k] = i , 1 , [j , i ] = k, [k, i ] = j , [k, j ] = i ,
[a, b] = (X1 Y2 )(k) + (X1 Z2 )(j ) + (Y1 X2 )(k) + (Y1 Z2 )i + (Z1 X2 )j + (Z1 Y2 )(i ) =
= (Y1 Z2 Z
 1 Y2 )i  (X1 Z2 Z1 X2)j + (X
 1 Y2 Y1X2 )k =
Y1 Z1 
X1 Z1 


j 
 + k X1 Y1  .
= i 




Y2 Z2
X2 Z2
X2 Y 2

2.2. a(1, 2, 3) b(3, 2, 1)


 


2 3

3  1
2
, 1
[a, b] = 
,
3 1 3 2 = (2 6, (1 + 9), 2 + 6) = (4, 10, 8).
2 1

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.13.

- ?

zz

1.2.13.
(a, b, c) ( abc),
c [a, b],
abc = [a, b]c.

.
1. V ,
a, b, c.

V, (a, b, c) ,
abc =
V, (a, b, c) .
2.
3.
4.
5.

a, b, c , .
abc = bca = cab = acb = cba = bac.
(a)bc = a(b)c = ab(c) = (abc).
(a + d )bc = abc + d bc, a(b + d )c = abc + ad c, ab(c + d ) = abc + abd .

2.16. a, b, c (X1 , Y1 , Z1 ), (X2 , Y2 , Z2 ) (X3 , Y3 , Z3 )

. abc


X1 Y1 Z1 


abc = X2 Y2 Z2  ,
X3 Y3 Z3 

X 1

X2
X 3

Y1
Y2
Y3


Z1 
Z2  .
Z3 

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.13.

. [b, c]


Y2

Y3



X2
Z2 

,


X3
Z3

- ?

 
Z2  X2
,
Z3  X3

zz


Y2 
.
Y3 

,

Y
abc = a[b, c] = X1  2
Y3



X
Z2 
Y1  2
Z3 
X3



X
Z2 
+ Z1  2
Z3 
X3


 X
Y2   1
= X
Y3   2
X3

Y1
Y2
Y3


Z1 
Z2 
Z3 


2.3. a(1, 2, 3), b(3, 2, 1) c(1, 0, 2)



 1
2 3

abc = 3 2 1 = 12.
 1
0 2

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.14.

- ?

zz

1.2.14.

( ) .
2.17. M Oxy (x, y ),
O0 x 0 y 0 (x 0 , y 0 ).

x = a + x 0 cos(i , i 0 ) + y 0 cos(i , j 0 ),
y = b + x 0 cos(j, i 0 ) + y 0 cos(j, j 0 ),
(a, b) O0 Oxy ,
i, j, i 0 , j 0 ,
Ox, Oy , O0 x 0 , O0 y 0 .
. (a, b) O0 Oxy ,
2.11.1 - OO0 Oxy (a, b).

OO0 = ai + bj . , , OM = xi + y j ,
0
O M = x 0i 0 + y 0j 0.

OM = OO0 + O0 M,
xi + y j = ai + bj + x 0 i 0 + y 0 j 0 .
i j , . ,
2.8 i 0 j 0
i 0 = 1 i + 2 j ,
j 0 = 1 i + 2 j .

xi + y j = ai + bj + x 0 (1 i + 2 j ) + y 0 (1 i + 2 j )
= (a + x 0 1 + y 0 1 )i + (b + x 0 2 + y 0 2 )j .

(2.1)

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.14.

- ?

,

x = a + x 0 1 + y 0 1 ,
y = b + x 0 2 + y 0 2 .

zz

(2.2)

1 , 2 , 1 , 2 .
(2.1) i j .
i 0i
i 0j
j 0i
j 0j

= 1 i 2 + 2 j i = 1
= 1 i j + 2 j 2 = 2
= 1 i 2 + 2 j i = 1
= 1 i 2 + 2 j 2 = 2

1 = |i 0 ||i | cos(i 0 , i ) = cos(i 0 , i )

2 = |i 0 ||j | cos(i 0 , j ) = cos(i 0 , j )
1 = |j 0 ||i | cos(j 0 , i ) = cos(j 0 , i )
2 = |j 0 ||j | cos(j 0 , j ) = cos(j 0 , j ).

(2.2), .

: , .
.
2.4. O .

y0

y
x0

O 0 Oxy (0, 0).

cos(i , i 0 ) = cos ,
cos(j , j 0 ) = cos ,
cos(i , j 0 ) = cos( +
cos(j , i 0 ) = cos(

)
2

)
2

= sin ,
= sin .

,


x = x 0 cos y 0 sin ,
y = x 0 sin + y 0 cos .

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.14.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.14.

- ?

2.5. O 0 (a, b).

y0

O0

x0

, , ,
cos(i , i 0 ) = cos(j , j 0 ) = 1,
cos(i , j 0 ) = cos(j , i 0 ) = 0.
,


x = a + x 0,
y = b + y0

2.6. y = x.

y x0
y=x

y0
x

O 0 Oxy (0, 0).

cos(i , i 0 ) = cos(j , j 0 ) = cos(/2) = 0,
cos(i , j 0 ) = cos(j , i 0 ) = cos 0 = 1.

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.2.
1.2.14.

- ?

zz

,


x = y 0,
y = x0

, .

( ) .
2.18. M Oxy z (x, y , z),
O0 x 0 y 0 z 0 (x 0 , y 0 , z 0 ).

0
0
0
x = a + x 0 cos(i, i ) + y 0 cos(i, j ) + z 0 cos(i, k ),
0
0
0
0
0
y = a + x cos(j, i ) + y cos(j, j ) + z cos(j, k0 ),

z = a + x 0 cos(k, i0 ) + y 0 cos(k, j0 ) + z 0 cos(k, k0 ),

(a, b, c) O0 O0 x 0 y 0 z 0 ,
i, j, k, i0 , j0 , k0 , Ox, Oy , Oz , O0 x 0 , O0 y 0 , O0 z 0 .
2.17.

1.3.
1.3.1.
1.3.2.
1.3.3.

xx

I.
1.
1.3.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

1.3.1.
,
Oxy .
3.1. M0 (x0 , y0 ) n(A, B),

A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) = 0.
. M(x, y ) ,

M0 M n .
n

M
b

M0

M0 M n ,

M0 M n . M0 M (x x0 , y y0 ). , M0 M n =
A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ). , M(x, y ) ,

A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) = 0.

3.1. , M0 (1, 1) n(2, 3),
2(x 1) + 3(y + 1) = 0.

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

Oxy .
3.2.
Ax + By + C = 0.

(3.1)

A B , (3.1) .
. 1. , M0 (x0 , y0 ) , n(A, B) , . 3.1

A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) = 0.
C Ax0 By0 Ax + By + C = 0.
2. Ax + By + C = 0. A B
, (x0 , y0 ) (, B 6= 0, 1
x0 , y0 (Ax0 + C)). Ax0 + By0 + C = 0.
B
, A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) = 0,
3.1 . ,
Ax + By + C = 0 , 3.1
A B .

3.2 , Ax + By + C = 0
A B .
Ax + By + C = 0 .
3.1. 3.2 , A B
, .

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

, . .
3.3.
A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0,
A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0
,
A1
B1
C1
=
=
.
A2
B2
C2
. , 3.1 n1 (A1 , B1 ) n2 (A2 , B2 ) , , .
B1
A1
=
. . A1 = A2 , B1 = B2 .
3.3
A2
B2
M(x0 , y0 ) .
A1 x0 + B1 y0 + C1 = 0,
A2 x0 + B2 y0 + C2 = 0.
, ,
(A1 A2 )x0 + (B1 B2 )y0 + (C1 C2) = 0,
C1 = C2
=

C1
A1
B1
=
=
.
C2
A2
B2


Ax + By + C = 0 ,
, .

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

, :
1. A = 0 Ox;
2. B = 0 Oy ;
3. C = 0 ;
4. A = 0, C = 0 Ox;
5. A = 0, C = 0 Oy .
Ax + By + C = 0 ,
x
y
+
= 1.
C/A C/B
C
C
a = , b = .
A
B
x
y
+ = 1.
a
b
, (a, 0) (0, b).
, a b , ,
, , , .
y
x
+ = 1 .
a
b
3.2.

x
y
+ , .
2
3

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

3
b

Oxy
.
, ,
(
, ).
p , ,
0x ,
.
y

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

p
.
3.4.
x cos + y sin p = 0,
.
. P , n ,
1 , . , n
.
M(x, y ) , n

P M . n P M .


OP + P M = OM. , P M = OM OP ,

n P M = n OM n OP .
n 1,

) = sin . OM - M. ,
2
2.11.1 M: xM = x, yM = y .

2.14 n OM
: xn = cos yn = cos(

n OM = x cos + y sin .

n OP . n OP . ,
0.

n OP = |n| |OP | cos 0 = |n| |OP |.

|n| = 1, |OP | = p. , n OP = p.
, M(x, y ) ,

x cos + y sin p = 0,

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

x cos + y sin p = 0 .
3.2. :
1) p ,
2) x y 1.
Ax + By + C = 0 ,
: A2 + B 2 = 1, C < 0.
3.3. 54 x + 35 y 2 = 0 ,
, x y
 2  2
3
4
+
= 1.
5
5

Ax + By + C = 0 ,
1
, 2
,
A + B2
C ( C = 0, ).
1
= 15 .
42 +32
54 x + 35 y 2 = 0.

3.4. 4x + 3y 10 = 0
(. 3.3)

3.5.
x cos + y sin p = 0
, M0 (x0 , y0 )

d(M0 , ) = |x0 cos + y0 sin p|.
. x cos + y sin p = 0
, n(cos , sin ) .

y
b

- ?

zz

M1 (x1 , y1 ) M0 .

d(M0 , ) = |M1 M0 |, M1 M0 .
, n M1 M0 ,
0 . 1, 1.

n M1 M0 :

M0

M1

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

\
|n M1 M0 | = |n| |M1 M0 | | cos(n, M1 M0 )| = 1 r (M0 , ) 1 = r (M0 , ).

, M1 M0 = OM0 OM1 , ,

|n M1 M0 | = |n OM0 n OM1 | = |x0 cos + y0 sin (x1 cos + y1 sin )|.

M1 , .
, x1 cos + y1 sin = p

|n M1 M| = |x0 cos + y0 sin p|.


, .
3.5. M(6, 2) 4x + 3y 10 = 0.
. 4x + 3y 10 = 0 54 x + 35 y 2 = 0 (. 3.4). ,


4

3
d(M, ) =  6 + 2 2 = 4.
5
5

Oxy .
.

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

3.6. M0 (x0 , y0 ) a(a1 , a2 ),


x = x0 + a1 t,
y = y0 + a2 t,
.

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

. M(x, y ) ,

M0 M a .

M
b

M0

2.1 M0 M a M0 M = ta,
t , +

M0 M. M0 M (x x0 , y y0 ), ta (ta1 , ta2 ),

M0 M = ta

x x0 = a1 t,
y y0 = a2 t,


3.3. t
(, +).
3.6. , M0 (1, 1) n(2, 3),

x = 1 + 2t,
y = 1 + 3t,

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

Oxy .
3.7. M0 (x0 , y0 ) a(a1 , a2 ),

x x0
y y0
=
.
a1
a2
.

x = x0 + a1 t,
y = y0 + a2 t,
t. t
t=

x x0
,
a1

t=

y y0
a2

x x0
y y0
=
.
a1
a2


x x0
y y0
=
.
a1
a2

3.4. .
, , .
3.7. , M0 (1, 1) n(2, 3),
x 1
y +1
=
.
2
3

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

,
Oxy .

M0 (x0 , y0 ) M1 (x1 , y1 ), M0 M1
. (x1 x0 , y1 y0 ) ,

x x0
y y0
=
.
x1 x0
y1 y0

Oxy . , Oy .
Ox , Ox
, .
y

Ox.
3.8. , Oy , k .

y = kx + b.

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

3.8.1. , Oy , k , M0 (x0 , y0 )
.
y = y0 + k(x x0 ).

y = kx + b .


.
y
, , ( , ).

p , ,
n
P
,
.

O
p x

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.1.

- ?

zz

3.9.
r cos( ) = p
.

1 2 :
A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0,
A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0.
n1 (A1 , B1 ) n2 (A2 , B2 ) .
1 2 , n1 n2 , , ,
:
A1
B1
=
.
A2
B2
, (
, , 3.3).
1 2 n1 n2 .
cos =

n1 n2
A1 A2 + B1 B2
p
=p 2
,
|n1 | |n2 |
A1 + B12 A22 + B22

(3.2)

, 1 2 . (3.2)
:
1 2 A1 A2 + B1 B2 = 0.

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.2.

- ?

zz

1.3.2.
,
.
Oxy z.
3.10. M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) n(A, B, C)

A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) + C(z z0 ) = 0.
. M(x, y , z)
, M0 M n .

M0

M0 M n ,

M0 M n . M0 M (x x0 , y y0 , z z0 ). , M0 M n =
A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) + C(z z0 ). , M(x, y )
,
A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) + C(z z0 ) = 0.


xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.2.

- ?

zz

3.8. , M0 (1, 1, 2) n(2, 3, 1),

2(x 1) + 3(y + 1) (z 2) = 0.

Oxy z.
3.11.
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.

(3.3)

A, B C , (3.3) .
. 1. , M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) ,
n(A, B, C) . 3.10
A(x x0 ) + B(y y0 ) + C(z z0 ) = 0.
D Ax0 By0 Cz0 Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.
2. Ax + By + Cz + D = 0. A, B C
, (x0 , y0 , z0 ) (, C 6= 0,
1
x0 y0 , z0 (Ax0 + By0 + D)). Ax0 +
C
By0 + Cz0 + D = 0. , A(x x0 ) + B(y
y0 )+C(z z0 ) = 0, 3.10
. , Ax + By + C = 0 ,
3.10 A, B C .

, Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
A, B C .
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 .

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.2.

- ?

zz

3.5. 3.11 , A, B C
.

,
. .
3.12.
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0,
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0
,
A1
B1
C1
D1
=
=
=
.
A2
B2
C2
D2
. ,
n1 (A1 , B1 , C1 ) n2 (A2 , B2 , C2 ) , , B1
C1
A1
=
=
. . A1 = A2 ,
. 2.10.1
A2
B2
C2
B1 = B2 , C1 = C2 .
M(x0 , y0 , z0 ) .
A1 x0 + B1 y0 + C1 z0 + D1 = 0,
A2 x0 + B2 y0 + C2 z0 + D2 = 0.
, ,
(A1 A2 )x0 + (B1 B2 )y0 + (C1 C2)z0 + (D1 D2) = 0,
D1 = D2
=

D1
C1
A1
B1
=
=
=
.
D2
C2
A2
B2


xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.2.

- ?

zz

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 ,
, .
, , .
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 ,
x
y
y
+
+
= 1.
D/A D/B
D/C
a =

D
D
D
, b = , c = .
A
B
C
x
y
z
+ + = 1.
a
b
c

, (a, 0, 0), (0, b, 0)

(0, 0, c). , a, b c ,
, , , ,
.
x
y
z
+ + = 1 .
a
b
c

Oxy z .
, ,
(

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.2.

- ?

zz

,
).
p , , , ,
.
, , p .
3.13.
x cos + y cos + z cos p = 0,
.
. P , n , 1 , . , ,
n . , n (cos , cos , cos ).
M(x, y , z) ,

n P M . n P M .


OP + P M = OM. , P M = OM OP ,

n P M = n OM n OP .

OM - M. , 2.11.1
M: xM = x, yM = y , zM = z. 2.14

n OM

n OM = x cos + y cos + z cos .

n OP . n OP . ,
0.

n OP = |n| |OP | cos 0 = |n| |OP |.

|n| = 1, |OP | = p. , n OP = p.

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.2.

- ?

zz

, M(x, y , z) ,

x cos + y cos + z cos p = 0,
.

x cos +y cos +z cos p = 0 .

3.6. :
1) p ,
2) x, y z 1.
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 ,
: A2 + B 2 + C 2 = 1, D < 0.
3.9. 32 x 23 y + 13 y 2 = 0 ,
, x y

 2
 2 
2
2 2
1
+
+
= 1.
3
3
3

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 ,
1
, 2
,
A + B2 + C 2
D ( D = 0, ).
3.10. 2x 2y + z 6 = 0
1
1
p
=
3
22 + (2)2 + 12
. (. 3.9)
2
x
3

23 y + 31 y 2 = 0.

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.2.

- ?

zz

.
3.14.
x cos + y cos + z cos p = 0
, M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 )

d(M0 , ) = |x0 cos + y0 cos + z0 cos p|.
. x cos + y cos + z cos p = 0
, n(cos , cos , cos )
1.

M1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) M0 . d(M0 , ) = |M1 M0 |, M1 M0

. , n M1 M0 ,
0 . 1, -1.

n M1 M0 :

\
|n M1 M0 | = |n| |M1 M0 | | cos(n, M1 M0 )| = 1 r (M0 , ) 1 = d(M0 , ).

, M1 M0 = OM0 OM1 , ,

|n M1 M0 | = |n OM0 n OM1 | =
|x0 cos + y0 cos + z0 cos (x1 cos + y1 cos + z1 cos )|.
M1 , .
, x1 cos + y1 cos + z1 cos = p

|n M1 M| = |x0 cos + y0 cos + z0 cos p|.

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.2.

- ?

zz


, .
3.11. M(1, 1, 1) 2x 2y + z 6 = 0.
. 2x 2y + z 6 = 0 32 x 32 y +
,



2
2
1
d(M, ) =  (1) 1 + 1 2 = | 3| = 3.
3
3
3

1
y
3

2 = 0 (. 3.10).

,
Oxy z.
3.15.
M2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ),

 x x0

 x1 x0

 x1 x0

M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ), M1 (x1 , y1 , z1 )

y y0
y1 y0
y1 y0


z z0 
z1 z0  = 0,
z1 z0 



 x x0 y y0 z z0 


x1 x0 y1 y0 z1 z0  .
x2 x0 y2 y0 z2 z0 
.
, M0 M, M0 M1 M0 M2 . ,



 x x0 y y0 z z0 



. 2.16 M0 M M0 M1 M0 M2 x1 x0 y1 y0 z1 z0 .
x2 x0 y2 y0 z2 z0 
.


xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.2.

- ?

zz

3.12. , M0 (1, 1, 1), M1 (1, 0, 1) M2 (2, 1, 0).

. 3.15


x + 1 y 1 z 1


 1 + 1 0 1 1 1 = 0


 2 + 1 1 1 0 1


x + 1

 2

 3

y 1
1
0


z 1
0  = 0.
1 

x + 2y + 3z 4 = 0.

1 2 :
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0,
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0.
n1 (A1 , B1 , C1 ) n2 (A2 , B2 , C2 ) .
1 2 , n1 n2 , , ,
:
A1
B1
C1
=
=
.
A2
B2
C2
, (
, , 3.12).
1 2
n1 n2 .
cos =

n1 n2
A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1 C2
p
=p 2
,
|n1 | |n2 |
A1 + B12 + C12 A22 + B22 + C22

(3.4)

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.2.

- ?

zz

, 1 2 . (3.4)
:
1 2 A1 A2 + B1 B2 + C1 C2 = 0.

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.3.

- ?

zz

1.3.3.

Oxy z.
.
3.16. M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) a(a1 , a2 , a3 ),

x = x0 + a1 t,
y = y0 + a2 t,

z = z0 + a3
.
. M(x, y , z)

, M0 M a . M0 M a
M0 M = ta, t ,

+ M0 M. M0 M (x x0 , y y0 , z z0 )

ta (ta1 , ta2 , ta3 ), M0 M = ta

x = x0 + a1 t,
y = y0 + a2 t,

z = z0 + a3
.

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.3.

- ?

zz

3.7. t
(, +).
3.13. , M0 (1, 1, 1) a(1, 2, 3),

x = 1 + t,
y = 1 + 2t,

z = 1 + 3t.

Oxy z.
3.17. M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) a(a1 , a2 , a3 ),

y y0
z z0
x x0
=
=
.
a1
a2
a3
.

x = x0 + a1 t,
y = y0 + a2 t,

z = z0 + a3 .
t. t
t=

x x0
,
a1

t=

y y0
,
a2

t=

z z0
a3

x x0
y y0
z z0
=
=
.
a1
a2
a3


xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.3.

- ?

zz

x x0
y y0
z z0
=
=

a1
a2
a3

3.8. .
, , .
3.14. , M0 (1, 1, 1) a(1, 2, 3),

y 1
z 1
x +1
=
=
.
1
2
3

,
Oxy z.

M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) M1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ), M0 M1
. (x1 x0 , y1 y0 , z z0 )
,
y y0
z z0
x x0
=
=
.
x1 x0
y1 y0
z1 z0


.
A1 x + B1 y + C1 z + D1 = 0,
A2 x + B2 y + C2 z + D2 = 0

(3.5)

, , M(x, y , z)
,
. , (3.5) , .

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.3.

- ?

zz

, (3.5) ,
, x, y , z ,
n 1 (A1 , B1 , C1 ) n 2 (A2 , B2 , C2 ),
.

:
x x0
y y0
z z0
=
=
,
a1
a2
a3
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0.
a(a1 , a2 , a3 ) , n(A, B, C)
.
, a n ,
a1 A + a2 B + a3 C = 0.
(x0 , y0 , z0 ), ,
Ax0 + By0 + Cz0 + D = 0,
.
, a n ,
a1
a2
a3
=
= .
A
B
C

. a n. = 2 , , = 2 ,
.
sin = cos =

an
a1 A + a2 B + a3 C

=p 2
.
|a| |n|
a1 + a22 + a32 A2 + B 2 + C 2

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.3.

- ?

zz

1 2 :
x x0
y y0
z z0
=
=
,
a1
a2
a3
x x1
y y1
z z1
=
=
.
b1
b2
b3
a(a1 , a2 , a3 ) b(b1 , b2 , b3 ) 1 2 ,
M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) M1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) 1 2 .
1 2 , a b , ,
a2
a3
a1
=
= .
b1
b2
b3
, , M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ), ,
y0 y1
z0 z1
x0 x1
=
=
.
b1
b2
b3
, , , .

. M0 M1 , a, b ,
, :

x1 x0 y1 y0 z1 z0

= 0.
a1
a2
a3
b1
b2
b3

M0 M1 ab , 1 2 .
1 2 , , .
a b
ab
a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
p
=p 2
.
cos =
|a| |b|
a1 + a22 + a32 b12 + b22 + b32

xx

I.
1.
1.3.
1.3.3.

- ?

zz

1.4.
1.4.1.
1.4.2.
1.4.3.
1.4.4.
1.4.5.
1.4.6.
1.4.7.
1.4.8.
1.4.9.

xx

I.
1.
1.4.

. .
.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.1.

- ?

zz

1.4.1.
, , . .
4.1. r , (x0 , y0 ),

(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 = r 2 ,
4.1 , r
x 2 + y 2 = r 2.
(4.1) .
r
x = r cos t,
y = r sin t.

(4.1)

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.2.

- ?

zz

1.4.2.

, ,
, ( 2a) ,
( 2c).
, a > c.
4.2. , Ox Oy ,
x2
y2
+ 2 = 1,
2
a
b

b = a2 c 2 .
.

(4.2)

M
b

F1

F2

F1 F2 . Ox
Oy , 2c, (c, 0) (c, 0). M(x, y )
,
p
p
(x + c)2 + y 2 + (x c)2 + y 2 = 2a.
(4.3)

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.2.

- ?

zz

(4.3) . .
p
(x c)2 + y 2 .

p
x 2 + 2xc + c 2 + y 2 = 4a2 4a (x c)2 + y 2 + x 2 2xc + c 2 + y 2 ,

a

(x c)2 + y 2 = a2 xc.

, :
x 2 (a2 c 2 ) + y 2 a2 = a2 (a2 c 2 ).
a > c, a2 c 2 > 0.

x 2 b 2 + y 2 a2 = a2 b 2 .

a2 c 2 b,

a2 b2 (4.2)
,
. , (4.2) (4.3) . ,
, (4.2), .
M1 (x1 , y1 ) (4.2),
y2
x12
+ 12 = 1.
2
a
b
,
y12 = b2 (1

x12
).
a2

(4.4)

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.2.

- ?

zz

, , b2 = a2 c 2 ,
r

d(F1 , M1 )

b2
x12 + 2x1 c + c 2 + b2 2 x12 =
a
r
r
2
2
2
a

b
c
+ 2cx1 + c 2 + b2 = x12 2 + 2cx1 + a2 =
= x12
a2
a
r
c 
c 2 
=
a + x1 = a + x1  .
a
a

(x1 +

c)2

y12


c 

d(F2 , M1 ) = a x1  .
a
, a > c, (4.4), |x1 | 6 a. ,
a+

c
x1 > 0,
a

c
x1 > 0.
a


c  
c 
d(F1 , M1 ) + d(F2 , M1 ) = a + x1 + a x1 = 2a,
a
a
M1 .

x2
y2
+
= 1 .
a2
b2

4.1. b2 = a2 c 2 , b2 < a2 .

x2 y2
+
= 1, a2 > b2 ,
a2 b 2

, Oy .

y2
x2
+
= 1 , a2
b2
.
, , , x y , xy .
, 4.2, .

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.2.

- ?

zz

x2
y2
+
= 1.
a2
b2
1. x y . ,
M(x, y ), M1 (x, y ), M2 (x, y )
M3 (x, y ) . , .
,

, , .
.
.
x2
y2
2. , 2 6 1, 2 6 1, , |x| 6 a, |y | 6 b.
a
b
, , x = a, y = b.
x2
3. . y = 0 2 = 1, x = a.
a
, Ox A1 (a, 0) A2 (a, 0). , x = 0,
, Oy B1 (0, b) B2 (0, b).
.
, , ,
. , , ,
.
4. , (x > 0, y > 0),
y

bp 2
a x 2.
a
, x 0 a y b 0. ,
y=

A1
b

F1

a
b

F2

A2
x

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.2.

- ?

zz

,
.

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.2.

- ?

zz

x2
y2
+
= 1
a2
b2

u=

x
,
a

v=

y
,
b

u 2 + v 2 = 1 1 .

u = cos t,
v = sin t.
, :
x = a cos t,
y = b sin t.

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.3.

- ?

zz

1.4.3.

,
, , ( 2a),
, ( 2c).
, a < c.
4.3. , Ox Oy ,
x2
y2
2 = 1,
(4.5)
2
a
b

b = c 2 a2 .
.
y

M
b

F1

F2

F1 F2 . Ox Oy , 2c, (c, 0) (c, 0).

M(x, y ) ,
p
p
| (x + c)2 + y 2 (x c)2 + y 2 | = 2a.
(4.6)

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.3.

- ?

zz

(4.6) . .
p
(x c)2 + y 2
p
p
(x + c)2 + y 2 = 2a + (x c)2 + y 2
.
p
x 2 + 2xc + c 2 + y 2 = 4a2 4a (x c)2 + y 2 + x 2 2xc + c 2 + y 2 ,

a

(x c)2 + y 2 = cx a2 .

, :
x 2 (c 2 a2 ) y 2 a2 = a2 c 2 a4 .
a < c, c 2 a2 > 0.

x 2 b 2 y 2 a2 = a2 b 2 .

c 2 a2 b,

a2 b2 (4.5).
,
. , (4.5) (4.6) .
, , (4.5), .
M1 (x1 , y1 ) (4.5),
x12
y12

= 1.
a2
b2
,
y12 = b2 (1 +

x12
).
a2

(4.7)

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.3.

- ?

zz

, b2 = c 2 a2 ,
r

d(F1 , M1 )

b2
x12 + 2x1 c + c 2 + b2 + 2 x12 =
a
r
r
2
2
2
a +b
c
+ 2cx1 + c 2 + b2 = x12 2 + 2cx1 + a2 =
= x12
2
a
a
r
c 
c 2 
=
a + x1 = a + x1  .
a
a

(x1 +

c)2

y12


c 

d(F2 , M1 ) = a x1  .
a

, a < c, (4.7), |x1 | > a.

x > 0
a+

c
x1 > 0,
a

c
x1 < 0,
a


c  
c 

|d(F1 , M1 ) d(F2 , M1 )| =  a + x1 a + x1  = |2a| = 2a.
a
a
x 6 0
a+

c
x1 < 0,
a

c
x1 > 0,
a


c  
c 

|d(F1 , M1 ) d(F2 , M1 )| =  a x1 a x1  = | 2a| = 2a.
a
a
M1 .

x2
y2
2 = 1 , Ox
2
a
b
Oy .

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.3.

- ?

zz

, , , x y , xy .
.

x2
y2

= 1 .
a2
b2

x2
y2

= 1.
a2
b2
1. x y . ,
M(x, y ), M1 (x, y ), M2 (x, y )
M3 (x, y ) . , .
,

, , .
.
.
x2
2. , 2 > 1, , |x| > a. ,
a
, x = a .
x2
3. . y = 0 2 = 1,
a
x = a. , Ox A1 (a, 0) A2 (a, 0).
.
.
, , .

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.3.

- ?

zz

4. , (x > 0, y > 0),

bp 2
x a2 , x > a.
a
, x y y =
0. , ,
.
5. .
y=

b
4.4. y = x ,
a
x2
y2
2 = 1.
2
a
b
. y =

b 2
x a2 , x > a
a

b
x. M(x0 , y0 ) , N(x0 , y1 ) ,
a
. y1 y0 :

y =

y1 y0 =

b (x0
a

b
b
x0
a
a

x02 a2 =

b
(x0
a

q
x02 a2 ) =

p
p
x02 a2 )(x0 + x02 a2 )
ab
p
p
=
.
2
2
(x0 + x0 a )
(x0 + x02 a2 )

, x > a y1 y0
x0 . , M,
b
, y = x,
a
.

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.3.

, , y =

- ?

zz

b
x a

b
, y = x
a
.

, x = a,
y = b.
y

b
|

F1

A1

A2

, a b =

F2

c 2 a2 .

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.4.

- ?

zz

1.4.4.

, , , , .
p.
4.5. , Ox, Oy ,
,
y 2 = 2px,
p .
.
y
M
b

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.4.

- ?

zz

p
F ( , 0), x p2 = 0 2
. M(x, y ) ,

r

p 2
p 

x
(4.8)
+ y 2 = x 
2
2
(4.8) . ,
.


p 2
p 2
x
+ y2 = x
,
2 2
2
p2
p
(4.9)
+ y 2 = x 2 + px +
x 2 px +
4
4
y 2 = 2px.
. , (4.8) (4.9) . , , (4.9), .
M1 (x1 , y1 ) y 2 = 2px. y12 = 2px1 .
M1 F .
r
r
p2
p 2
2
d(M1 , F ) =
x1
y1 = x12 px1 +
+ 2px1 =
2
4
r
r



p2
p 2 
p 
=
x1 +
= x1 +  ,
= x12 + px1 +
4
2
2
p
d(M1 , F ) M1 x = . , M1
2
.

, , , . ,

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.4.

- ?

zz

, xy . y 2 = 2px .
y 2 = 2px .

, y 2 = 2px.
1. y . , M(x, y ), M1 (x, y )
. , Ox.
.
2. O(0, 0) ,
. ,
.
.
y2
. p > 0, x > 0 ,
2p
, .
3. , x =

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.4.

- ?

zz

P/2

P/2

4. y 2 = 2px, x 2 = 2py , x 2 = 2py .

. .

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.5.

- ?

zz

1.4.5.

( ) , , = ca .
c < a, < 1.
,
a
, a , .

.
,
.
x2
y2
a
a
+
= 1 x = . < 1, > a. 2
2
a
b

, .

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.5.

- ?

zz

F1

F2

4.6. , .
.
y2
x2
4.2. 2 + 2 = 1.
a
b
M(x, y ) . d 2 (M, F1 ) d 2 (M, F2 ):
d 2 (M, F1 ) d 2 (M, F2 ) = ((x + c)2 + y 2 ) ((x c)2 + y 2 ) = 4xc.

d(M, F1 ) + d(M, F2 ) = 2a.

(4.10)

,
d(M, F1 ) d(M, F2 ) =

4xc
c
= 2 x = 2x.
d(M, F1 ) + d(M, F2 )
a

(4.10) (4.11),
d(M, F1 ) = a + x,

d(M, F2 ) = a x.

(4.11)

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.5.

- ?

zz

1 , F1 , 2 , F2 .
a
a
d(M, 1 ) = + x, d(M, 2 ) = x.

,
d(M, F1 )
a + x
= ,
= a
d(M, 1 )
+x

d(M, F2 )
a x
= a
= .
d(M, 2 )
x



( ) , , = ca .
c > a, > 1.
, a
, a ,

.
, , .
,
.
x2
y2
a
a

= 1 x = . > 1,
< a.
a2
b2

, .

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.5.

- ?

zz

F2

F1

4.7. , .
4.6.

,
1. 1
.
,
4.6 4.7 .
4.8. F , .
, F

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.5.

- ?

zz

, , 1, , 1.
F , , .
,
.
, , , 1,
, 1, , 1.
, ,
L, , . F
, , , L , F
L. , F ,
M0 L, p M0 F .
L ,
d(F, M0 ) = d(M0 , ) = d(F, ),
p . L ,
p .
4.1. p =
.

b2
a ,

b2 a2 c 2 c 2 a2

:
F , , , .
4.9.
r=

p
1 cos

(4.12)

, , p , .

4.1. r =

144
135 cos

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.5.

- ?

zz

. (4.12):
r =
=

5
.
13

144
13
.
5
cos
13

< 1, .

144
c
5
b2
=
,
=
, b 2 = a2 c 2 ,
a
13
a
13
a = 13, b = 12. ,
x2
y2
+
= 1.
169
144

144
.
13

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.6.

- ?

zz

1.4.6.

,

Ax 2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0,
A, B, C .
, , .
.
.
x2
y2
1. 2 + 2 = 1 . , a = b,
a
b
x 2 + y 2 = a2 a .
x2
y2
2. 2 + 2 = 1 .
a
b
3. y 2 = 2px .
x2
y2
x
y
4. 2 2 = 0 = 0.
a
b
a
b
x2
x
5. 2 = 1
= 1.
a
a
x2
6. 2 = 0 .
a
x = 0.
7.
, :
x2
y2
a) 2 + 2 = 0,
a
b

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.6.

- ?

zz

x2
y2
+ 2 = 1,
2
a
b
x2
) 2 = 1.
a
) ,
) ) , , .
)

, ,
.

Ax 2 + 2Bxy + Cy 2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0
B , O
,
ctg 2 =

AC
.
2B

,
xy . x y , .
4.2. ,
7x 2 8xy + y 2 16x 2y 51 = 0.
.
ctg 2 =

71
3
= .
8
4

ctg2 1
= 34 ,
2 ctg
4 ctg2 + 6 ctg 4 = 0.

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.6.

- ?

zz

: ctg = 1/2 ctg = 2. ,

. 0 < < 2 . ctg = 1/2.

1
cos

= ,
sin
2
sin2 + cos2 = 1.
,
1
2
cos = , sin = .
5
5
2.4
:

1
2

x = x 0 y 0,
5
5
1
2

y = x 0 + y 0,
5
5
,
2
7 0
8
1
16
(x 2y 0 )2 (x 0 2y 0 )(2x 0 + y 0 ) + (2x 0 + y 0 )2 (x 0 2y 0 ) (2x 0 + y 0 ) 51 = 0.
5
5
5
5
5
,

(x 0 )2 + 9(y 0 )2 4 5x 0 + 6 5y 0 51 = 0.
x 0 y 0 :
0 2

((x ) + 4 5x + 20) + 9

6 5 0
5
y +
+ 20 5 51 = 0,
(y ) +
9
9
0 2

(x 0 + 2 5)2 + 9(y 0 +

5 2
) = 36.
3

Ox 0 y 0
(

X = x 0 + 2 5,
Y = y 0 + 35 ,

X2
Y2
+
= 1.
36
4

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.6.

y
y0
x0
Y
X
b

0
00

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.7.

- ?

zz

1.4.7.
,

a11 x 2 + a22 y 2 + a33 z 2 + 2a12 xy + 2a13 xz + 2a23 y z + a1 x + a2 y + a3 z + a = 0,
a11 , a22 , a33 , a12 , a13 , a23 .
,
, . .
.
y2
z2
x2
1. 2 + 2 + 2 = 1 .
a
b
c
z

O
b

, a = b = c, x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2
a .
x2 y2 z2
2. 2 + 2 2 = 1 . ,
a
b
c
a = b ,
.

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.7.

- ?

zz

x2 y2 z2
+
= 1 . ,
a2 b 2 c 2
a = b ,
.
3.

O
b

4.

x2
y2
z2
+

= 0 .
a2
b2
c2
z

5.

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.7.

- ?

zz

x2
y2
2 = 2z .
2
a
b
z

x
b

x2 y2
+
= 2z . , a = b
a2 b 2
,
.
6.

O
x

7.

x2
y2
+ 2 = 1 .
2
a
b
z

8.

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.7.

x2
y2
2 = 1 .
2
a
b
z

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.7.

- ?

9. y 2 = 2px .

10.

x2
y2
x
y

= 0 = 0.
a2
b2
a
b
z

0
y

zz

11.

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.7.

- ?

zz

x2
x
= 1 = 1.
a2
a
z

x2
= 0 .
a2
x = 0.
13. , :
x2
y2
z2
a) 2 + 2 + 2 = 0,
a
b
c
x2
y2
z2
) 2 + 2 + 2 = 1,
a
b
c
x2
y2
) 2 + 2 = 0,
a
b
x2
y2
) 2 + 2 = 1,
a
b
x2
) 2 = 1.
a
) , )
, Oz, ,
, .
12.

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.8. .

- ?

zz

1.4.8. . .
,
L. L ,
, .
L .


F1 (x, y , z) = 0,
F2 (x, y , z) = 0.
a(a1 , a2 , a3 ).
M(x, y , z), , M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ),

L M0 M a . ,

F (x , y , z ) = 0,

1 0 0 0
F2 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 0,

x x0 = y y0 = z z0 .
a1
a2
a3
x0 , y0 , z0 , , , .
, P
L. L ,
, , P .
L

F1 (x, y , z) = 0,
F2 (x, y , z) = 0,
P (x1 , y1 , z1 ).

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.8. .

- ?

zz

M(x, y , z), , M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ),

L, , M, M0 P . ,

F (x , y , z ) = 0,

1 0 0 0
F2 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = 0,

x x1 = y y1 = z z1 .
x0 x1
y0 y1
z0 z1
x0 , y0 , z0 , , , .
L ,
1) ;
2) L;
3) .
4.2. , . , ,
. ,

(x 3)2 + y 2 = 1,
z = 0,
Oy ,

xx

I.
1.
1.4.
1.4.9. .

- ?

zz

1.4.9. .
, .
.
. , .
x2
y2
z2
2 + 2 2 = 1
a
b
c
(
(
k1 ( xa + cz ) = k2 (1 yb ),
k1 ( xa + cz ) = k2 (1 + yb ),
k2 ( xa cz ) = k1 (1 yb ),

k2 ( xa cz ) = k1 (1 + yb ),

k1 , k2 , .
x2
y2
2 2 = 2z
a
b
(
(
k1 ( xa + yb ) = 2k2 z ,
k1 ( xa yb ) = 2k2 z ,
k2 ( xa + yb ) = k1 ,

k2 ( xa yb ) = k1 .

1.5. . .
1.5.1.
1.5.2.
1.5.3.

xx

I.
1.
1.5. . .

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.5. . .
1.5.1.

- ?

zz

1.5.1.
X .
, X ,
:
1) ;
2) X ;
3) X .
X , ,
.
, X, , X
.
X , ,
.

1) N ;
2) Z , ;
3) Q , Q = Q \ {0} ;
4) R , R = R \ {0} ;
5) C([a, b]) [a, b] ,
.. .

xx

I.
1.
1.5. . .
1.5.1.

- ?

zz

1. X
.
. ?? ??
.

2. x1 , x2 X x1 x = x2 , y x1 = x2 X
x = x10 x2 , y = x2 x10 ,

(5.1)

x10 , x1 .
. x (5.1),
x1 x = x1 (x10 x2 ) = (x1 x10 ) x2 = n x2 = x2 .
, x x1 x = x2 . . x
x1 x = x2 , .. x1 x = x2 .

x10 x1 x = x10 (x1 x) = x10 x2
x = x10 x2 .
x10 x1 x = (x10 x1 ) x = n x = x

3. ( ). x1 x3 = x1 x2 , x3 = x2 .
. 2.

xx

I.
1.
1.5. . .
1.5.2.

- ?

zz

1.5.2.
K , :
1) K ;
2) K ;
3) K ;
5) , .. a(b + c) = ab + ac; (a + b)c =
ac + bc, a, b, c K.
K , K , , 1 .

1) Z, Q, R;
2) , x ;
3) P [x] P x.

(K, +) , k K
(k) K. K :
a b = a + (b), a, b K.
a b x + b = a.
1. , .. k, l, m K

k(l m) = kl km,
(l m)k = lk mk.

xx

I.
1.
1.5. . .
1.5.2.

- ?

zz

. , l = (l m) + m kl = k(l m) + km
k(l m) = kl km. .

2. k0 = 0k = 0, k K.
. k k = 0, k0 = k(k k) = k 2 k 2 = 0.
0k = 0.

, 2, , . , . kl = 0, k 6= 0 l 6= 0, k l
.
5.1.

f (x) = 1(x) =

g(x) =

1, x > 0,
,
0, x < 0.

0, x > 0,
. f (x) 6= 0, g(x) 6= 0, f (x)g(x) = 0, x R.
1, x < 0.

3. ( ). k K, . kl = km lk = mk, l = m.
. kl = km kl km = 0. 1 , k(l m) =
0 l m = 0 l = m. .

4. (k)m = k(m) = km, k, m K.
. km + (k)m = (k + (k))m = 0m = 0 (k)m = km.
.


xx

I.
1.
1.5. . .
1.5.3.

zz

- ?

1.5.3.
P .
P , :
1) P ;
1) P ;
3) P ;
4) P (P = P \ {0}) ;
5) , .. a(b + c) = ab + bc, a, b, c P.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Z (Z );
Q ;
R ;
C ;
Pn [x] P 6 n .

1. P .
. pq = 0, p, q P, p 6= 0. pq = 0
p 1 P. p 1 (pq) = p 1 0 q = 0.

2. ( ). k P, k 6= 0, kl = km, lk =
mk , l = m.
3. p P, q P, q 6= 0,
qx = p
P x = q 1 p.

(5.2)

xx

I.
1.
1.5. . .
1.5.3.

- ?

zz

p
p q.
q
, .
(5.2)

xx

I.
1.
1.6.

- ?

zz

1.6.
1.6.1.
1.6.2.
1.6.3.
1.6.4. .
1.6.5.
1.6.6.
1.6.7.
1.6.8.
1.6.9.
1.6.10.
1.6.11.
1.6.12.

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.1.

- ?

zz

1.6.1.
P , P = R ( )
P = C ( ), n .
() n x P
an x n + an1 x n1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 ,
ai P, i = 0, n, an 6= 0.

an x n + an1 x n1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 .

(6.1)

ai (0 6 i 6 n) (6.1), an . (6.1) n = 0, , (6.1) .

P.
,
0(x) 0. .
, .
f (x), g(x), . . . . , , (6.1)
f (x) = an x n + an1 x n1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 . f (x) deg f (x),
.. deg f (x) = n.
6.1. , (6.1), f (x) f (x) = a0 x n + a1 x n1 +
. . . + an , a0 6= 0.
6.2. x P P [x]. ,
n Pn [x] P [x]n .
6.3. , .. ,
()
, .
(-) .

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.2.

1.6.2.

f (x) = an x n + an1 x n1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 ,
g(x) = bm x m + bm1 x m1 + . . . + b1 x + b0 ,
ai , bj P, i = 0, n, j = 0, m, , :
1) deg f = deg g, .. m = n;
2) x, .. ai = bi , i = 0, n.

f (x) = an x n + an1 x n1 + . . . + a1 x + a0

g(x) = bm x m + bm1 x m1 + . . . + b1 x + b0

c(x) =

n
X

cj x j , cj = aj + bj , j = 0, n

j=0

( n > m bm+1 , bm+2 , . . . , bn ).

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.2.

- ?

zz

f (x) = an x n + an1 x n1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 ,
g(x) = bm x m + bm1 x m1 + . . . + b1 x + b0

d(x) = dn+m x n+m + . . . + d1 x + d0 ,
di =

aj bl , i = 0, n + m, 0 j n, 0 l m.

j+l=i

,
d0 = a0 b0 ; d1 = a0 b1 + a1 b0 ; dn+m = an bm .
6.4. ,
deg(f (x) + g(x)) 6 max(deg f (x), deg g(x)).

(6.2)

n 6= m, (6.2) deg(f (x) + g(x)) = max(deg f (x), deg g(x)).

n = m , deg(f (x) + g(x)) < n( an = bn ).
6.5. , an 6= 0, bm 6= 0, ,
dn+m 6= 0.
deg(f (x)g(x)) = deg f (x) + deg g(x).
(6.3)
6.6. , P [x] P
.

f (x), g(x), h(x) P [x], :
1) f (x) + g(x) = g(x) + f (x);
2) (f (x) + g(x)) + h(x) = f (x) + (g(x) + h(x));
3) f (x) + 0(x) = f (x);

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.2.

- ?

zz

4) f (x) P [x] q(x) P [x], f (x) + q(x) = q(x) + f (x) = 0(x).

q(x) f (x). , q(x) = f (x);
5) f (x)g(x) = g(x)f (x);
6) (f (x)g(x))h(x) = f (x)(g(x)h(x));
7) f (x)(g(x) + h(x)) = f (x)g(x) + f (x)h(x).
()
, , ,
.

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.3.

- ?

zz

1.6.3.
6.1. f (x), g(x) P [x], g(x) 6= 0(x), ,
, q(x), r (x) P [x] ,
f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r (x), deg r (x) < deg g(x).

(6.4)

. , q(x) r (x) . , , q(x),

r(x) ,
f (x) = g(x)q(x)

+ r(x),

(6.5)

q(x),

r(x) P [x]; deg r(x) < deg g(x). (6.4) (6.5)

g(x)(q(x) q(x))

= r(x) r (x).

(6.6)

,
deg(
r (x) r (x)) 6 max(deg r(x), deg r (x)) < deg g(x).
q(x) q(x)

6= 0(x), (6.3)
deg(g(x)(q(x) q(x)))

= deg g(x) + deg(q(x) q(x))

> deg g(x).

, q(x) q(x)

= 0, .. q(x) = q(x).

(6.6) ,
r (x) = r(x).
g(x) r (x) , (6.4).
deg f (x) < deg g(x),
q(x) = 0(x), r (x) = f (x).
(6.7)
(6.4) .

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.3.

- ?

zz

deg f (x) > deg g(x)

f (x) = an x n + . . . + a1 x + a0 , an 6= 0, deg f (x) = n,
g(x) = bm x m + . . . + b1 x + b0 , bm =
6 0, deg g(x) = m.
f (x). n = 0. m = 0, .. f (x) = a0 , g(x) = b0 ,
a0
q(x) = , r (x) = 0(x). m > 0 (6.7).
b0
n > m. ,
, n.
f1 (x) = f (x)

an nm
g(x),
x
bm

(6.8)

an nm
x
g(x)
bm
. f1 (x) .
q(x),

r(x) P [x],
, deg f1 (x) < deg f (x) = n, f (x)

f1 (x) = g(x)q(x)

+ r(x), deg r(x) < deg g(x).

(6.8)
f (x) = f1 (x) +

an nm
an nm
x
g(x) = g(x)q(x)

+ r(x) +
x
g(x) =
bm
bm
an nm
= g(x)( x
+ q(x))

+ r(x),
bm

.e.
q(x) =

an nm
x
+ q(x),

r (x) = r(x),
bm

q(x), r (x) P [x]; deg r (x) = deg r(x) < deg g(x).

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.3.

- ?

zz

q(x) (6.4) f (x) g(x), r (x)

.
6.7. 6.1,
. <>,
6.1.
6.1. f (x) = 4x 3 2x + 3 g(x) = 2x + 1.
.

4x 3 2x + 3
4x 3 + 2x 2
2x 2 2x + 3

2x 2 x
x + 3

x 1/2
7/2

2x + 1
2x 2 x 1/2



7
1
7
1
+ , .. q(x) = 2x 2 x , r (x) = .
, f (x) = g(x) 2x 2 x
2
2
2
2

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.4. .

- ?

zz

1.6.4. .
f (x), g(x) P [x]. h(x) P [x] , f (x) = g(x)h(x), ,
f (x) g(x) g(x) f (x), g(x)f (x).
g(x) f (x).
u(x) P [x]
u(x)|f (x), u(x)|g(x).

f (x), g(x) P [x],

6.8. ,
.

() f (x) g(x) P [x]

d(x) P [x], .
6.2. ,
P, 6= 0.
. , d1 (x), d2 (x) f (x), g(x)
P [x]. , d1 (x)|d2 (x), d2 (x)|d1 (x). d2 (x) = d1 (x), P.
6= 0, P. d1 (x) f (x) g(x), d1 (x)
f (x), g(x). f (x) g(x) d1 (x),
d1 (x). , d1 (x) f (x) g(x).

6.9. , , ,
. , , ,
f (x) g(x) . , g(x) = 0(x)


f (x) = 0(x), f (x), g(x) = 0(x).

6.1. g(x)|f (x), g(x) f (x), g(x).

. g(x) f (x) g(x),
f (x), g(x) g(x).


xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.4. .

- ?

zz

6.3 ( ). f (x) g(x) P [x] , P [x].

. g(x) = 0(x), f (x)|0(x), , , f (x)
f (x), 0(x).
f (x), g(x) P [x] , deg f (x) > deg g(x), g(x) 6= 0(x), g(x)
f (x). 6.1 , f (x) g(x)
r1 (x). r1 (x) = 0(x), . r1 (x) 6= 0(x),
g(x) r1 (x) r2 (x). r2 (x) = 0(x), .
r2 (x) 6= 0(x), r1 (x) r2 (x) . . ,
.
6.2, :
f (x) = g(x)q1 (x) + r1 (x), r1 (x) 6= 0(x);
g(x) = r1 (x)q2 (x) + r2 (x), r2 (x) 6= 0(x);
r1 (x) = r2 (x)q3 (x) + r3 (x), r3 (x) 6= 0(x);
.................................................
rk3 (x) = rk2 (x)qk1 (x) + rk1 (x), rk1 (x) 6= 0(x);
rk2 (x) = rk1 (x)qk (x) + rk (x), rk (x) 6= 0(x);
rk1 (x) = rk (x)qk+1 (x),

(6.9)

deg g(x) > deg r1 (x) > deg r2 (x) > . . . > deg rk (x) > .
(6.9), , f (x), g(x); g(x), r1 (x);
r1 (x), r2 (x); ...; rk2 (x), rk1 (x); rk1 (x), rk (x); rk (x), 0 , .. f (x), g(x) rk (x)
(6.9). , rk (x) f (x), g(x)
f (x) g(x), .. rk (x) f (x), g(x).

, 6.3 , g(x) f (x),
f (x), g(x) (6.9).

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.4. .

- ?

zz

f (x) g(x), 6.3,

.
6.10. ,
,
- , . ,
, .
6.2. f (x) = x 4 + x 3 3x 2 4x 1 g(x) = x 3 + x 2 x 1.
. f (x) g(x) :

x 4 + x 3 3x 2 4x 1
x4 + x3 x2 x
2x 2 3x 1

x3 + x2 x 1
x

, r1 (x) = 2x 2 x 1. g(x) r1 (x) :

( 2)

( 2)

x3 + x2 x 1
2x 3 2x 2 + 2x + 2
2x 3 3x 2 x
x 2 + 3x + 2
2x 2 6x 4
2x 2 3x 1
3x 3

2x 2 3x 1
x +1

( (3)) r2 (x) = x + 1.

2x 2 3x 1
2x 2 2x
x 1

x 1
0

x +1
2x 1

, x +1 . , f (x), g(x) = x +1.

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.5.

- ?

zz

1.6.5.
c P f (x) P [x], f (c) = 0.
6.4 ( ). f (x) P [x] x c
f (x) x = c.
. f (x) = (x c)q(x) + r (x). deg r (x) < deg(x c) = 1, r (x)
, .. r (x) = r P. f (c) = (c c)q(c) + r, r = f (c).

6.4.1. c P f (x), (x c)|f (x).
. c f (x), f (c) = 0 r = f (c) = 0. ,
(x c)|f (x).
(x c)|f (x). r = 0 f (c) = r = 0, .. c f (x).


xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.6.

- ?

zz

1.6.6.
f (x) (x c)
. f (x)
(x c) , .
f (x) P [x]
f (x) = an x n + an1 x n1 + ... + a1 x + a0

f (x) = (x c)q(x) + r,
q(x) = bn1 x n1 + bn2 x n2 + ... + b1 x + b0 .
an x n + an1 x n1 + ... + a1 x + a0 =
= (x c)(bn1 x n1 + bn2 x n2 + ... + b1 x + b0 ) + r.

(6.10)

x,
an = bn1 ; an1 = bn2 cbn1 ; an2 = bn3 cbn2 ; . . . ; a1 = b0 cb1 ; a0 = r cb0 .

bn1 = an ,
bn2 = an1 + cbn1 ,
............................
bk1 = ak + cbk , k = 1, n 1,
............................
b0 = a1 + cb1 ,
r = a0 + cb0 .
:

xx

an
bn1 =
an

an1
bn2 =
cbn1 +
an1 ,

...
...

ak
bk1 =
cbk + ak

...
...

a1
b0 =
cb1 +
a1

a0
r
=
cb0 +
a0 .

6.3. f (x) = x 5 4x 3 + 6x 2 8x + 10. f (2) .

1
1

0
2 1+0=2

4
2 24=0

6
2 0+6=6

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.6.

8
2 68=4

10
2
4+10=18

, f (2) = 18. , f (x) = (x 2)(x 4 + 2x 3 + 6x + 4) + 18.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.7.

- ?

zz

1.6.7.
c P f (x) P [x], .. f (c) = 0, (x c)|f (x). ,
k N , (x c)k |f (x), (x c)k+1 f (x). x = c k-
, k . k = 1, .
f (x) = an x n + ... + a1 x + a0 , f (x) P [x].
f 0 (x) f (x) n > 1 (n 1)- :
f 0 (x) = nan x n1 + (n 1)an1 x n2 + ... + 2a2 x + a1 .
6.5. c P k- f (x) P [x], k > 1
c (k 1)- f 0 (x) . k = 1, c
f 0 (x).
. c P k- f (x).
f (x) = (x c)k (x), k > 1,
(6.11)
x c (x), .. (c) 6= 0. (6.11), f 0 (x) = k(x c)k1 (x) + (x
c)k 0 (x) = (x c)k1 (k(x)+(x c)0 (x)). x c (x), x c k(x)+(x c)0 (x).
f 0 (x) (x c)k1 , (x c)k1
x c, f 0 (x).

6.11. 6.5 , k- f (x) (k s)-
(1 < s < k) s- f (s) (x) f (x) k- .

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.8.

- ?

zz

1.6.8.
6.6 ( ). , , .
6.12. ( , , ([?]). XVII . (. , .
, . ).
XVIII . . , . , . , .
. 1799 . . .
.

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.9.

- ?

zz

1.6.9.

6.6.1. f (x) C[x], deg f (x) = n > 0, 1 , ..., n

C ,
f (x) = an (x 1 )(x 2 ) . . . (x n ),

(6.12)

an f (x); 1 , ..., n .
. f (x) n. n = 1 f (x) f (x) = a1 x + a0 , a1 6= 0. f (x)




a0
f (x) = a1 x
.
a1
n > 1. , g(x) C[x] n 1
g(x) = an1 (x 1 )(x 2 ) . . . (x n1 ).
f (x) n C.
6.4.1 (x n )|f (x), .. g(x) C[x] , f (x) = (x n )g(x),
deg g(x) = n 1. , (6.12). , 1 , ..., n
(6.12) , an ,
.

6.13. f (x) C[x] (6.12)
f (x) .

6.7. f (x) .
. n, ..
f (x).

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.9.

- ?

zz

n = 1 f (x) = a1 (x 1 ), f (x) = a1 (x 1 ).
a1 (x 1 ) = a1 (x 1 ), 1 = 1 .
, (n 1)- .
(6.12) f (x), deg f (x) = n, f (x) =
an (x 1 ) . . . (x n ).
an (x 1 ) . . . (x n ) = an (x 1 ) . . . (x n ).

(6.13)

1 f (x), 1 , ..., n i , 1 6 i 6 n, 1 = i .
, x = 1 , (6.13) , ,
. (6.13) x 1 . ,
, , .

6.7.1. f (x) C[x], deg f (x) = n > 1, n ,
, .
6.7.2. .
6.7.3. f (x) g(x), n,
n + 1 , f (x) = g(x).
. f (x), g(x) C[x], deg f (x) 6 n, deg g(x) 6 n, c1 , ..., cn+1
, f (ci ) = g(ci ), i = 1, n + 1.
h(x) = f (x) g(x). h(x) : deg h(x) 6 n, h(ci ) = 0, i = 1, n + 1,
, h(x) n + 1 , 6.7.2 h(x) ,
f (x) = g(x).

6.7.4.( ) c1 , ..., cn+1
C b1 , ..., bn+1 C f (x), deg f (x) 6 n, , f (ci ) = bi ,
i = 1, n + 1.
. f (x) C[x], deg f (x) 6 n, , f (ci ) = bi ,
i = 1, n + 1, 6.7.3 .
f (x) =

n+1
X
j=1

bj j (x),

(6.14)

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.9.

- ?

zz

j (x) =

(x c1 ) . . . (x cj1 )(x cj+1 ) . . . (x cn+1 )

.
(cj c1 ) . . . (cj cj1 )(cj cj+1 ) . . . (cj cn+1 )

, deg f (x) 6 n, f (ci ) = bi , i = 1, n + 1. deg j (x) = n, j = 1, n + 1, deg f (x) 6 n.


1, j = i ,
j (ci ) =
0, j 6= i , i = 1, n + 1.
,
f (ci ) =

n+1
X

bj j (ci ) = bi , i = 1, n + 1.

j=1

f (x) =

n+1
X

bj j (x),

(6.15)

j=1

j (x) =

(x c1 ) . . . (x cj1 )(x cj+1 ) . . . (x cn+1 )

(cj c1 ) . . . (cj cj1 )(cj cj+1 ) . . . (cj cn+1 )

, (6.15)
.
6.4. f (x) :
x
f (x)

-2
-1

-1
-2

0
1

1
0

. f (x) .

f (x) = (1)
=

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.9.

- ?

zz

(x + 1)(x 0)(x 1)
(x + 2)(x 0)(x 1)
(x + 2)(x + 1)(x 1)
(x + 2)(x + 1)(x 0)
+ (2)
+1
+0
=
(2 + 1)(2 0)(2 1)
(1 + 2)(1 0)(1 1)
(0 + 2)(0 + 1)(0 1)
(1 + 2)(1 + 1)(1 0)

1 3
1
8
14
4
7
(x x) (x 3 + x 2 2x) (x 3 + 2x 2 x 2) = x 3 2x 2 +
x + 1 = x 3 2x 2 + x + 1.
6
2
6
6
3
3

6.7.5. ( )
f (x) = x n + an1 x n1 + ... + a1 x + a0 , f (x) P [x].

(6.16)

6.6.1
f (x) = (x 1 )(x 2 ) . . . (x n ),
1 , ..., n , , .
x n + an1 x n1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 = (x 1 )(x 2 ) . . . (x n ).

(6.17)

x,
(6.17) :
an1 = (1 + 2 + . . . + n ),
an2 = 1 2 + 1 3 + . . . + 1 n + 2 3 + . . . + n1 n ,
an3 = (1 2 3 + 1 2 4 + . . . + n2 n1 n ),
................................................................
a1 = (1)n1 (1 2 . . . n1 + 1 2 . . . n2 n + . . . + 2 3 . . . n ),
a0 = (1)n 1 2 . . . n .

(6.18)

(6.18) .
n = 2 f (x) = x 2 + a1 x + a0 a1 = (1 + 2 ),
a0 = 1 2 .
n = 3 f (x) = x 3 + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 :
a2 = (1 + 2 + 3 ),
a1 = 1 2 + 1 3 + 2 3 ,
a0 = 1 2 3 .

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.9.

- ?

zz

6.5. c , x 3 + 21x 2 + c = 0 .
. , , 1 , 2 , 3 ,
:

1 + 2 + 3 = 21,
1 2 + 1 3 + 2 3 = 0,

1 2 3 = c.
, , , , 1 = 22 ,

32 + 3 = 21,

222 + 32 3 = 0,

222 3 = c.
, 2 = 0, 3 = 21, 2 = 9, 3 = 6.
c = 0, c = 972.

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.10.

- ?

zz

1.6.10.

f (x) = an x n + an1 x n1 + ... + a1 x + a0 , ai R.
.
6.7.6. f (x)
, f (x).
. f (x), f () = an n +...+a1 +a0 = 0.
,
f () = an n + . . . + a1 + a0 = an
n + . . . + a1
+ a0 = an
n + . . . + a1
+ a0 = 0,


.. f ()
= 0.

6.14. 6.7.6 C f (x) R[x],

, ,
(x )|f (x), (x )|f
(x) (x )(x )|f
(x).
(x) = (x )(x )
= x 2 ( + )x
+ .
, (x) , +
R,
R. , (x)|f (x).

6.7.7. k- f (x) ,

k- f (x).
. , ,
l- f (x). , ,
l > k. f (x) = (x )k (x )
l g(x), g() 6= 0; g()
6= 0.
f (x) = ((x))k g1 (x),
(x) = (x )(x );
g1 (x) = (x )
lk g(x); g1 () 6= 0. g1 (x) .

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.10.

- ?

zz

, g1 () 6= 0, g1 ()
= 0, 6.7.6. , l
k. , l k. ,
l = k.

6.7.8. f (x)
.

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.11.

- ?

zz

1.6.11.
f (x) P [x] n , ,
P , P [x],
n. , R x 2 + px + q, p, q R, p 2 4q < 0,
x , R, . C
(x c), c C.
6.8. f (x) R[x] n

f (x) = an (x 1 ) . . . (x s )(x 2 + p1 x + q1 ) . . . (x 2 + pt x + qt ),

(6.19)

an , k , pj , qj R; pj2 4qj < 0; k = 1, s; j = 1, t; s > 0; t > 0; s + 2t = n.

.
6.15. 6.6.1 f (x) C[x]
C , f (x)
f (x) = an (x 1 )(x 2 ) . . . (x n ),
an C, i C, i = 1, n.

6.6. f (x) = x 3 + 8 R C .
. .
1- . f (x) R, C.
, .. a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 ab + b2 ),
R :
x 3 + 8 = (x + 2)(x 2 2x + 4).

x 2 2x +4 C, .. x 2 2x +4 = (x (1+i 3))(x (1i 3)),

3
x + 8 C :

x 3 + 8 = (x + 2)(x (1 + i 3))(x (1 i 3)).

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.11.

- ?

zz

2- . , , x 3 + 8 C.

3 8. (??) n- ,

8 = 2(cos

+ 2k
+ 2k
+ i sin
), k = 0, 1, 2.
3
3

x 3 + 8 C :

x 3 + 8 = (x 2)(x (1 + i 3))(x (1 i 3)).

, , R :
x 3 + 8 = (x 2)(x 2 2x + 4).

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.12.

- ?

zz

1.6.12.
-
R(x) =

P (x)
.
Q(x)

P (x) , Q(x), R(x)

P (x)
.
, P (x)
Q(x)
Q(x) (. 6.1), ..
P (x)
R(x)
= S(x) +
,
Q(x)
Q(x)

(6.20)

R(x)
. S(x)
Q(x)
P (x)

, .. .
Q(x)

R
A
Mx + N
,
, A, M, N, a, p, q R,
(x a)k (x 2 + px + q)l
p 2 4q < 0.
-

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.12.

- ?

zz

. Q(x)
R (. 6.8). (x a)k
A1
A2
Ak
+
+ ... +
,
(x a)k
(x a)k1
x a
(x 2 + px + q)l , p 2 4q < 0,
M2 x + N 2
Ml x + Nl
M1 x + N1
+ 2
+ ... + 2
.
(x 2 + px + q)l
(x + px + q)l1
x + px + q
. (
., , [?].)
2x + 3
2x + 3
A
B
D
E
Kx + L
C
Mx + N
= 2 2
= 2 +
+
+
+ 2
+
+ 2
.
(x 3 + x)2 (x 2)3
x (x + 1)2 (x 2)3
x
x
(x 2)3
(x 2)2
x 2
(x + 1)2
x +1
A, B, C, D, E, M, N, K, L (), .
6.7.

.
.
.
A
B
A(x + 2) + B(x + 1)
5x + 7
=
+
=
.
(x + 1)(x + 2)
x +1
x +2
(x + 2)(x + 1)
5x + 7 = A(x + 2) + B(x + 1) = (A + B)x + (2A + B).
. x ,
:

x1 A + B = 5
A = 2, B = 3.
0
x
2A + B = 7
6.8.

5x + 7
2
3
=
+
.
(x + 1)(x + 2)
x +1
x +2
x +1
A
Bx + C
A(x 2 + 1) + (Bx + C)(x + 2)
=
+ 2
=
.
6.9.
2
(x + 2)(x + 1)
x +2
x +1
(x + 2)(x 2 + 1)

xx

I.
1.
1.6.
1.6.12.

- ?

zz

,
x + 1 = A(x 2 + 1) + (x + 2)(Bx + C).

(6.21)

(6.21) x, ,
( x).
1
x = 2. (6.21) 5A = 1 A = .
5
x = i.
i + 1 = (i + 2)(Bi + C) = (2C B) + i(2B + C).

3
1
2C B = 1

B= , C= .
2B + C = 1
5
5
x +1
1
x +3
,
=
+
.
(x + 2)(x 2 + 1)
5(x + 2)
5(x 2 + 1)
2
A
B
C
D
(x 1)(A + Bx + Cx 2 ) + Dx 3
x +1
= 3 + 2 +
+
=
.
6.10. 3
x (x 1)
x
x
x
x 1
x 3 (x 1)
.
x 2 + 1 = (x 1)(A + Bx + Cx 2 ) + Dx 3 .
(6.22)
x =1

D = 2; x = 0

A = 1.

(6.22):
2x = (A + Bx + Cx 2 ) + (x 1)(B + 2Cx) + 3Dx 2 .

x =0

AB =0

B = 1.

:
2 = 2(B + 2Cx) + 2(x 1)C + 6Dx.
x =0

2B 2C = 2

C = 2.

x2 + 1
1
1
2
2
= 3 2 +
.
1)
x
x
x
x 1

x 3 (x

1.7.
1.7.1.
1.7.2.
1.7.3.
1.7.4.
1.7.5.
1.7.6.
1.7.7.

xx

I.
1.
1.7.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.1. .

- ?

zz

1.7.1. .
m n , K .
m n , mn
K m n , ..
a11
a21
...
am1

a12
a22
...
am2

. . . a1n ,
. . . a2n ,
... ...
. . . amn ,

aij K; i = 1, m, j = 1, n, i , j ,
aij . aij , , .
, :

a11
a21

...
am1

a12
a22
...
am2

. . . a1n
a11
a21
. . . a2n
;
... ... ...
. . . amn
am1

a12
a22
...
am2

. . . a1n
. . . a2n
.
... ...
. . . amn

1 n,
[a11 , a12 , . . . , a1n ],
, - .

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.1. .

- ?

zz

m 1,

a11
a21

... ,
am1
, - .
m n K Km,n .
7.1.

2
3
0

1
2
5

0
4
6

3 3. Z.
7.2.


x2
x2 1 2
2
4
x + 2x
x
0
2 3, 2 3- .

(aij ; i = 1, m, j = 1, n) (aij ),
, . ,

a11
a21
A=
...
am1

a12
a22
...
am2

. . . a1n
. . . a2n
.
... ...
. . . amn

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.2.

- ?

zz

1.7.2.

a11
a21
A=
...
an1

a12
a22
...
an2

...
...
...
...

a1n
a2n

...
ann

n. , a11 , a22 , . . . , ann ,

, , a1n , a2,n1 , . . . , an1 , . A
tr A SpA, .. tr A = a11 + a22 + . . . + ann .
,
, , . .

a11 0 . . .
0 a22 . . .

... ... ...

0
0 ...

0
0
.
...
ann

A = diag(a11 , a22 , . . . , ann ).

a
0

...
0
.

0
a
...
0

...
...
...
...

0
0

...
a

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.2.

- ?

zz

E I. n En ( In ).
m n, , Om,n ,
0, .
, ,
, .

a11 a12 . . . a1n

0 a22 . . . a2n

... ... ... ...

0
0 . . . ann
,

a11 0
a21 a22

... ...
an1 an2

...
...
...
...

0
0

...
ann

.
.
n, ,
, I.
I, , Ti, , i - .
n II, , ,
i - j- (i 6= j), , .

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.2.

- ?

zz

II Ti,j, .
7.3.

T2,5

1
= 0
0

0
1

0
, T2,3,5 = 0
1
0

0
5
0

0
1
0

0
5
1

A m n, m 6 n, ,
, , , ,
. , A Km,n ,
m.
7.4.


1
1

0
10

3
2

1
0

0
1

A m n. A ,
aij , i = i1 , i2 , j = j1 , j2 , 1 6 i1 6 i2 6 m, 1 6 j1 6 j2 6 n. A[i1 ,i2 ],[j1 ,j2 ] .

m1 < m2 < . . . < mp = m, p N,

(7.1)

mp = m, m. (7.1) m
n :
n1 < . . . < nq = n.
A :

A[1,m1 ],[1,n1 ]
...
A[1,m1 ],[nq1 +1,nq ]
.
...
...
...
A=
A[mp1 +1,mp ],[1,n1 ] . . . A[mp1 +1,mp ],[nq1 +1,nq ]

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.2.

- ?

zz

A .
7.5. 1 < 3 < 4, 2 < 5 4 5 A
45:

a11
a21

a31
a41

a12
a22
a32
a42

a13
a23
a33
a43

a14
a24
a34
a44

a15
A[1,1],[1,2]
a25
= A[2,3],[1,2]

a35
A[4,4],[1,2]
a45

A[1,1],[3,5]
A[2,3],[3,5] .
A[4,4],[3,5]

m = n, . . A n, m n (k = p =
q, ni = mi , i = 1, k).
A

A[1,n1 ],[1,n1 ]
On1 ,n2 n1
On2 n1 ,n1 A[n1 +1,n2 ],[n1 +1,n2 ]

...
...
Onk nk1 ,n1
Onk nk1 ,n2 n1

...
On1 ,nk nk1
...
On2 n1 ,nk nk1

...
...
. . . A[nk1 +1,nk ],[nk1 +1,nk ]

-,
diag(A[1,n1 ],[1,n1 ] , A[n1 +1,n2 ],[n1 +1,n2 ] , . . . , A[nk1 +1,nk ],[nk1 +1,nk ] ).

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.2.

- ?

zz

(, ) -, .


A=

A[1,m1 ],[1,n1 ]

Om1 ,n2 n1

A[m1 +1,m2 ],[1,n1 ]

A[m1 +1,m2 ],[n1 +1,n2 ]

-, , ,



A[1,m1 ],[1,n1 ]
A[1,m1 ],[n1 +1,n2 ]
A=
Om2 m1 ,n1 A[m1 +1,m2 ],[n1 +1,n2 ]
-, , .
A = (aij , i = 1, m, j = 1, n) B = (bij , i = 1, m, j = 1, n)
(: A = B),
, .. aij = bij i , j.

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.3.

- ?

zz

1.7.3.
Rm,n m n R
.
7.1. ,
Pm,n m n P , , Cm,n
m n .

A, B Rm,n C = (cij ) Rm,n ,

cij = aij + bij , i , j, i = 1, m, j = 1, n.
A B A + B, .. A + B = C.
, A + B A B
. (A, B) 7 A + B .
7.6.


1
3

2
6

0
4


+

0
2

1
3

0
4


=

1
1

1
9

0
8


.

1. A + B = B + A, A, B Rm,n .
2. (A + B) + C = A + (B + C), A, B, C Rm,n .
3. A Rm,n
A + Om,n = Om,n + A = A.
4. A Rm,n B Rm,n , A + B = B + A =
Om,n . A = (aij ) B = (bij ), bij = aij .

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.3.

- ?

zz

B Rm,n , A Rm,n ,
A + B = B + A = Om,n . A A, .. B = A.
A Rm,n C Rm,n ,

cij = aij , i , j, 1 6 i 6 m, 1 6 j 6 n.
A, .. A = C.
(A) 7 A Rm,n .

A, B Rm,n , :
1. (A) = ()A;
2. ( + )A = A + A;
3. (A + B) = A + B;
4. 1A = A.
A, B ,
A B
A B = A + (1)B = A + (B).

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.4.

- ?

zz

1.7.4.
A = (aij ) m n B = (bij ) n l
C = (cij ) m l, cij
cij =

n
X

aik bkj .

k=1

A B AB, .. AB = C.
, AB, i - j- ,
i - A j- B.
7.7. AB,

1
A=
3

2
0


, B=

1
2

3
8

.

1 (1) + 2 2
1 3 + 2 (8)
AB =
(3) (1) + 0 2 (3) 3 + 0 (8)


3 13
20
=
.
3
9
18

6
7


.

16+27
(3) 6 + 0 7


=

(A, B) 7 AB .
A B, A
B.
A B , A
B.
A B , ,
B A. , A B , A
B .

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.4.

- ?

zz

1. AB 6= BA.
7.2.( ). A B , AB = BA,
A B .
7.8.

A=

2
3

0
1


, B=

7
2

1
0


.


AB =

14
23

2
3


, BA =

11
4

1
0


.

, AB 6= BA.

2. (AB)C = A(BC), A Rm,n , B Rn,l , C Rl,p .

. ,
A B, AB C. A m n-,
B n l-, C l p-. F = (fij ) = (AB)C m p.
, A(BC) F = (fij ) = A(BC) ,
F. ,
fij = fij , i = 1, m, j = 1, p.
AB D, D m l-.
dis =

n
X

aik bks , i = 1, m, s = 1, l,

k=1

F
fij =

l
X
s=1

dis csj , i = 1, m, j = 1, p,

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.4.

- ?

zz

, R,
fij =

n
l X
X
s=1

k=1

X


l
l
n
n X
n
l X
X
X
X
aik
bks csj .
aik bks csj =
aik bks csj =
aik bks csj =
s=1 k=1

k=1 s=1

k=1

s=1

,
gkj =

l
X

bks csj , k = 1, n, j = 1, p,

s=1

n p- G = BC.
n
P
fij =
aik gkj = fij .

k=1

7.3. A1 A2 . . . Al A1 , A2 , . . . , Al .
, Ai , i = 1, l, .

A n.
A0 = E, A1 = A, A2 = A A, . . . , Ak = A
. . . A} .
| A {z
k

k- (k N) A k-
A Ak .
, Ak , A.
3. Am Al = Am+l .
. Am Al = |A A {z
. . . A} A
. . . A} = A
. . . A} = Am+l .
| A {z
| A {z
m

m+l

4.
A(B + C) = AB + AC, A Rm,n B, C Rn,l ;
(A + B)C = AC + BC, A, B Rm,n , C Rn,l .
. .
5. Em A = AEn = A, A Rm,n .

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.4.

- ?

zz

. B = (bij ) AEn , C = (cij )

Em A.
n
X
bij =
aik kj = aij jj = aij ,
k=1

cij =

m
X

ik akj = ii aij = aij ,

k=1

1,
0,

ij =

i = j,
. , bij = aij = cij , i , j.
i 6= j
6. (Em )A = A = A(En ), A Rm,n , R.
7. Op,m A = Op,n , AOn,q = Om,q , A Rm,n . ,

On,n A = AOn,n = On,n , A Rn,n .

8. (AB) = (A)B = A(B), A Rm,n , B Rn,l , R.
7.4. , ,
. ,
.

, , , .

0 < m1 < m2 < . . . < mp = m,

(7.2)
0 < n1 < n2 < . . . < nk = n,

(7.3)

0 < l1 < l2 < . . . < lq = l

(7.4)

m, n, l . m n A n l- B. A
B. C = AB,

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.4.

- ?

zz

(7.2) (7.4) m l, A, , B, .
, , p = k = q = 2, :


 

A1 A2
B1 B2
A1 B1 + A2 B3 A1 B2 + A2 B4
AB=

=
,
(7.5)
A3 A4
B3 B4
A3 B1 + A4 B3 A3 B2 + A4 B4
A1 = A[1,m1 ],[1,n1 ] ; B1 = B[1,n1 ],[1,l1 ] ..
, AB = C = (cij ), 1 6 i 6 m1 , 1 6 j 6 l1
cij =

n
X

aik bkj =

k=1

n1
P

n1
X

aik bkj +

k=1
n
P

aik bkj A1 B1 ,

k=1

n
X

aik bkj .

(7.6)

k=n1 +1

aik bkj A2 B3 , -

k=n1 +1

i - j- , (7.6) ,
C[1,m1 ],[1,l1 ] = A1 B1 + A2 B3 .
, (7.5).
7.9. A B

0 1
0
1
2
3

2
1
0
, B = 0 3 3
A=
6 0
3
1
0
0

1
0
0


A=

A1
A3

A2
A4


, B=

B1
B3

B2
B4


,


A1 =

3
2


; A2 =

0
1

B1 = [1 2]; B2 = [0 1]; B3 =

1
0



; A3 = [6]; A4 = [0 3];
0
1

3
0


; B4 =

3
0

0
0


.

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.4.

- ?

zz

, A B.
(7.5)

2
AB = 2
3

0
6
1
3
12 0

3
2 .
6

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.5.

- ?

zz

1.7.5.
A m n-.
() A :
1) - () ;
2) , i -, () , j-, (), .
()
.
B A (), , A B,
A B.
7.10. ,


1
3

2
4

3
1

4
2


.

, , :
; , 1; ;
1.
, ()
().

7.1. B A
(). T , T A = B ( AT = B).
. A Rm,n T m. k-
T , .. :
1) (0, 0, . . . , , 0, . . . , 0), 6= 0;
(k)

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.5.

- ?

zz

2) (0, . . . , 0, , 0, . . . , 0, 1 , 0, . . . , 0).
(l)

(k)

k- T A k- T A, 1) k- A
, 2) l- k- .
, k- A l-, . k-
T A. , j- T A, j 6= k, j-
A, .. 1) = 1, , , j-
A j- T A. ,
.


xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.6.

- ?

zz

1.7.6.

a11
a21
A=
...
am1

a12
a22
...
am2

. . . a1n
. . . a2n
Rm,n .
... ...
. . . amn

a21
a22
...
a2n

. . . am1
. . . am2
Rn,m ,
... ...
. . . amn

a11

a12
AT =
...
a1n

A : j- AT
j- A, .
AT , A ,
A.
A 7 AT .
7.11.

A=

3
2

4
1

7
0

A =

3
4
7

2
1 .
0

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.6.

- ?

zz

1. (AT )T = A;
2. (A + B)T = AT + B T ;
3. (A)T = AT ;
4. A Rm,n B Rn,l (AB)T = B T AT .
. A Rm,n , B Rn,l . (AB)T Rl,m . ,
T T
B A .
cij0 (AB)T , i - j- .
cji , j- i - AB, .. cij0 = cji .
cij0 = cji =

n
X

ajk bki ,

k=1
0
0
0
0
ajk bki A B. ajk = akj
, bki = bik
(akj
bik

T
T
A B ),
n
n
X
X
0
0
0 0
cij0 =
akj
bik
=
bik
akj .
k=1

k=1

, i - B T
j- AT , B T AT , i -
j- . , (AB)T = B T AT .

7.5.
(ABC)T = ((AB)C)T = C T (AB)T = C T B T AT .
,
(ABC)T = C T B T AT .
l
(A1 A2 . . . Al )T = ATl ATl1 . . . AT2 AT1 .

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.6.

- ?

zz

A , A = AT , . . aij = aji , i , j, .
A , A = AT , A .

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.7.

- ?

zz

1.7.7.
A n.
X Rn,n A Rn,n ,
AX = XA = En .

(7.7)

A A1 . (7.7)
AA1 = A1 A = En .

(7.8)

( ),
, ( ) .
7.2 ( ). A , .
1
. A A1
1 , A2 . 1
1
A2 AA1 . , ,
1
1
1
1
1
A1
2 AA1 = A2 (AA1 ) = A2 En = A2 .

,
1
1
1
1
1
A1
2 AA1 = (A2 A)A1 = En A1 = A1 .

,
1
A1
2 = A1 .

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.7.

, A,

A11 A21 . . . An1

A12 A22 . . . An2
B=
... ... ... ...
A1n A2n . . . Ann

- ?

zz

Aij aij A.
7.1. A B
AB = BA = (det A)En .

(7.9)

. C = (cij ) = AB. ,
(9.8),
n
X
cij =
aik Ajk = ij det A,
k=1

. . cii = det A, i = 1, n; cij = 0, i , j = 1, n, i 6= j. ,

det A
0
...
0
0
det A . . .
0
= (det A)En .
AB =
...
... ... ...
0
0
. . . det A
, BA = (det A)En .

7.3 ( ). A
, , A .
. . A A1 . (7.8), 9.5,
det A det A1 = det En det A det A1 = 1 det A 6= 0.

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.7.

- ?

. det A 6= 0, . . A . , A1 =

zz

1
B,
det A

B A. , (7.9) ,
1
1
AB =
BA = En ,
det A
det A

1
A
B
det A


=


1
B A = En .
det A

1
B A.
det A

7.6. ,
A :

A11 A21 . . . An1

1
A12 A22 . . . An2 .
A1 =
(7.10)
det A . . . . . . . . . . . .
A1n A2n . . . Ann

A B n. .
1. (A1 )1 = A.
2. (A1 )T = (AT )1 .
3. (A1 )k = (Ak )1 , k N.
4. det A1 = (det A)1 .
5. AB = En BA = En , B = A1 .
1 5 .
6. (AB)1 = B 1 A1 .

xx

I.
1.
1.7.
1.7.7.

- ?

zz

. (AB)1 AB = En . B 1 . (AB)1 A(BB 1 )

En B (AB)1 A = B 1 . A1 :
1

(AB)1 AA1 = B 1 A1 (AB)1 = B 1 A1 .

0
7.12. A = 2
3
.

1
3
5

3
5 . , A1 , ,
7



0 1 3


. A det A=  2 3 5  =4 6= 0. , A1
3 5 7
. Aij aij A. A11 = 4, A12 = 1, A13 = 1, A21 = 8,
A22 = 9, A23 = 3, A31 = 4, A32 = 6, A33 = 2. , (7.10),

1
2
1

1
9
3

1
A =
4
2
4
.

1
3
1
4

xx

I.
1.
1.8.

- ?

zz

1.8.
M , n .
M, .. , ,
, .., M.
M , , ..
.
M
1, 2, . . . , n.

(8.1)

M (8.1). (8.1). Pn .
8.1. n n!.
. . n = 1 . n 1 . n
n , ,
. n 1 , . .
(n 1)!. , n n!.

, i , j , i > j, i j.
(1 , . . . , n ) (1 , . . . , n ).
, , .
8.1. (8,1,3,4,2,6,7,5).

xx

I.
1.
1.8.

- ?

zz

. 8 , ..
, , 7 ; 1 ; 3 4
2; 2 ; 6, 7, 5. ,
(8, 1, 3, 4, 2, 6, 7, 5) = 7 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 0 + 1 + 1 = 11.
, (8,1,3,4,2,6,7,5) 11, , .

- , ,
, .
.
8.2. .
. , , . , . i j s k1 , k2 , . . . , ks ,
. .
(. . . , i , k1 , k2 , . . . , ks , j, . . .).
i k1 , k2 , . . . , ks , j.
j, i , s ks , ks1 , . . . , k1 .
, 2s +1 . ,
.

8.3. n (n > 1)
n!
.
2
. p , q
.
. , p.
, q ,
p 6 q.

xx

I.
1.
1.8.

- ?

zz

,
q 6 p.
,
p = q.
n!,
p=q=

n!
.
2


1.9.
1.9.1.
1.9.2.
1.9.3.
1.9.4.
1.9.5.
1.9.6.

n-

xx

I.
1.
1.9.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.1.

- ?

zz

1.9.1.
n N. n R :

a11 a12 . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2n

A=
... ... ... ... .
an1 an2 . . . ann
A R, . ,
.
n
a1 1 a2 2 . . . an n ,

(9.1)

i 6= j , i 6= j , i 6= j. (9.1) (1)(1 ,2 ,...,n )+(1 ,...,n ) ,

(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) (1 , 2 , . . . , n ),
(1 , 2 , . . . , n ),
(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n )+(1 ,...,n ) a1 1 a2 2 . . . an n .

(9.2)

(9.2) A.
(9.2). (9.2) ,
( ) , . .
(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 a22 . . . ann .

(9.3)

(9.2) (9.3) , ai i aj j
(1 , 2 , . . . , i , . . . , j , . . . , n ), (1 , . . . , i , . . . , j , . . . , n )
, , , .

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.1.

- ?

zz

(9.2), (9.3).
A Rn,n R, n!
, ..
X
(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 a22 . . . ann ,
(1 ,2 ,...,n )

, (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) .


 a11 a12

 a21 a22

 ... ...

 an1 an2

A = (aij ) :

. . . a1n 
. . . a2n 
, |A|, det A, .
. . . . . . 
. . . ann 

.
, ,


 a11 a12 . . . a1n 


X
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 


(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 . . . ann .
 ... ... ... ...  =

 (1 ,2 ,...,n )
 an1 an2 . . . ann 
, A

 a11 a12 . . .

 a21 a22 . . .

 ... ... ...

 an1 an2 . . .

(9.4)

a1n
a2n
...
ann

. , , , A , , ,
.

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.2.

- ?

zz

1.9.2.
(9.4) , A, n =
1, 2, 3.
n = 1, det A = |a11 | = a11 .

 a
a12 
n = 2 det A =  11
= (1)(1,2) a11 a22 + (1)(2,1) a12 a21 = a11 a22 a12 a21 .
a21 a22 

 1
9.1. 
3


1 
= 1 4 (1) 3 = 7.
4 


 a11

n = 3, det A =  a21
 a31

a12
a22
a32

a13
a23
a33




 = (1)(1,2,3) a11 a22 a33 +(1)(2,3,1) a12 a23 a31 + +(1)(3,1,2) a13 a21 a



(1)(3,2,1) a13 a22 a31 + (1)(1,3,2) a11 a23 a32 + (1)(2,1,3) a12 a21 a33 = (a11 a22 a33 + +a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32 )
(a13 a22 a31 + a11 a23 a32 + a12 a21 a33 ).
9.1. ,
: , , ,
. ,
.
(. ).

b
b

b
b

, -

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.2.

- ?

zz

, ,
,

.

1
0 2
9.2. A = 1 3 4 .
8 6 4
. , :
det A = ((1 3 4 + (1) 6 2 + 0 4 (8)) ((8) 3 2 + 6 4 1 + (1) 0 4) =
= (12 12 + 0) (48 + 24 + 0) = 0 + 24 = 24.

n n- ,
.
9.0.1. :


 1
0 . . . 0 

 0
1 . . . 0 
det En = 
= 1.
.
.
.
.
. . . . . . . . 

 0
0 ... 1 
9.0.2.

 a11 0 . . .

 0 a22 . . .

 ... ... ...

 0
0 ...

:

0 
0 
= a11 a22 . . . ann .
. . . 
ann 

9.0.3.














0 . . . 0 
0 . . . 0 
. . . . . . . . . 
= ,
. . . 0 
. . . . . . . . . 
0 ... 1 

:
1
0
...
0
...
0

0
1
...
0
...
0

...
...
...
...
...
...


1

0

...

0

...

0

...

0

0
1
...
0
...
0
...
0

... 0 ...
... 0 ...
... ... ...
... 1 ...
... ... ...
... 0 ...
... ... ...
... 0 ...

0
0
...

...
1
...
0

 
... 0   1 0
 
. . . 0   0 1
. . . . . .  . . . . . .
. . . 0   0 0
=
. . . . . .   . . . . . .
. . . 0   0 0
. . . . . .   . . . . . .
... 1   0 0

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.2.

...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...

0
0
...
1
...

...
0

- ?

zz


... 0 ... 0 

. . . 0 . . . 0 
. . . . . . . . . . . . 
. . . 0 . . . 0 
= 1.
. . . . . . . . . . . . 
. . . 1 . . . 0 
. . . . . . . . . . . . 
... 0 ... 1 

9.0.4. :

 

 a11 a12 . . . a1n   a11 0 . . . 0 

 

 0 a22 . . . a2n   a21 a22 . . . 0 

=

 . . . . . . . . . . . .   . . . . . . . . . . . .  = a11 a22 . . . ann .

 

 0
0 . . . ann   an1 an2 . . . ann 
, .
9.2. (9.4) . , 120
. , , ,
.

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.3.

- ?

zz

1.9.3.
1. ( ) A Rn,n
det A = det AT .
. A = (aij ), AT = (aij0 ). det A det AT
n!, , det A det AT .

(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n )+(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a1 1 a2 2 . . . an n

- det A.
(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n )+(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a0 1 1 a0 2 2 . . . a0 n n ,
det AT . , aij = aji0 ,
(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n )+(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a1 1 a2 2 . . . an n =
= (1)(1 ,2 ,...,n )+(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a0 1 1 a0 2 2 . . . a0 n n .

9.3. , 1 , , , .

2. B A ,
det B = det A.

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.3.

- ?

zz

.





det B = 





a12 . . . a1n 
. . . . . . . . . 
ai2 . . . ain  =
. . . . . . . . . 
an2 . . . ann 
(1 ,2 ,...,n )
(1)
a11 a22 . . . (aii )ai+1,i+1 . . . ann =

a11
...
ai1
...
an1

(1 ,2 ,...,n )

(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 . . . aii . . . ann = det A.

(1 ,2 ,...,n )


3. , , .
. = 0, .

4. B A - ,
det B = det A.
. B A
+ 1.

X
det A =
(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 a22 . . . a a+1,+1 . . . ann ,
(1 ,2 ,...,n )

det B =

(1)(1 ,...,1 , ,+1 ,...,n ) a11 . . . a1,1 b b+1,+1 . . . ann ,

(1 ,2 ,...,1 , ,+1 ,...,n )

= +1 ; +1 = ; b = a+1,+1 ; b+1,+1 = a .
(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) +1 (1 , . . . , 1 , +1
, , , det B = det A.
B A i - j- ,
m . , i - j- , j- i - -

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.3.

- ?

zz

2m + 1 . det B = (1)2m+1 det A = det A.


5. , , .
. 4 , det A = det A. , 2 det A = 0, , det A = 0.

6. , , .
. ,
, .
5.

7.

 
 


  a11 a12 . . . a1n   a11 a12 . . . a1n 
a11
a12
...
a1n

 
 


  ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
...
...
...
 0 . . . 00





0
00
0
00 
0
0 
00
00 
 a +a
 0
 00
ai2
. . . ain
i1 ai2 + ai2 . . . ain + ain  =  ai1
 +  ai1 ai2 . . . ain  .
 i1

  ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
...
...
...
...

 
 


  an1 an2 . . . ann   an1 an2 . . . ann 
an1
an2
...
ann
. =

P
(1 ,2 ,...,n )

P
(1 ,2 ,...,n )

00
(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 . . . ai
. . . ann .
i

0
00
(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 . . . (ai
+ai
) . . . ann =
i
i

(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 .

(1 ,2 ,...,n )

8. ,
, .
. 1 :
. , 1 = .

9. B A ,
, det B = det A.

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.3.

- ?

zz

. 8 .

10. ,
.
. . A n- . n, ,
, A n. ,
.
. .

.
9.3.









1
1
1
1

1
2
1
1

. -1

 1 1

 0 1

 0 0

 0 0

2
4
3
2

3
5
7
5

,

2 3 
2 2 
1 4 
0 2 

, 2. , 2.

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.4.

- ?

zz

1.9.4.
A Rm,n . k k (1 6 k 6 min{m, n}),
. ,
, k- . M k- A.
A n M k- (k < n). ,
, (n k)-
. M 0 M.
, M , , M 0 .
.
M A
M 0 , (1)s , s A,
M.
M M 00 . M 00 = (1)s M 0 .
9.4.

1
3

5
4

3
4
7
2

2
0
8
1

1
6
.
0
0

,
M , M 0 M 00 :




 3 2 
 3 6 
0



 = 30,
M=
= 1, M = 
2 1 
5 0 
M 00 = (1)1+4+2+3 M 0 = 30.

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.4.

- ?

zz

aij A n .
( n > 1) (n 1)- .
aij Mij , aij Aij . Aij = (1)i+j Mij .

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.5. n-

- ?

zz

1.9.5. n-
9.1. A Rn,n - ()
, , ,
.
. a11 6= 0, a1i = 0, i = 2, n,
P
det A =
(1)(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 a22 . . . ann =
(1 ,2 ,...,n )
P
=
(1)(1,2 ,...,n ) a11 a22 . . . ann =
(1,2 ,...,n )

= a11

(1)(2 ,...,n ) a22 . . . ann = a11 M11 = (1)1+1 a11 M11 = a11 A11 .

(2 ,...,n )

{z

M11

A=

a11
a21
...
0
...
an1

. . . a1k
. . . a2k
... ...
. . . aik
... ...
. . . ank

...
...
...
...
...
...

a1n
a2n
...
0
...
ann

, aik 6= 0.

A =

aik
a1k
a2k
...
ank

0
a11
a21
...
an1

... 0
. . . a1n
. . . a2n
... ...
. . . ann

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.5. n-

- ?

zz

A, i - , k-
.
A A
(i 1) (k 1) . ()
, det A = (1)i1+k1 det A = (1)i+k det A, ..
det A = (1)i+k det A.

(9.5)

det A = aik Mik , (9.5) , aik Mik = (1)i+k det A det A = (1)i+k aik Mik det A =
aik Aik .

9.2 ( ). A
- () , ..

det A = ai1 Ai1 + ai2 Ai2 + . . . + ain Ain , 1 6 i 6 n,

(9.6)
det A = a1j A1j + a2j A2j + . . . + anj Anj , 1 6 j 6 n.

(9.7)

. (9.6) ( (9.7) ).


 a11 a12 . . . a1n 


 a21 a22 . . . a2n 


 ... ... ... ... 

 =[ 7 9.1]=
det A = 

 ai1 ai2 . . . ain 
 ... ... ... ... 


 a

n1 an2 . . . ann

 



 a11 a12 . . . a1n   a11 a12 . . . a1n 
 a11 a12 . . . a1n 
 




 a21 a22 . . . a2n   a21 a22 . . . a2n 
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 

 





 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 

+
 + ... +  ... ... ... ...  =
 0

0 . . . 0   0 ai2 . . . 0 
0
.
.
.
a

=  ai1
in 

 ... ... ... ...   ... ... ... ... 
 ... ... ... ... 

 



  a

 a

 a
n1 an2 . . . ann
n1 an2 . . . ann
n1 an2 . . . ann
= ai1 Ai1 + ai2 Ai2 + . . . + ain Ain .

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.5. n-

- ?

zz

9.4. (9.6) A i- ,
(9.7) j- .
9.5.

 1

 1
= 
 5
 4

2
3
9
6

7
1
29
31

5
2
17
20

. , , -5, ,
-4,


 1
2
7
5 

 0
5
6
7 
= 
.
0
1
6
8


 0 2
3
0 

,

 5
6
7

= 1  1 6 8
 2
3
0

 
  9
 
 =  5
 
  2

0
0
3

7
8
0






 = (1)3+2 3  9

 5



7 
=
8 

(3)(72 + 35) = 3 37 = 111.

9.1. A nn- R, n > 1 b1 , b2 , . . . , bn R. b1 , . . . , bn -

() A B, A
() (), b1 , b2 , . . . , bn .
. j A.
aj1 , . . . , ajn j- A b1 , . . . , bn ,
, . 9.2 b1 Aj1 + b2 Aj2 + . . . + bn Ajn = det B. 
9.3 (). - ()
()
.

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.5. n-

- ?

zz

. n n- A = (aij ). ,
ai1 Aj1 + ai2 Aj2 + . . . + ain Ajn = 0,
1 6 i 6 n, 1 6 j 6 n, i 6= j.
9.1 ai1 Aj1 + ai2 Aj2 + . . . + ain Ajn B,
A j- ai1 , ai2 , . . . , ain . , B
, det B = 0, . .
det B = ai1 Aj1 + ai2 Aj2 + . . . + ain Ajn = 0.


.
9.5. 9.2, 9.3 :
n
X

aki Akj =

k=1

n
X

aik Ajk = ij det A,

(9.8)

k=1

ij .

9.4 ( ). A n- (n > 1).

A k (), 1 6 k < n. A
k- , k (),
.
( [?] ).
9.6. , , k = 1.
.


 1

 3
9.6. 
 5
 4

3
4
7
2

2
0
8
1

1
6
0
0

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.5. n-

- ?

zz

. , . , , , 

 1
3
2
1  



 2
 3
4
0
6   5 7 
(1)3+4+1+2 
=
, , . , 


0
4
2
7
8
0 
 5
 4
2
1
0 

 5
+ 
4




8 
3+4+1+3  3
(1)
 4
1 

 
1   7
+
6   2




8 
3+4+2+3  1
(1)
 3
1 


1 
=
6 

= (38)(12) + (27)(14) + (23)(9) = 456 + 378 + 207 = 1041.

9.4.1. -
.
. -


B Ok,nk
A=
.
D
C
A k , , k- ,
, det B.
det A = (det B)(1)2(1+2+...+k) det C = (det B)(det C).
, . 


1 
6 

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.6.

- ?

zz

1.9.6.
9.5 ( ). A B , .. det(AB) = (det A)(det B).
. A B n- . ,
det(AB) = (det A)(det B).

(9.9)

D 2n :

D=

A
En

On,n
B


.

,
det D = (1)2(1+2+...+n) (det A)(det B).

(9.10)

, D , , A,
. C = (cij ) = AB. D (n + 1)- ,
a11 , (n + 2)-, a12 , . . . , , a1n .
n , n : c11 , c12 , . . . , c1n .
. . i - , 1 6 i 6 n, (n + 1)-,
ai1 , (n + 2)-, ai2 , . . . , , ain . i -

0, 0, . . . , 0, c , c , . . . , c1n .
| {z } |i1 i2{z
}
n


On,n
0
D =
En

C
B


.

xx

I.
1.
1.9.
1.9.6.

- ?

zz

9 , (9.10) ,
(det A)(det B) = det D = det D0 = (det C)(1)1+2+...+n+...+2n det(En ) =
= (det C)(1)

2n+1
2n
2

(1)n = (det C)(1)2n

, (9.9) .

2 +2n

= det C = det(AB).


9.7. 9.5
.

xx

I.
1.
1.10.

- ?

1.10.
1.10.1..
1.10.2. .
1.10.3. ( )
1.10.4.
1.10.5.
1.10.6.

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.1. .

- ?

zz

1.10.1. .
m n x1 , . . . , xn R

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1 ,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = b2 ,

.
...............................

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn = bm ,

m, n N; aij , bi R, i = 1, m, j = 1, n. aij ,
bi .
10.1. R C , , , .

, ,
.
(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) ,
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
1 , 2 , . . . , n .
, ,
.
, .
.
, ,
.

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.1. .

- ?

zz

, , ( ).
R
, . , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn R .

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1 ,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = b2 ,

(10.1)
.
...............................

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn = bm .

a11 a12 . . . a1n

A = . . . . . . . . . . . . , (10.1),
am1 am2 . . . amn

a11 a12 . . . a1n b1

a21 a22 . . . a2n b2

, A =
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , am1 am2 . . . amn bm
A , .

x1
b1
x2
b2

X = . , B = . .
..
..
xn

bm

X , B (10.1).

AX = B

(10.2)

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.1. .

- ?

zz

,
(10.1). 




5
3
0
1  1
5x1 + 3x2 x4 = 1,
.
A =
2 3
1
2  3
2x1 3x2 + x3 + 2x4 = 3


2
1 1  1
0
4  3 , , A = 5
3 2
0  1
,

2x1 + x2 x3 = 1,
5x1 + 4x3 = 3,

3x1 2x2 = 1.
10.1.

C=

1
2
..
.

Rn,1

n
(10.2), AC = B.
10.1. (1 , . . . , n ) (10.1)
, C = [1 . . . n ]T (10.2).
. , AC = B ,

a11 1 + . . . + a1n n
b1
a21 1 + . . . + a2n n .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = .. .
bm
am1 1 + . . . + amn n

a11 1 + a12 2 + . . . + a1n n = b1 ,

..................................

am1 1 + am2 2 + . . . + amn n = bm .

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.1. .

, (1 , . . . , n ) (10.1).

- ?

zz

10.2. ,
.
. (10.1) m
(10.2) T m.
T A = T [A|B] = [T A|T B].
, (10.2)

(T A)X = T B.
(10.3)
, C (10.2). AC = B, (T A)C =
T (AC) = T B , , C (10.3). , ,
(10.2) (10.3). , T A
A T 1 ( T !). ,
(10.2) (10.3), , (10.3)
(10.2). , . 
:
1) ;
2) ,
;
3) ,
.
, .
10.2. , 1) 2)

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.1. .

- ?

zz

. , 1) Ti, ,
2) Ti,j, .

10.3. .
. , 10.2 10.2.


xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.2. .

- ?

zz

1.10.2. .
n n , ( ) .
.
10.1.
AX = B
,
X = A1 B.

(10.4)

. AX = B . 7.3 A
A1 . A A1 ,
10.2 :
A1 [A|B] = [A1 A|A1 B] = [En |A1 B],
En X = A1 B.
(10.4).

10.3.
, (10.1) X T = (A1 B)T .

10.2 ( ). n n
,
xi =

det Ai
, i = 1, n,
det A

(10.5)

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.2. .

- ?

zz

Ai A i - .
. (10.4)

x1
x2
..
.

x1
x2
..
.

A11

A12
=
det A . . .
A1n
xn

A21
A22
...
A2n

...
...
...
...

b
1
An1
b2

An2

,
. . . ...
Ann
bn

A11 b1 + A21 b2 + . . . + An1 bn

.......................... .
=
det A
A1n b1 + A2n b2 + . . . + Ann bn

xn

, , i , 1 6 i 6 n,
xi =



1 
=
det A 


a11
a21
...
an1

1
(A1i b1 + A2i b2 + . . . + Ani bn ) =
det A

a12
a22
...
an2

...
...
...
...

a1,i1
a2,i1
...
an,i1

b1 a1,i+1
b2 a2,i+1
...
...
bn an,i+1

. . . a1n
. . . a2n
... ...
. . . ann




 det Ai
=
.

det A




10.4. (10.5)
() .

10.2.

2x1 + x2 = 4,
x1 2x2 = 3.

.

 2
det A = 
1


1 
= 5,
2 


 4
det A1 = 
3


1 
= 5,
2 


 2
det A2 = 
1


4 
= 10 .
3 

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.2. .

- ?

zz

, (10.5),
x1 =

det A2
det A1
= 1, x2 =
= 2.
det A
det A

10.3. , ,
. 40, 40
80 . aij , i, j = 1, 2, 3, i j

2 2 1

1 4 1 .
A=
1 6 4
x1 , x2 , x3 1-, 2- 3- , :

2x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 40
x1 + 4x2 + x3 = 40

x1 + 6x2 + 4x3 = 80.

X = (x1 , x2 , x3 )T , B = (40, 40, 80)T .

AX = B.
: x1 = 10, x2 = 5, x3 = 10. ,
.
10.4. ( o ) n ( ). k
qk .
q = [q1 , . . . , qn ]T .
q n . ,
q.
Qk ( ), k- . qkl , k- , l- .
Qk , k- ,
Qk = qk1 + qk2 + . . . + qkn + qk .

Q1 = q11 + q12 + ... + q1n + q1 ,

Q2 = q21 + q22 + ... + q2n + q2 ,

.............................

Qn = qn1 + qn2 + ... + qnn + qn .

(10.6)

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.2. .

- ?

zz

qkl
, k, l = 1, . . . , n,
(10.7)
Ql
k- , l- .
akl . . A = [akl ], ,

a11 a12 . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2n

A=
... ... ... ... .
an1 an2 . . . ann
akl =

qkl = akl Ql ,

k, l = 1, . . . , n, (10.6)

Q1 = a11 Q1 + a12 Q2 + ... + a1n Qn + q1 ,

Q2 = a21 Q1 + a22 Q2 + ... + a2n Qn + q2 ,

.....................................

Qn = an1 Q1 + an2 Q2 + ... + ann Qn + qn .

(10.8)

Q = [Q1 , ... Qn ]T , (10.8) Q = AQ + q

(E A)Q = q.
det (E A) 6= 0, , (10.9) (E

A)1 ,

(10.9)

Q = (E A)1 q.

(10.10)

(10.10) q.
Q q.
, .


0, 2 0, 4
A=
.
0, 2 0, 4
:
1) q1 = 10000,

q2 = 8000;

2) q1 = 9000,

q2 = 10000.

Q1 Q2 .




0, 8 0, 4
1, 5 1
EA=
, (E A)1 =
.
0, 2
0, 6
0, 5 2

Q1
Q2

Q1
Q2


=

1, 5
0, 5

1
2

 

1, 5
0, 5

1
2

 

10000
8000

9000
10000


=

23000
21000

23500
24500


=


=

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.2. .

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

- ?

zz

1.10.3. ( )

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1 ,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = b2 ,

................................

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn = bm .

(10.11)

. ,
xj . , , a11 6= 0,
, xj ,
.

 x1 , , ..
a21
2- ,
, . . . , i - (2 6 i 6 m)
a11


ai1
,
.
a11
, :

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = b1 ,

(1)
(1)
a22
x2 + . . . + a2n
xn = b2(1) ,
..............................

(1)
(1)
(1)
am2
x2 + . . . + amn
xn = b m
.

(10.12)

(10.11) (10.12) .
:
1) (10.12) , , . (10.12) , ,
(10.11) (. ??);

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )
(1)

- ?

zz

(1)

2) l, 2 6 l 6 m alj , j = 2, n, bl
, l- (10.12) , ;
3) aij(1) , i = 2, m, j = 2, n .
(1)

. , , a22 6= 0.
x2 (10.12) . 3-

(1) 
a32
, (1) , . . . , i - ,
(a22 )

(1) 
a
i2
.
(1)
(a22
)
, :

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + . . . + a1n xn = b1 ,

(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)

a22 x2 + a23 x3 + . . . + a2n xn = b2 ,

(2)
(2)
(10.13)
a33
x3 + . . . + a3n
xn = b3(2) ,

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

(2)
(2)
(2)
am3
x3 + . . . + amn
xn = bm
.
, , . , ..
(10.11),
:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + . . . + a1n xn = b1 ,

(1)
(1)
(1)

a22
x2 + a23
x3 + . . . + a2n
xn = b2(1) ,

(2)
(2)
(2)
a33 x3 + . . . + a3n xn = b3 ,

(10.14)

......................................

(n1)
(n1)
ann xn = bn
,
(1)
(2)
(n1)
6= 0
a11 a22 a33 . . . ann

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

- ?

zz

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + . . . + a1s xs + . . . + a1n xn = b1 ,

(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)

a22
x2 + a23
x3 + . . . + a2s
xs + . . . + a2n
xn = b2(1) ,

(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
a33 x3 + . . . + a3s xs + . . . + a3n xn = b3 ,

..................................................

(s1)
(s1)
(s1)
ass xs + . . . + asn xn = bs
,
(1)
(s1)
a11 a22 . . . ass
6= 0, s < n.

(10.15)

, (10.14) . ,
xn , , xn , xn1 ..
(10.15). :

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1s xs = b1 a1,s+1 xs+1 . . . a1n xn ,

(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
a22
x2 + . . . + a2s
xs = b2(1) a2,s+1
xs+1 . . . a2n
xn ,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..

(s1)
(s1)
(s1)
(s1)
ass xs = bs
as,s+1 xs+1 . . . asn xn .

(10.16)

xs+1 , xs+2 , . . . , xn ,
s x1 , x2 , . . . , xs (10.16) , (10.14).
, (10.16),
xs+1 , . . . , xn .
10.5. , (10.11) :
) ( ) (. 10.7,10.12);
) ( ) (. 10.5, 10.10);
) ( )(. 10.6,10.8,10.9,10.11,10.13).
10.6. (10.11)
, A (. 10.1010.13).
10.7.
AX = B,

(10.17)

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

- ?

zz

A Rm,n , B = (B1 |B2 | . . . |Bq ) Rm,q ; X = (X1 |X2 | . . . |Xq )

n q. (10.17)
AX1 = B1 , AX2 = B2 , . . . , AXq = Bq

(10.18)

A, , (A|B) . , n ,
, (10.17) . , A
, (10.18) .
10.8. 10.7 ,
.
A A1 .
AX = En ,

(10.19)

En . , A1 , , X = A1 .
, X , (10.19) (. 10.14).
10.5.

3x1
x1

5x1

+
+

2x2
2x2
3x2

+
+
+

x3
4x3
7x3

=
=
=

5,
3,
19.

. x1 , .
1
5
, , .
3
3

3x1 +
2x2

4
x
3 2

19
3 x2

x3

5,

11
x
3 3

4
,
3

16
x
3 3

32
.
3

,
. :

3,
x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 =
3x1 + 2x2 +
x3 =
5,

5x1 3x2 + 7x3 = 19,

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

2x2
x1 +
4x2

13x2

- ?

zz

3, , 5.
+

4x3
11x3
13x3

=
=
=

3,
4,
4.

, 3,
.
, -1:

2x2 +
4x3 =
3,
x1 +
4x2 + 11x3 =
4,

13x2 + 13x3 = 4.
, . x2 x3 .
:
x2 . , 13
4

4x3 =
3,
x1 + 2x2 +
4x2 +
11x3 =
4,

91
x
= 17.
4 3
, x3 , , ,
:
68
.
x3 =
91

748
4x2 +
=4
91
x2 :
96
x2 = .
91

x1 +

80
=3
91

:
x1 =

193
.
91

, ,


193
96 68
, ,
91
91 91

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

.
10.6.

5x3

4x2

x1

2x4
3x4

2x6
3x6

7x7

x5

. x1 ,
:

3x4 + x5
x1
4x2
+ 2x4
3x6 7x7

5x3
2x6

=
=
=

- ?

zz

3,
2,
0.

=
=
=

0,
2,
3.

x1 , x2 , x3 , .
5x3 2x6 = 3, , .
. , x3 x6 :
x3 =

3
2
x6 + .
5
5

x6 , R.
x6 = ,

x3 =

2
3
+ .
5
5

:
4x2 + 2x4 3 7x7 = 2.
, x2 , x4 x7 .
x2 , , ..
x7 = R,

x4 = R.

x7 = ,

x4 = ,

x2 =

1
3
+ .
4
4
2
2

:
x1 3 + x5 = 0;
x1 , x5 R, ..
x5 = ,

x1 = 3 .

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

- ?

, , , , ..



7

1 2
3
3
3 , + , + , , , , | , , , R .
4
4
2
2 5
5
10.7.

x2

2x1 +
2x2

6x1
3x2 +

4x
+
x2
1

2x1 10x2 +

x3
x3

5x4
4x4
5x4
3x4
18x4

2x5
6x5

24x5

+
+

x6
2x6
3x6
x6
10x6

=
=
=
=
=

zz

10,
12,
15,
0,
32.

. 10.5 ,
, 10.6 .
, . :

2x1 +
2x2

4x4
6x5 +
2x6 =
12,

x2
+
5x4
2x5 +
x6 =
10,

6x1
3x2 + x3 +
5x4

3x6 =
15,

x2

3x4
+
x6 =
0,
4x1 +

2x1 10x2 + x3 + 18x4 + 24x5 10x6 = 32.

x1 , . ,
3, 2, :

2x1 +
2x2

4x4
6x5 +
2x6 =
12,

x2
+
5x4
2x5 +
x6 =
10,

9x2 + x3 + 17x4 + 18x5

9x6 = 21,

3x
+
5x
+
12x

3x6 = 24,

2
4
5

12x2 + x3 + 22x4 + 30x5 12x6 = 44.

x2 , ,
, 9, 3 12:

2x1 + 2x2

4x4 6x5 + 2x6 =

x2
+
5x4 2x5 +
x6 =

x3 + 62x4
=

20x4 + 6x5
=

x3 + 82x4 + 6x5
=

,
12,
10,
69,
6,
76.

2x1 + 2x2

x2

x3

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

- ?

zz

x3 :

+
+

4x4
5x4
62x4
20x4
20x4

6x5
2x5

+
+

6x5
6x5

+
+

2x6
x6

=
=
=
=
=

12,
10,
69,
6,
7.

, , ,
, . x4 .
:

2x1 + 2x2

4x4 6x5 + 2x6 = 12,

x2
+
5x4 2x5 +
x6 = 10,

x3 + 62x4
= 69,

20x4 + 6x5
=
6,

0 =
1.
(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 ) 0 = 1, ..
.
10.8. , 10.7 :
-33, -32, .. :

x2
+
5x4
2x5 +
x6 =
10,

2x1 +
2x2

4x4
6x5 +
2x6 =
12,

6x1
3x2 + x3 +
5x4

3x6 =
15,

4x1 +
x2

3x4
+
x6 =
0,

2x1 10x2 + x3 + 18x4 + 24x5 10x6 = 33.

. , , . ,
, :

2x1 + 2x2

4x4 6x5 + 2x6 = 12,

x2
+
5x4 2x5 +
x6 = 10,

x3 + 62x4
= 69,

20x4 + 6x5
=
6,

0 =
0.
(x1 , . . . , x6 ), ,

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

(x1 , . . . , x6 )
, ..

2x1 + 2x2

x2
x3

- ?

zz

+
+

4x4
5x4
62x4
20x4

6x5
2x5

6x5

+
+

2x6
x6

=
=
=
=

12,
10,
69,
6.

x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , .. x5 = R,
x6 = R. ,
x4 =

3
3
+
.
10
10

,
x3

93
93
+
= 69,
5
5

x3 =

93
252
+
.
5
5

:
x2

7
3
+ + = 10.
2
2

x2 =

17
7
+
,
2
2

2x1 +

11
79
+
= 12,
5
5

11
19

.
10
10
, ,



11
19 7
17 93
252
3
3
, R.

, +
,
+
, +
, , ,
10
10 2
2 5
5
10
10
x1 =

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

10.9. ,

x1 +
ax2 +
x3

x1 +
x2

2x1 2ax2 ax3

- ?

zz

:
=
=
=

1,
1,
1.

, , . , x1 , x2 , x3 a,
.
x1 + ax2 + x3 ,

x1 + x2 ,

2x1 2ax2 ax3 .

, 1.
.
. , 2:

ax2 +
x3 = 1,
x1 +
(1 a)x2
x3 = 0,

(2 a)x3 = 3.
, x3 . ,
2a, , , 2a = 0, . ,
2 a, , 2, .
: a = 2 a 6= 2.
a = 2, 0 = 3,, , .
a 6= 2. 2 a 6= 0
x3 =

3
.
2a

x3 :
(a 1)x2 +

3
= 0.
2a

: a = 1 a 6= 1.
a = 1,
3
= 0.
2a
a 6= 1, x2 :
x2 =

3
.
(a 1)(a 2)

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

- ?

zz

x2 x3 x1 . , a 6= 1, 2,



3
3
3
,
,
.
1
(a 1)(a 2) (a 1)(2 a) (2 a)
a = 1 a = 2, .

x + y + z = 5,
2x y + z = 2,
10.10.

3x y + z = 3.

1
1
1 5

2 1 1 2 .
. A = [A|B] =
3 1 1 3
, (2), , (3).

1
1
1
5
1
1
1
5
8 [ , (1)] 0
1
1
4 [
A 0 3 1
0 4 2 12
0 4 2 12

1 1 1 5
, 4] 0 1 1 4 .
0 0 2 4

x + y + z = 5,
y + z = 4, , x = 1, y = 2, z = 2, ..

2z = 4.
.

x y + 2z = 4,
2x + y z = 3,
10.11.

3x + z = 7.
. .

1 1
2
4


1
1 3 [ , (2), ,
A = A|B = 2
3
0
1
7

1 1
2
4
3
5 5 [ , (1)]
(3)] 0
0
3
5 5

1 1
2
4

0
3
5 5 .

0
0
0
0

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

- ?

zz

x y + 2z = 4,
3y 5z = 5,

5
(z 1),
7
5( 1)
3
z = , x =
, y =
, z = ,
5
7z

3
3
x = 4 + y 2z = 4 + (z 1) 2z =
.
3
3
. , :


7 5( 1)
,
, , R.
3
3

10.12.

x + 2y z = 3,
3x + y z = 2,
.

6x + 2y 2z = 1

1
2
1
3
1
5
2
7 0
0
0 10
4
17
0

1 2
[A|B] = 3 1
6 2

2
1
3
5
2
7 .
0
0
3

x + 2y z = 3,
3x + y z = 2,

6x + 2y 2z = 1.

1 3
1 2
2 1

x + 2y z = 3,
5y + 2z = 7, . , .
0 = 3
10.13.

2x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 + 2x4 = 8,

4x1 + 8x2 + 13x3 + 6x4 = 17,

6x1 + 12x2 + 19x3 + 8x4 = 25.

(10.20)

. :

2
4
6

4
8
12

6
13
19

2
6
8


8
1
17 0
25
0
1
0

2
0

3
1

1
2

2 3
0 1
0 1
 
4

1
2
2

4
1
1 0
1
0

2
0
0

1
0

2
0

5
2

1
1

0
1

3
1
0

.

1
2
0

4
1
0

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.3. ( )

- ?

zz

x1 + 2x2
x3

5x4 = 1,
+2x4 = 1.

(10.21)

x1 x3 , x2 x4 , (10.21),
:
x1 = 1 2x2 + 5x4 , x3 = 1 2x4 .
x2 x4 R, (10.20):
(1 2 + 5, , 1 2, ), , R.

10.14. ,

0 1 3

2 3 5 .
A=
3 5 7
.

0
2
3

1
0
0

0
0

3
2

1
1
2
3
2

1
0

2
0
0 0
1
3

5
1
0
0
1
2
2
0 0 0
3 1
21 0 32 1
0

5
1
0
0
1
2
2
0
1
9
3

0 4 4

2
3
1
0
1 14

4
2
1
3
5

3
5
7

1
0
0

0
1
0

3
1
5

5
3
7

0
1
0

3
2

5
2

1
0

3
2

A1

8
9
3

0
1
12

0
0
1
1
2

0
32

0
0
1

0
1

0
0

1
4

94

3
2

1
4

3
4

12

4
1
1
=
4
1

1
0
0

4
6 .
2

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.4.

- ?

zz

1.10.4.
10.3 ( ). , ,

, .. rank A = rank A.
. . (10.1). .
, (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) ,

a11
a1n
b1
.
. .
1 .. + . . . + n .. = .. .
(10.22)
am1

amn

bm

, A

A. , , A A.

. rankA = rankA. (10.1) .

A
A A,
A. , (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) , (10.22),

a11 1 + a12 2 + . . . + a1n n = b1 ,

a21 1 + a22 2 + . . . + a2n n = b2 ,

(10.23)
..................................

am1 1 + am2 2 + . . . + amn n = bm .

, (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) (10.1), ..
.

, (10.1) . ,
. rankA = rankA = r. , r

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.4.

- ?

zz

A . , r A ,
. , (10.1)
r , ,

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1r xr + a1,r +1 xr +1 + . . . + a1n xn = b1 ,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2r xr + a2,r +1 xr +1 + . . . + a2n xn = b2 ,

(10.24)
......................................................

ar 1 x1 + ar 2 x2 + . . . + ar r xr + ar,r +1 xr +1 + . . . + ar n xn = br ,
r (10.1), (10.1). (10.1)
(10.24). r = n, (10.24) (
) .
r < n r (10.24).
(10.24)

a11 x1 + . . . + a1r xr = b1 a1,r +1 xr +1 . . . a1n xn ,

a21 x1 + . . . + a2r xr = b2 a2,r +1 xr +1 . . . a2n xn ,

(10.25)
...............................................

ar 1 x1 + . . . + ar r xr = br ar,r +1 xr +1 . . . ar n xn ,
xr +1 , xr +2 , . . . , xn , x1 , x2 , . . . , xr
.
xr +1 = cr +1 , xr +2 = cr +2 , . . . , xn = cn . (10.25)

a11 x1 + . . . + a1r xr = b1 a1,r +1 cr +1 . . . a1n cn ,

a21 x1 + . . . + a2r xr = b2 a2,r +1 cr +1 . . . a2n cn ,

(10.26)
...............................................

ar 1 x1 + . . . + ar r xr = br ar,r +1 cr +1 . . . ar n cn .
(10.26) r r x1 , x2 , . . . , xr .
( ). c1 , c2 , . . . , cr .
, c1 , c2 , . . . , cr , cr +1 , . . . , cn (10.24), , (10.1).

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.4.

- ?

zz

R , (10.1).
? , .
c1 , c2 , . . . , cr , cr+1 , . . . , cn - (10.1). ,
.
(10.25) xr +1 = cr+1 , xr +2 = cr+2 , . . . , xn = cn .
, (10.25), (10.26),
,
x1 = c1 , x2 = c2 , . . . , xr = cr ,
.
.
.
A (10.1), B A
.
1. A , B , (1 , . . . , n )
(1 , 2 , . . . , n R). B 6= Om,1 , (10.1) .
2. A , R. r.
A.
3. R (r + 1)- A,
, , , .
4. A , R. ,
R, , , ,
. , , .
(10.1).

1
2
4
8
2
8
12 .
10.15. 3
9 1 17 15
.
.
1. , 2.

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.4.

- ?

zz


2 
, A :
2 

 
 

 1
0
0 
2
0   1
2
4   1





 3
4
4  = 0.
2
4 = 3
2
8 = 3

 9 1 17   9 1 19   9 19 19 


 1 2 
 .
, 
3 2 
3. .

 
 

 1
0
0 
2
0   1
2
8   1

 3
4
4  = 0.
2
4  =  3
2
12  =  3

 9 1 15   9 1 19   9 19 19 

 1
2. 
3

, 
 .
 1 2 

 , x1
4. 
3 2 
x2 , x3 . x3 = .

x1 + 2x2 = 8 4,
3x1 + 2x2 = 12 8.


 x1 x2 :
 8 4
2 





 12 8 2 
 4 2 
1  8
1
2 




x1 =
+

=
 8 2  = 4 (8 + 8) = 2 2;
 1 2 
4  12 2 


 3 2 

 1

 3


8 4 
12 8 


 1
2 +
= 
3 3 + 2
4
{(2 2, 3 , ), R}.

x2 =


 1

 3



 1
2 
+ 

3
3


1 
= 3 . ,
2 

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.5.

- ?

zz

1.10.5.
m n

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn = 0,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn = 0,

..............................

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + . . . + amn xn = 0

(10.27)

AX = O.

(10.28)

(10.27) ( (10.28)) ,
() (0, 0, . . . , 0).
(10.27) ? .
10.4. (10.27)
, , .. rankA < n.
10.4.1. n n , .
10.5. U (10.27) R1,n .
. (10.28). , (10.27), , (10.28)
, U .
, , C 0 C 00 (10.28) ,
R. A(C 0 + C 00 ) = AC 0 + AC 00 = O. , C 0 +
C 00 U, , U, ,
Rn,1 .


xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.5.

- ?

zz

, .
(10.27) rankA = r, 1 6 r < n. .
, R r - A
. , xr +1 , xr +2 , . . . , xn , (10.27)

a11 x1 + . . . + a1r xr = a1,r +1 xr +1 . . . a1n xn ,

a21 x1 + . . . + a2r xr = a2,r +1 xr +1 . . . a2n xn ,

(10.29)
............................................

ar 1 x1 + . . . + ar r xr = ar,r +1 xr +1 . . . ar n xn .
(10.29) r r
x1 , . . . , xr . , , ,
.
:
xr +1 = 1, xr +2 = 0, . . . , xn = 0;
xr +1 = 0, xr +2 = 1, . . . , xn = 0;
............................
xr +1 = 0, xr +2 = 0, . . . , xn = 1.
(n r )
C1 = (11 , 12 , . . . , 1r , 1, 0, . . . , 0),
C2 = (21 , 22 , . . . , 2r , 0, 1, . . . , 0),
..........................................
Cnr = (nr,1 , nr,2 , . . . , nr,r , 0, 0, . . . , 1)
(10.29), , (10.27).
,
(C1 , C2 , . . . , Cnr )

(10.30)

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.5.

- ?

zz

(10.27) .
,

11
12
...
1r
1 0 ... 0
21
22
...
2r
0 1 ... 0
,

.....
nr,1 nr,2 . . . nr,r 0 0 . . . 1
(10.30), (n r ) ( (n r )-
(n r ) ) (10.30), .
C = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) (10.27). ,
(10.29).
- C = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ),
C = C r +1 C1 r +2 C2 . . . n Cnr .

(10.31)

, C (10.27), , (10.29).
, (10.31) C = (1 , 2 , . . . , r , 0, . . . , 0).
(10.29) ( ) , 1 = 2 = . . . = r = 0,
, C = (0, . . . , 0) C = r +1 C1 + r +2 C2 + . . . + n Cnr .
(10.30) (10.27).
, (10.27) 1 C1 + 2 C2 + . . . + nr Cnr ,
(C1 , C2 , . . . , Cnr ) , i , i = 1, n r ,
R, r A (10.27), .. r = rank A.
,
1) (10.30) U
(10.27);
2) n rankA, A (10.27).

1
10.16. A = 1
1
.

1
1
3

1
2
0

1
2 .
0

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.5.

- ?

zz

. , :

1
1 1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 1
1
3 0 0
1 1 2 2 0 2

1
1
0 2 1 1
0 2 1 1 .

1
3 0 0
0
2 1 1
0
0 0 0
0
0 0 0


 1 0 
 , rankA = 2. 
0 1 
. x1 x3 , x2 x4
:

x1 = 3x2 ,
x3 = 2x2 x4 .
:
x2 = 1,
x2 = 0,

x4 = 0;
x4 = 1.

(C1 , C2 ), C1 = (3, 1, 2, 0) C2 = (0, 0, 1, 1),

1 C1 + 2 C2 = (31 , 1 , 21 2 , 2 ), 1 , 2 R, .

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.6.

- ?

zz

1.10.6.

(10.1). , (10.27),
(10.1).
10.6. (10.1) , -
.
. .
AX = B

(10.32)

, (10.1).
AX = O

(10.33)

, (10.27). L
(10.33). (10.32), L
C0 L. ,

L = {C0 + C| C L}.
(10.34)
A(C0 + C) = AC0 + AC = B + Om,1 = B, C0 + C L {C0 + C|C L}
L.
C L,
C1 L. C = C1 C0 . AC = A(C1 C0 ) = AC1 AC0 = B B = Om,1 ,
, (10.34) .
C1 = C0 + C, C L.

10.6.1. r (10.1) 0 < r < n.
C0 , (C1 , . . . , Cnr )
(10.27) (10.1), (10.1)

C0 + 1 C1 + . . . + nr Cnr ,
(10.35)

xx

I.
1.
1.10.
1.10.6.

- ?

zz

1 , . . . , nr R.
, 10.15 (2, 3, 0) +
(2, 1, 1), (2, 3, 0) , (2, 1, 1), R,
, ..

x1 + 2x2 + 4x3 = 0,
3x + 2x2 + 8x3 = 0,
1
9x1 x2 + 17x3 = 0.

1.11.
1.11.1..
1.11.2.
1.11.3.
1.11.4.
1.11.5.
1.11.6.
1.11.7. n-
1.11.8.
1.11.9.

xx

I.
1.
1.11.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.1. .

- ?

zz

1.11.1. .

V , a, b, c, . . . , x, y , z, .
R , , , , . . . .
, , , (x, y ) V
V, x, y x + y .
, V . , ,
x V R V,
x ( ) x.
().
V, , () , :
1) x + y = y + x, x, y V ;
2) (x + y ) + z = x + (y + z), x, y , z V ;
3) V , , 0, , x + 0 =
0 + x = x, x V ;
4) x V y V , x + y = y + x = 0. y
x x, .. x = y ;
5) x 1x = x, 1 R;
6) (x) = ()x, x V, , R;
7) (x + y ) = x + y , x, y V, R;
8) ( + )x = x + x, x V, , R.
11.1. () .
R C.

11.1. V3
.
11.2. Rm,n m n,

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.1. .

- ?

zz

. m = 1, n- n, n = 1 m- m.
11.3. Rn [x] n,
.
11.4. C([a, b]) [a, b],
.
11.5. {e x + sin x + cos x|, , R}
.

1. V .
. , V 01 , 02 .
01 + 02 = 01 , .. 02 . , 01 + 02 = 02 , 01 .
, , 01 = 02 .

2. V a a.
. , a a 1 a 2 .
: (a 1 ) + a + (a 2 ). , , (a 1 ) + a + (a 2 ) =
((a 1 ) + a) + (a 2 ) = 0 + (a 2 ) = a 2 . , (a 1 ) + a + (a 2 ) = (a 1 ) + (a + (a 2 )) =
(a 1 ) + 0 = a 1 . , a 1 = a 2 .

3. a a.
4. 0 a V V.
. 0a = 0a + 0 = 0a + ((a) + (a)) = (0a + a) + (a) = (0 + 1)a + (a) =
1a + (a) = a + (a) = 0.

5. (1)a a.
. (1)a + a = (1 + 1)a = 0a = 0. (1)a
a , , (1)a = a.

6. 0 V V.
. 0 = ((a) + (a)) = (a + (1)a) = (1 + (1))a = (0a) = 0a = 0.

7. a = 0 6= 0, a = 0 , a 6= 0, = 0.

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.1. .

. 6= 0. a = 0

- ?

zz

1
1
1
, (a) = 0.

, a = 0.
a 6= 0. , 6= 0. , a = 0
1
, , a = 0. . = 0.


xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.2.

- ?

zz

1.11.2.
V () , M
V, , ,
V.
M V, :
1) a, b M a + b M;
2) a M a M.
11.2. , M V,
V.

1), 2) a + b M a, b M .

11.6. V .
11.7. {0}, V, . .
11.8. G = (a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a k ) ()
V.
{1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + k a k |i R(i C)}, ..
G = (a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a k ) R ( C)
G , G. L(a 1 , a 2 , . . . a k ) LG.
V.

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.3.

- ?

zz

1.11.3.
V ()
(a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . . , a k ), k N.

(11.1)

1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + k a k , 1 , 2 , . . . , k ,
(a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . . , a k ).
i = 0, i = 1, k, , ,
.
(a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . . , a k ) ,
k
P
1 , 2 , . . . , k , ( 2i > 0), ,
i=1

1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + k a k = 0.

, , .
11.1. (11.1) , .
. , , a 1 = 0. , 1 0 + 0 a 2 +
. . . + 0 a k = 0 1 6= 0. , , (11.1)
.

11.2. - (11.1) ,
(11.1) .

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.3.

- ?

zz

. l, 1 6 l < k, (a 1 , . . . , a l ) .
1 , . . . , l , 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + l a l = 0,
l
P
2i > 0. 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + k a k = 0, l+1 = l+2 = . . . = k =
i=1

0. , , (11.1)
.

11.2.1. (11.1) , .
. . . , 11.2, . .

11.3. , , , ,
, ,
.
. . (11.1) , .. 1 , 2 , . . . , k , , , 1 a 1 +2 a 2 +. . .+k a k = 0. , ,
1 6= 0,
2
k
a1 = a2 . . .
ak .
1
1
. a l = 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + l1 a l1 + l+1 a l+1 + . . . + k a k , 1 6 l 6 k.
1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . a l + . . . + k a k = 0, , ,
(11.1) .

11.3. .
, ,
, - .
11.9. V3 , ,
, , ,

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.3.

- ?

zz

(. 2.5), , (. 2.6),
V3 (. 2.7).
11.10. R1,n n (e 1 , . . . , e n ), e 1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), e 2 =
(0, 1, 0, . . . , 0), . . . , e n = (0, 0, . . . , 1), . ,
1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + . . . + n e n = 0, i R, i = 1, n.

(11.2)

(11.2):
(1 , 0, . . . , 0) + (0, 2 , . . . , 0) + . . . + (0, 0, . . . , n ) = (1 , 2 , . . . , n ).

(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) = (0, 0, . . . , 0), , i = 0, i = 1, n.
11.11. Rm,n mn (e 11 , . . . , e 1n , e 21 , . . . , e 2n , .

0 ... 0 ... 0
.
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.

e ij = 0 . . . 1 . . . 0 m n, ,

..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
0 ... 0 ... 0
, i- j- .
, (e 11 , . . . , e 1n , e 21 , . . . , e 2n , . . . , e m1 . . . , e mn ) Rm,n .
11.12. Pn [x] n (1, x, . . . , x n ) .

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.4.

- ?

zz

1.11.4.
G Q V.
, G Q, G
Q.
G Q, , , Q
M, G M, ..
.
G Q , , Q G, G Q
( G v Q).
: G, Q M , G Q, Q M, G
M.
11.4 ( ).
, .
. , ,
, .. .
.
. .
,
.
. :
,
, .

11.5. .

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.4.

- ?

zz

. G Q, rankG = r1 ,
rankQ = r2 . G1 G, Q1 Q.
G Q. G1 r1 G Q, G1
, G G1 Q G1 , . , rank(G Q) = r1 .
, Q1 G Q, .. rank(G Q) = r2 .
11.6 rankG = rankQ.


xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.5.

- ?

zz

1.11.5.
V ,
V .
, , .
V V dim V.
dim V = n, V n- Vn .
, ( ),
.
, ,
.
11.4. .
11.13. V3 (i , j , k)
,
. , V3 3, .. dim V3 = 3.
11.14. R1,n n R.
11.10,
(i)

(e 1 , . . . , e n ), e i = (0, . . . , 0, 1 , 0, . . . , 0), i = 1, n,

(11.3)

.
, (11.3) R1,n . , ,
, R1,n (11.3).
(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) R1,n . , (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) = 1 (1, 0, . . . , 0)+2 (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)+

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.5.

- ?

zz

. . .+n (0, 0, . . . , 0, 1) (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) = 1 e 1 +2 e 2 +. . .+n e n , i R, i = 1, n. , (11.3)

R1,n dim R1,n = n. (11.3) R1,n .
11.15. Rm,n mn (. 11.11) (e 11 , e 12 , . . . , e 1n , e 21 , .
. Rm,n . , dim Rm,n = mn.
11.16. (1, x, x 2 , . . . , x n ) Rn [x] n. , dim Rn [x] = n + 1.

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.6.

- ?

zz

1.11.6.
G V.
G1 G G, :
1) G1 ;
2) G G1 .
11.6.
.
. G V. ,
.
(a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a k )

(11.4)

G, ,
(b 1 , b 2 , . . . , b m )

(11.5)

. , m = k.
, m > k. (11.4) G,
G , , (11.5)
(11.4). , 1 , 2 , . . . , k ,
b 1 = 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + k a k ,

(11.6)

21 + 22 + . . . + 2k > 0 ( i = 0, i = 1, k, b 1 = 0,
(11.5) . ).
1 6= 0. (11.6)
a 1 = 1 b 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + k a k ,

(11.7)

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.6.

- ?

zz

.. a 1
(b 1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . . , a k ).

(11.8)

, (11.8) G. ,
(11.8) . . (11.8) , ..
1 , 2 , . . . , k ,
1 b 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + k a k = 0, 12 + 22 + . . . + k2 > 0.

(11.9)

, 1 6= 0 ( 1 = 0, (a 2 , . . . , a k ) , ,
(11.4), ). 1 (11.7) b 1
a 2 , . . . , a k . , a 1 a 2 , a 3 , . . . , a k . .
, (11.8) . , G (11.8). , (11.4) (11.8) ( (11.6) (11.7)).
, G (11.8).
, (11.8) G.
b 2 (11.8). , , ,
(b 1 , b 2 , a 3 , . . . , a k )
G .. k , (b 1 , b 2 , . . . , b k ) G.
b k+1 , . . . , b m (b 1 , b 2 , . . . , b k ). ,
(11.5) . m k.

11.6.1. V .
G rankG.
G V, rankG = dim V.
G1 G , :
1) G1 ;
2) G1 G .

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.6.

- ?

zz

11.7. G1 G
, G1 G.
. .


G
1) .
2) .
3) ,
,
.
4) .
, 3,
3.
11.17. - a 1 = (1, 0, 0, 1), a 2 = (2, 1, 1, 0), a 3 = (1, 1, 1, 1),
a 4 = (1, 2, 3, 4), a 5 = (0, 1, 2, 3).
. .
, a 1 . a 2
, 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 = 0,

1 + 22 = 0,

2 = 0,
2 = 0,

1
= 0.
, 1 = 2 = 0, .. a 1 , a 2 . a 2

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.6.

- ?

zz

a 3 . a 1 , a 2 , a 3 . 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + 3 a 3 = 0

1 + 22 + 3 = 0,

2 + 3 = 0,
2 + 3 = 0,

1
+ 3 = 0.
, 1 = 3 = 1, 2 = 1. , a 1 , a 2 , a 3 .
a 3 a 4 . a 1 , a 2 , a 4 ,
..

1 + 22 + 4 = 0,

2 + 24 = 0,
2 + 34 = 0,

1
+ 44 = 0.
, 1 = 2 = 4 = 0. a 4 a 1 , a 2 , a 4 , a 5 .
a 1 , a 2 , a 4 , a 5 . 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + 4 a 4 + 5 a 5 = 0

1 + 22 + 4
= 0,

2 + 24 + 5 = 0,
2 + 34 + 25 = 0,

1
+ 44 + 35 = 0.
1 = 4 = 1, 2 = 5 = 1. a 1 , a 2 , a 4 , a 5
. a 5 . ,
a 1 , a 2 , a 4 , . 3.

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.7. n-

- ?

zz

1.11.7. n-
11.8. Vn n .
.
(a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a n )
(11.10)
Vn ,
(b 1 , b 2 , . . . , b n )

(11.11)

Vn .
(a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . . , a n , b 1 , b 2 , . . . , b n ).

(11.12)

(11.12) (11.10) . , (11.11)

(11.12), , , , (11.11)
Vn . , (11.11) (11.12).
a i (1 6 i 6 n) , (11.11).
a 1 .
(a 1 , b 1 , b 2 , . . . , b n ).

(11.13)

, (11.13) . . (11.13) , ..
0 , 1 , . . . , n , , 0 a 1 + 1 b 1 +
2 b 2 +. . .+n b n = 0. 0 6= 0, , a 1 (11.11).
a 1 . , 0 = 0,
1 b 1 + 2 b 2 + . . . + n b n = 0, 21 + 22 + . . . + 2n > 0. , (11.11)
. , (11.13) .
(11.12) (. 11.6). , ,
(11.13). a 2 .
(a 1 , a 2 , b 1 , b 2 , . . . , b n ).

(11.14)

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.7. n-

- ?

zz

, (11.14)
(11.12), .. n , (11.12)
, , . , (11.12) ,
n , 2n , 11.6.

11.9. Vn ,
.
. (a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a k )
Vn . :
1) k = n, Vn (. 11.8);
2) k > n , ,
, (a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a n ) , ,
Vn . a n+1 , . . . , a k ,
;
3) k < n. (a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a k ) Vn , , Vn
, . a k+1
. k + 1 = n, Vn .
k + 1 < n, a k+2 , , .. n k
, Vn .

Vn , :
1) ;
2) Vn , .
11.10. Vn
, .
. , 11.6.


xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.7. n-

- ?

zz

11.9 Vn
.
Vn
Vn
(a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a k ), 1 6 k 6 n,

(11.15)

. :
1) k = n, (11.15) Vn ;
2) k < n, Vn ,
(11.15) . (k + 1)- . k + 1 =
n, Vn . k + 1 < n,
, , .. n k
Vn .
11.18. , (a 1 , a 2 ), a 1 = (1, 4, 0, 1), a 2 = (2, 5, 1, 0),
R1,4 , .
. , (a 1 , a 2 ) , 1 a 1 + 2 a 2 = 0, 1 , 2 R,
, 1 = 2 = 0.
, (a 1 , a 2 ) . (a 1 , a 2 ) , R1,4
a 1 , a 2 . , , , a 1 a 2 ( 1). a 3 = (2, 9, 1, 1). , ..
(a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ). R1,4 .
, . , . , a 4 = (4, 19, 2, 2). (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 , a 4 ).
, R1,4 .

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.8.

- ?

zz

1.11.8.
Vn ,
E = (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )

(11.16)

. x Vn .
(x, e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )

(11.17)

, .. 0 , 1 , 2 , . . . , n , ,
0 x + 1 e 1 + . . . + n e n = 0.
, 0 6= 0, , , (11.16) .
,
x = x1 e 1 + x2 e 2 + . . . + xn e n .
(11.18)
x x = x1 e 1 + x2 e 2 + . . . + xn e n , E = (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )
Vn , x i R, i = 1, n, x E, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
x .
, (11.18) x (11.16) ( E)
x = EX, X Rn,1 .
X, x Vn E = (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ) ,
x E.
11.11. .
. (11.18) x (11.16)
x (11.16)
x = y1 e 1 + y2 e 2 + . . . + yn e n .

(11.19)

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.8.

- ?

zz

(11.18) (11.19),
0 = (x1 y1 )e 1 + (x2 y2 )e 2 + . . . + (xn yn )e n .
(11.16) , , xi yi = 0, .. xi = yi , i = 1, n.

(11.20)


1. ,
.
. x (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ) ,
, x = 0e 1 + 0e 2 + . . . + 0e n = 0. , x = 0 (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )
x = x1 e 1 + . . . + xn e n , 0 = x1 e 1 + . . . + xn e n . , ,
x1 = x2 = . . . = xn = 0.

2. Vn ,
Vn .
.
1.

3. x x1 , x2 , . . . , xr ,
x Vn x1 , x2 , . . . , xr Vn .
. . x x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x r , ..
x = 1 x 1 + 2 x 2 + . . . + r x r .
(11.21)
(e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ) x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x r x, ,

x i = 1i e 1 + 2i e 2 + . . . + ni e n ,
(11.22)
x = 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + . . . + n e n .

(11.23)

(11.22), (11.23) (11.21). 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + . . . + n e n = 1 (11 e 1 + 21 e 2 +

. . . + n1 e n ) + . . . + r (1r e 1 + 2r e 2 + . . . + nr e n ). , 0 = (1 11 + 2 12 + . . . + r 1r

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.8.

- ?

zz

1 )e 1 + . . . + (1 n1 + 2 n2 + . . . + r nr n )e n . (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )
,

1 = 1 11 + 2 12 + . . . + r 1r ,

2 = 1 21 + 2 22 + . . . + r 2r ,
(11.24)
...............................

n = 1 n1 + 2 n2 + . . . + r nr .
. x x i (1 6 i 6 r ) (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )
(11.24). , (11.21).
(11.24) e 1 , e 2 .., e n
. 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + . . . + n e n = (1 11 + 2 12 + . . . + r 1r )e 1 + (1 21 +
2 22 + . . . + r 2r )e 2 + . . . + (1 n1 + 2 n2 + . . . + r nr )e n . , (11.22), (11.23),
x = 1 x 1 + 2 x 2 + . . . + r x r .

11.19. , e 1 = (2, 1, 3), e 2 = (3, 2, 5), e 3 = (1, 1, 1)
R1,3 . x = (6, 2, 7) .
. , e 1 , e 2 , e 3 . 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + 3 e 3 = 0

21 + 32 + 3 = 0,
1 + 22 3 = 0,
(11.25)

31 52 + 3 = 0.
(11.25) ,

2
3
1
1
2 1
1
2 1
1

2 1
0 1
3
0 1
3 .

3 5
1
0
1 2
0
0
1
, 1 = 2 = 3 = 0, .. e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ,
. x (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ), ..
x = 1 e 1 + 2 e 2 + 3 e 3 .
(11.26)

21 + 32 + 3 = 6,

1 + 22 3 = 2,

31 52 + 3 = 7.

(11.26)

2
3
1
6
1
2 1
2
1

2 1
2
0 1
3
2

3 5
1 7
0
1 2 1

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.8.

- ?

zz

1
1 .
1

1
1 = 2 = 3 = 1. , x = 1 e 1 + 1 e 2 + 1 e 3 = (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) 1 , .. [1, 1, 1]T
1
x (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ).
1
0
0

2
1
0

1
3
1

2
1

2
0
1
0

0
1
0

0
0
1

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.9.

- ?

zz

1.11.9.
Vn ,
E = (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ),

(11.27)

E = (e 01 , e 02 , . . . , e 0n )

(11.28)

. x Vn , (11.27)

0
x1
x1
x2
x20
0

X =
. . . , (11.28) X = . . . .
xn
xn0
X X 0 ? ,
(11.27) (11.28).
(11.28) (11.27).
0

e 01 = 11 e 1 + 21 e 2 + . . . + n1 e n ,

e 2 = 12 e 1 + 22 e 2 + . . . + n2 e n ,
(11.29)
................................

0
e n = 1n e 1 + 2n e 2 + . . . + nn e n ,
ij R, i , j = 1, n.

11
21
S=
...
n1

12
22
...
n2

. . . 1n
. . . 2n

... ...
. . . nn

, (11.28) (11.27). (11.29)

E = E S.
(11.30)

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.9.

- ?

zz

S, E = (e 01 , e 02 , . . . , e 0n )
E = (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ), E E.
(11.28) , S , ,
S 1 . , (11.30) S 1 ,
E = E S 1 .

(11.31)

(11.31) (11.27) (11.28). , S 1

(11.28) (11.27).
, , x = EX, , x = EX 0 . EX = EX 0 .
(11.30), EX = ESX 0
E(X SX 0 ) = 0.
(11.32)
(11.32) , X SX 0 (11.27).
, , .. X SX 0 = 0
X = SX 0

(11.33)

x1 = 11 x10 + 12 x20 + . . . + 1n xn0 ,

x2 = 21 x10 + 22 x20 + . . . + 2n xn0 ,

...............................

xn = n1 x10 + n2 x20 + . . . + nn xn0 .

(11.34)

(11.33) (11.34) x (11.27)

(11.28) (11.27) (11.28)
(11.27) (11.28). (11.31)
X 0 X :
X 0 = S 1 X,
(11.35)

xx

I.
1.
1.11.
1.11.9.

- ?

zz

.. x "" (11.28) ""

(11.27).

3 . 11.20. x (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) X =
1
x (e 01 , e 02 , e 03 ), e 01 = 2e 1 + e 3 , e 02 = 6e 2 e 3 , e 03 = 5e 1 + 3e 2 .
. S (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ) (e 01 , e 02 , e 03 ).
(11.29),

2
0
5
6
3 .
S= 0
1 1 0
(11.35). x (e 01 , e 02 , e 03 )

5
5
1

8
24
4

1
2

1
5
1
3 =
1 .
X 0 = S 1 X =

24
4

2
1

1
1
1

0
4
12
2

1.12.
1.12.1.
1.12.2.

xx

I.
1.
1.12.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.12.
1.12.1.

- ?

zz

1.12.1.
V V 0 P (P = R P = C).
V V 0 V V 0 .
, , V V 0 , V
= V 0.

1. V = V ;
2. V
= V 0 , V 0
=V;
3. V
=V0 V0
= V 00 , V
= V 00 .
1-3 , P
.
4. .
.
(a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a k )
(12.1)
V P, f
V V 0 .
, (f (a 1 ), . . . , f (a k )) V 0 .
. (f (a 1 ), . . . , f (a k )) V 0 .
k
k
P
P
i P, i = 1, k,
|i |2 > 0 ,
i f (a i ) = 0V 0 . f
i=1

k
P

i=1

i f (a i ) = 0V 0 ,

i=1

k
X
i=1

i a i = 0V 0 .

(12.2)

xx

I.
1.
1.12.
1.12.1.

- ?

zz

, f , f 1
V 0 V. f 1 (12.2).
f 1 (f (

k
X
i=1

k
P

i a i )) = f 1 (0V 0 ) e(

k
X
i=1

i a i ) = 0V

k
X

i a i = 0V ,

(12.3)

i=1

|i |2 > 0. (12.3) , (12.1) . . ,

i=1

(f (a 1 ), . . . , f (a k )) V 0 .
12.0.1. .
12.0.2. .

xx

I.
1.
1.12.
1.12.2.

- ?

zz

1.12.2.
12.1 ( ).
P , .
. . 12.0.2.
. dim V = dim V 0 = n
(e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )

(12.4)

(e 01 , e 02 , . . . , e 0n )

(12.5)

V,

V 0 .
x V (12.4)
x = x1 e 1 + x2 e 2 + . . . + xn e n ,
xi P, i = 1, n.
2 , f : V V 0 ,
f (x) = x1 e 01 + . . . + xn e 0n

(12.6)

, f (e i ) = e 0i , i = 1, n.
, f , (12.6), .
, f . x V y V (y 6= x)
(12.4)
y = y1 e 1 + y2 e 2 + . . . + yn e n , yi P, i = 1, n.

xx

I.
1.
1.12.
1.12.2.

- ?

zz

y 6= x, . (12.6) , f (x) 6= f (y ).
, f . y 0 V 0 . y 0 (12.5)
y 0 = y10 e 01 + y20 e 02 + . . . + yn0 e 0n ,
yi0 P, i = 1, n. y10 e 1 + y20 e 2 + . . . + yn0 e n V f (y10 e 1 + . . . + yn0 e n ) = y 0 . , V
= V 0.

12.1.1. P n ,
, Vn P. , n-
R Rn,1 n R R1,n n R. n-
C Cn,1 C1,n C.

xx

I.
1.
1.13.

1.13.
1.13.1.
1.13.2.
1.13.3.
1.13.4. ,

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.13.
1.13.1.

- ?

zz

1.13.1.
m n

a11
a21
A=
...
am1

a12
a22
...
am2

. . . a1n
. . . a2n

... ...
. . . amn

(13.1)

P, P = R P = C.
P1,n n, .
A .
A rank A rang A.
13.1. rankOm,n = 0.


1 2 3
13.2. rank
= 1.
2 4 6

1
0
0
1

13.3. rankEn = rank .

..
0
0

...
...

0
0

= n.

...

xx

I.
1.
1.13.
1.13.2.

- ?

zz

1.13.2.
13.1 ( ).
.
. A r.
, R r - A
:

a11 a12 . . . a1r a1,r +1 . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2r a2,r +1 . . . a2n

... ... ... ...

...
... ...

.
A=

ar 1 ar 2 . . . ar r ar,r +1 . . . ar n
... ... ... ...
...
... ...
am1

am2

...

amr

am,r +1

...

amn

A :
q 1 = (a11 , a12 , . . . , a1n ),
q 2 = (a21 , a22 , . . . , a2n ),
........................
q m = (am1 , am2 , . . . , amn ).
, r , .. (q 1 , . . . , q r ), (q 1 , . . . , q m ).
, q 1 , q 2 , . . . , q r .

1 q 1 + 2 q 2 + . . . + r q r = 0, i P.
(13.2)

xx

I.
1.
1.13.
1.13.2.

- ?

zz

(13.2)

1 a11 + 2 a21 + . . . + r ar 1 = 0,

1 a12 + 2 a22 + . . . + r ar 2 = 0,

..............................

1 a1r + 2 a2r + . . . + r ar r = 0,

1 a1,r +1 + 2 a2,r +1 + . . . + r ar,r +1 = 0,

......................................

1 a1n + 2 a2n + . . . + r ar n = 0.
r , r
1 , . . . , r . R 6= 0, ,
1 = 2 = . . . = r = 0, .. q 1 , q 2 , . . . , q r . ,
(q 1 , q 2 , . . . , q r ). A r ,
.
r < n.


 a11 a12 . . . a1r a1j 


 a21 a22 . . . a2r a2j 


sj =  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 ar 1 ar 2 . . . ar r ar j 


 as1 as2 . . . asr asj 
(r +1)- , , R (as1 , as2 , . . . , asr , asj )

a1j
a2j

. . . , r < s 6 m, j = 1, n.

ar j
asj
,
sj = 0

(13.3)

xx

I.
1.
1.13.
1.13.2.

- ?

zz

(, j 6 r, sj ; j > r, sj = 0, sj
(r + 1)- , A r ).
sj
(s)

(s)

0 = sj = a1j A1 + a2j A2 + . . . + ar j A(s)

r + asj R,
(s)

(13.4)
(s)

Ai aij sj , Ai
s. R 6= 0, (13.4)

1
(s)
(s)
asj = (a1j A1 + a2j A2 + . . . + ar j A(s)
r ), j = 1, n,
R

(13.5)

1
q s = (A1(s) q 1 + A2(s) q 2 + . . . + A(s)
2 q r ), r < s 6 m.
R


13.1.1. rankA = 0 , .
13.1.2. A 6= Om,n m n 1 6 rankA 6
min{m, n}.
13.1.3. n- rankA = n , .
13.1.4. .
13.1.5. .

, r. r + 1- ,

xx

I.
1.
1.13.
1.13.2.

- ?

zz

r - (.. ). , r .
.
.
: . R r - ,
, (r + 1)- , R.
, A r.
, (r + 2)- ,
r +1- . , rankA = r +1.
.
R r = rank A A.
13.4.

1 4
6 6

1 0
2
1

A=
2 1 2 0 .
2 5
6 7
.

 1
, 2 = 
1
,

 1

3 =  1
 2

, 1 = |1|.

4 
. , 2 ,
0 
4
0
1

6
1
0

, 3 , A, , rankA =
3.

xx

I.
1.
1.13.
1.13.3.

- ?

zz

1.13.3.
13.2. B A ,
rankB = rankA.
. ,
.
(q 1 , q 2 , . . . , q m )

(13.6)

A, B A ,
.. - , , ( P, 6= 0):
(q 1 , q 2 , . . . , q m ).

(13.7)

, (13.6) (13.7), , 11.5

, , rankB = rankA.
P B . ,
B A , ,
.. B
(q 1 + q 2 , q 2 , . . . , q m ).
(13.8)
, (13.8) (13.6). (13.6)
(13.8), q 1 = (q 1 + q 2 ) q 2 . , (13.8)
(13.6), , (13.6) (13.8), .. rankB = rankA.


xx

I.
1.
1.13.
1.13.3.

- ?

zz

13.3. A r

1
0
0
0
1
0
... ... ...
0
0
0
0
0
0
... ... ...
0
0
0

... 0 ... 0
... 0 ... 0

... ... ... ...

... 1 ... 0
,
... 0 ... 0

... ... ... ...

... 0 ... 0

(13.9)

1 r .
. A = Om,n , A (13.9) . A 6= Om,n .
,
1
. , a11 6= 0. a11

.

1
a21
A
...
am1

0
a12
a22
...
am2

0
. . . a1n
1
0
. . . a2n

... ... ...

0
. . . amn

0
a12
0
a22
...
0
am2

0
1
. . . a1n
0
0
. . . a2n

... ... ...

0
0
. . . amn

0
0
a22
...
0
am2

...
0
0

. . . a2n

... ...
0
. . . amn

..
(13.9). . ,
(13.9) r.


xx

I.
1.
1.13.
1.13.3.

- ?

zz

13.3 .
: A (13.9).
A.
13.5.

25 31 17
43
10
75 94 53 132 30

A=
75 94 54 134 30 .
25 32 20
48
10
. , 3,
, 1,

25 31 17 43
0
1
2
3
A
0
1
3
5
0
1
3
5

, 3,

10
0
.
0
0

, 1,
, 31,

25 0 45 50 10
0 1
2
3
0
A
0 0
1
2
0
0 0
0
0
0

, 1,

, 2, , 45,
() ,

25 0 0
40 10
0 .
A 0 1 0 1
0 0 1
2
0

1
,
25

8
2
1 0 0
5
5

A
0 1 0 1 0 .
0 0 1
2 0

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
3. , rankA = 3.

0
0 ,
0

xx

I.
1.
1.13.
1.13.3.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.13.
1.13.4. ,

- ?

zz

1.13.4. ,
: Vn
X1 , X2 , . . . , Xm x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m . , (x 1 , . . . , x m )
. 3 ,
. x 1 , x 2 , . . . , x m ,
X1 , X2 , . . . , Xm .

1i
2i

Xi = . , i = 1, m.
(13.10)
..
ni
, (13.10) x 1 , . . . , x m :

11 12 . . . 1m
21 22 . . . 2m
.
A=
...

n1 n2 . . . nm
. :
1) rankA = m, x 1 , . . . , x m ;
2) rankA < m, - ,
, .
(x 1 , . . . , x m ), .. .
13.3.1. n Vn , , ,
, .
13.6. , (x + 4, 3x 2 1, 2x 2 + 4x) R2 [x]
2.

xx

I.
1.
1.13.
1.13.4. ,

- ?

zz

. ,
(1, x, x 2 ) .

4 1 0
0
4 .
A= 1
0
3
2
A. , , rankA = 3. ,
, ,
R2 [x].

xx

I.
1.
1.14.

- ?

zz

1.14.
P = R(P = C) V, V 0 () .
f : V V 0 , x 1 , x 2 V
P :
1) f (x 1 + x 2 ) = f (x 1 ) + f (x 2 );
2) f (x 1 ) = f (x 1 ).
1), 2) , , ,
f (1 x 1 + 2 x 2 ) = 1 f (x 1 ) + 2 f (x 2 ),
x 1 , x 2 V 1 , 2 P.

14.1. e : V V V , e(x) = x, x V,
.
14.2. 0 : V {0}, O(x) = 0, .
14.3. V3 - . x V3

x1

x2 , X R3,1 . , f (x) = X
X =
x3
f : V3 R3,1 .

x1
14.4. f (x) = x1 + ix2 , x V3 , x X = x2 R3,1 ,
x3
V3 R.

xx

I.
1.
1.14.

- ?

zz

1. f : V V 0 , : V 0 V 00 , f : V V 00 ,

( f )(x) = (f (x)), x V,
.
. a, b V, , P. ( f )(a + b) = (f (a + b)) = (f (a) +
f (b)) = (f (a)) + (f (b)) = ( f )(a) + ( f )(b).

2. V = Vn V 0 ,
(e1 , e2 , . . . , en )

(14.1)

(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )

(14.2)

V,
V 0 .
f : V V 0 ,
f (ei ) = ai , i = 1, n.
(14.3)
. x Vn .
x = x1 e 1 + x2 e 2 + . . . + xn e n ,

(14.4)

xi , i = 1, n, x (14.1). f
f (x) = x1 a 1 + x2 a 2 + . . . + xn a n .

(14.5)

, f (e i ) = a i . , f . y V, ,
. y (14.1),
y = y 1 e 1 + y2 e 2 + . . . + y n e n .

(14.6)

xx

I.
1.
1.14.

- ?

zz

x + y xi + yi , i = 1, n, , ,
f (x + y ) =

n
X

(xi + yi )a i =

n
X

xi a i +

yi a i = f (x) + f (y ).

i=1

i=1

i=1

n
X

, f . . .
: V V 0 , (e i ) = a i , i = 1, n.
x (14.1) x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ,
(x) = (

n
X
i=1

xi e i ) =

n
X
i=1

xi (e i ) =

n
X

xi a i = f (x), x V.

i=1

, , , = f .

3. f : V V 0 , 0V , 0V 0 V
V 0 ,
f (0V ) = 0V 0 .
. f (0V ) = f (0 a) = 0 f (a) = 0V 0 , a V.
4. f : V V 0 a V,

f (a) = f (a).
. f (a) + f (a) = f (1 a) + f (a) = f ((1)a + a) = f (0V ) = 0V 0 . ,
f (a) = f (a), a V.

5. f : V V 0 .
(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak )

(14.7)

V,
(f (a1 ), f (a2 ), . . . , f (ak ))

(14.8)

xx

I.
1.
1.14.

- ?

zz

V 0 . . ,
b = 1 a1 + 2 a2 + . . . + k ak ,

(14.9)

f (b) = 1 f (a1 ) + 2 f (a2 ) + . . . + k f (ak ).

(14.10)

i , i = 1, k,

. (a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a k ) ,
i , i = 1, k, , ,
1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + k a k = 0V .
f (1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + k a k ) = f (0V ) 1 f (a 1 ) + 2 f (a 2 ) + . . . + k f (a k ) = 0V 0 . ,
(14.8) . , (14.9) (14.10),
.

0
6. f : V V Q V, f (Q)
V 0 dim f (Q) 6 dim Q. , f (V )
V 0 dim f (V ) 6 dim V.
. c, d f (Q), , P. , a, b Q
, f (a) = c, f (b) = d . c = f (a), d = f (b), a, b Q f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b) =
c + d . a + b Q, f (a + b) = c + d f (Q). (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e k ) Q, ..
Q = L(e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e k ) f (Q) = L(f (e 1 ), f (e 2 ), . . . , f (e k )). (f (e 1 ), f (e 2 ), . . . , f (e k ))
, dim f (Q) = k = dim Q, dim f (Q) 6 dim Q.


xx

I.
1.
1.15.

1.15.
1.15.1.
1.15.2.
1.15.3.
1.15.4.
1.15.5.
1.15.6.
1.15.7.
1.15.8. .
1.15.9.
1.15.10.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.1.

- ?

zz

1.15.1.
P () V () .
f V , .. f : V V, ( ) V.
.
15.1. 0 : V V, a V
0(a) = 0.
15.2. . x V
f (x) = x. f , .

f (a + b) = a + b = f (a) + f (b), a, b V, , P.

15.3. V3 ,
.
15.4. P [x] ( ) f : P [x] P [x], f ((x)) = 0 (x), (x) P [x], .
15.5. Pn,n n P.
f : Pn,n Pn,n f (A) = AT ,
.

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.2.

- ?

zz

1.15.2.
f Vn ,
(e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )

(15.1)

. (15.1) f
(f (e 1 ), f (e 2 ), . . . , f (e n ))

(15.2)

f (e 1 ) = a11 e 1 + a21 e 2 + . . . + an1 e n ,

f (e 2 ) = a12 e 1 + a22 e 2 + . . . + an2 e n ,

..................................

f (e n ) = a1n e 1 + a2n e 2 + . . . + ann e n .

(15.3)

(15.1).

a11
a21
A=
...
an1

a12
a22
...
an2

...
...
...
...

a1n
a2n
,
...
ann

(15.4)

(15.2) (15.1).
,
f Vn , ,
f Vn .
, Vn
n. : n

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.2.

- ?

zz

Vn
.
x Vn , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
(15.1), ..
x = x1 e 1 + x2 e 2 + . . . + xn e n , xi P, i = 1, n.
y1 , y2 , . . . , yn y = f (x) (15.1).
,
y = f (x) = y1 e 1 + y2 e 2 + . . . + yn e n .

(15.5)

(15.6)

,
y = f (x) = f (x1 e 1 + x2 e 2 + . . . + xn e n ) = x1 f (e 1 ) + x2 f (e 2 ) + . . . + xn f (e n ) =
= x1 (a11 e 1 + a21 e 2 + . . . + an1 e n ) + x2 (a12 e 1 + . . . + an2 e n ) + . . . + xn (a1n e 1 +
+ . . . + ann e n ) = (a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn )e 1 + (a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn )e 2 +
+ . . . + (an1 x1 + an2 x2 + . . . + ann xn )e n .
(15.6),

y1 = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn ,

y2 = a21 x1 + a22 x2 + . . . + a2n xn ,

..............................

yn = an1 x1 + an2 x2 + . . . + ann xn .

(15.7)

(15.8)

(15.8)
f .
, (15.8)
Y = AX,

X =

x1
x2
..
.
xn

, Y =

y1
y2
..
.
yn

, X, Y Pn,1 .

(15.9)

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.2.

- ?

zz

15.6. 0 : Vn Vn , 0(x) = 0. (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ) Vn .
0(e i ) = 0, i = 1, n. 0 = 0 e 1 + 0 e 2 + . . . + 0 e n . ,

0
0

A . . ,
..
0

0
0
...
0
0
0
...
0

A=
. . . . . . . . . . . . , .. Vn
0
0
...
0
.
15.7. e : Vn Vn , e(x) = x. , A = En
n.

0
...
0
0

...
0

15.8. , f (x) = x. A =
. . . . . . . . . . . . = En .
0
0
...

15.9. , f V3 , f (x) = [a, [x, b]], x V3 ,

a = 2i + 4j k; b = i j + k, , (i , j , k).
. , f (x + y ) = [a, [x + y , b]] = [a, [x, b] + [y , b]] = [a, [x, b]] +
[a, [y , b]] = f (x) + f (y ) x, y V3 , f (x) = [a, [x, b]] = [a, [x, b]] = [a, [x, b]] = f (x) R
x V3 . , f . A f (i ), f (j ), f (k).
f (i ) = [a, [i , b]].


 i
j k 


0 0  = j k,
[i , b] =  1
 1 1 1 


 i

f (i ) = [a, j k] =  2
 0

j
4
1

k
1
1




 = 5i + 2j 2k.



f (j ) = 4i + j 4k, f (k) = i j 2k.

5
A= 2
2

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.2.

4
1
4

- ?

zz

1
1 .
2

15.10. , f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 + x2 , 2x2 , 2x1 + x2 + x3 ) R1,3 ,

((1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)) .
. f (X) = XB, X = (x1 , x2 , x3 )

1 0 2
B = 1 2 1 .
0 0 1
, , - X, Y R1,3
f (X + Y ) = (X + Y )B = XB + Y B = f (X) + f (Y ). R X R1,3 f (X) = (X)B =
(XB) = f (X). , f (1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 2), f (0, 1, 0) = (1, 2, 1), f (0, 0, 1) = (0, 0, 1), A f
((1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)) R1,3

1 1 0
A = 0 2 0 = BT .
2 1 1

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.3.

- ?

zz

1.15.3.
Vn () .
Hom(Vn , Vn ).
f , Hom(Vn , Vn ).
f f = , f (x) = (x)
x Vn .
f (15.1) A = (aij , i , j = 1, n),
B = (bij , i , j = 1, n).
15.1. , ,
.
. . f = . n
n
P
P
f (x) = (x) x Vn . f (e i ) = (e i ), ..
aji e j =
bji e j ,
j=1

i , 1 6 i 6 n. ,

n
P

j=1

(aji bji )e j = 0. (15.1) , aij = bij

j=1

i, j = 1, n, .. A = B.
. (15.7), f (x) (x)
x Vn , A B.

f Hom(Vn , Vn ) : Vn Vn ,
(x) = f (x) + (x) x Vn .
f f + .
15.2. f . .

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.3.

- ?

zz

. , f + Hom(Vn , Vn ). a, b Vn , , P.
(f + )(a + b) = f (a + b) + (a + b) = f (a) + f (b) + (a) + (b) = ( + f )(a) + ( + f )(b).
. ,
(e i ) = f (e i ) + (e i ) =

n
X
j=1

aji e j +

n
X
j=1

bji e j =

n
X

(aji + bji )e j =

j=1

cij = aij + bij cij , i , j = 1, n, C = A + B.

n
X

cji e j ,

j=1

f : Vn Vn ,

(x) = f (x), x Vn .
f .
15.3. f .
A, A f Vn .
. 15.2. 
f , Hom(Vn , Vn ) : Vn Vn ,
(x) = f [(x)], x Vn .
f , f f .
15.4. .
.

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.3.

- ?

. 15.2.

zz

15.11. f 2 G = (1, x, x 2 )

0 0 1

0 1 1 ,
Af =
1 1 1
g H = (1, x 1, (x 1)2 )

0
Bg = 1
0

1
0
1

0
1 .
0

f g, f + g, 5f H.
. Bf g , Bf +g , B5f . Bf f H,
, 15.2, 15.3, 15.4 Bf g = Bf Bg , Bf +g = Bf + Bg , B5f = 5Bf .
Bf S G H, H
G : 1 = 1 1 + 0 x + 0 x 2 , x 1 = 1 1 + 1 x + 0 x 2 , (x 1)2 = 1 1 2 x + 1 x 2 .
, S :

1 1
1

0
1 2 .
S=
0
0
1
Bf = S 1 Af S (. (15.16)),
,

0
Af S = 0
1

Bf , SBf = Af S.
0
1
1

1
1
1 0
1
0

1
1
0

1
0
2 = 0
1
1

0
1
0

1
1 ,
0

1 1
1 0 0
1
1 1 0 1 0
1
1 0 0

0
1 2 0 1 1
0
1 0
2 1 1

0 1 0
[S|Af S] =
0
0
1 1 0
0
0
0 1
1 0
0
0 0 1
,

1
Bf = 2
1

1
1
0

0
1 .
0

1
2
1

1
1
0

0
1 .
0

1
Bf g = Bf Bg = 2
1

1
Bf +g = Bf + Bg = 2
1
B5f

0
0
1 1
0
0

1
0
1 1 +
0
0

5
= 5Bf = 10
5
1
1
0

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.3.

1
0
1
0
1
0
5
5
0

0
1 1 1
1 = 1 1 1
0
0 1 0

1 0
1 2
0 1 = 3 1
1 0
1 1

0
5 .
0

0
0 ,
0

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.4.

- ?

zz

1.15.4.
f Vn , A B
E = (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ),
0

E =

(15.10)

(e 01 , e 02 , . . . , e 0n ).

(15.11)

A B? (15.10) (15.11) , .. S (15.10) (15.11).

x1
x2

x Vn X = . (15.10)
..
xn

X 0 =

x10
x20
..
.
xn0

(15.11). y = f (x),

x f , Y =

y1
y2
..
.

(15.10),

yn

(15.11) Y 0 =

y10
y20
..
.

yn0
, , (15.9),
Y = AX,

(15.12)

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.4.

- ?

Y 0 = BX 0 .

zz

(15.13)

, , S (15.10) (15.11),
X = SX 0 ,

(15.14)

Y = SY 0 .

(15.15)

(15.14) A, AX = ASX 0 , , (15.12) (15.15),

SY 0 = ASX 0 . Y 0 = S 1 ASX 0 . (15.13),
B = S 1 AS.

(15.16)

, A f (15.10), S
(15.10) (15.11), B f (15.11)
(15.16).
. A f (15.10), S , B = S 1 AS. (15.11) Vn , S
(15.10) (15.11), (15.16) B f (15.11).
.
15.5. A B n- f Vn , S n-
, B = S 1 AS.
15.5.1. ,
.
15.12. f V3 ( )
G = (i , j , k)

1 1 0

0 1 1 .
A=
1 0 1
B H = (i + 2j + k, 2i + j k, i j + 3k).

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.4.

- ?

zz

. B S G H :

1
2
1

2
1 1 .
S=
1 1
3
, B = S 1 AS,
SB = AS.
B. AS
, :

3
3 0

3
0 2 ,
AS =
0 3 2

3 0
3
3 0
1
2
1
1
2
1 3

2
1 1 3
0 3 3 3 6 2
0 2

1 1
3 0 3 2
0 3
2 3 6 2

3
3 0
3
0 0
3 3 4
1
2
1
0 3 3 3 6 2 0 3 0 3 6 2 .
0
0
5
0
0 0
0
0 1
0
0 0
,

3
1
3
B=
3
0

3
6
0

4
2 .
0

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.5.

- ?

zz

1.15.5.
, B n A n, S ,
B = S 1 AS.
S , .. , () A B.
15.1. 15.5 A B
, .
15.2. S,
A B (., , [?, c.255]). , , .
SB = AS , S = (sij , i, j = 1, n) .
n2 sij , i, j = 1, n. , S
.

.
1. A A.
. A = En1 AEn .

2. B A, A B.
. B = S 1 AS SBS 1 = (SS 1 )A(SS 1 ) SBS 1 = En AEn A = SBS 1 .
S 1 = T. A = T 1 BT.

3. A B, B C, A C.
. A = S 1 BS, B = T 1 CT A = S 1 T 1 CT S A = (T S)1 C(T S) A =
1
Q CQ, Q = T S.

4. E .

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.5.

- ?

zz

. S 1 En S = En .

5. E .
. S 1 (En )S = S 1 En S = (S 1 S) = En .

6. .
. A B, .. A = S 1 BS det A = det(S 1 BS) det A = det S 1 .
1
det B det S. , det S 1 =
, det A = det B.

det S
7. .
. ,
, ,
.

8. .
. B = S 1 AS. det(B En ) = det(S 1 AS En ) = det(S 1 AS
1
S 1 En S) = det(S 1 (A En )S) = det(S 1 ) det(A En ) det S =
det(A En ) det S = det(A En ).
det S


xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.6.

- ?

zz

1.15.6.
Vn f : Vn Vn Vn .
, f (Vn ) Vn (. 6
), .. f (Vn ) Vn .
f (Vn ) rankf .
15.6. f Vn ,
.
. (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ) Vn , Vn = L(e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ).
, f (Vn ) = L(f (e 1 ), f (e 2 ), . . . , f (e n )) dimf (Vn ) = rank(f (e 1 ), f (e 2 ), . . . , f (e n )) = rankA,
A (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ).

15.6.1. .
. ,
, ,
.

15.6.2. f (Vn ) = Vn rankf = n det A 6= 0.
f n, ,
f n, .
x Vn , f (x) = 0, f .
f Kerf f 1 (0).
15.7. Kerf Vn .
. a, b Kerf , , P. , a + b Kerf . ,
f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b) = 0. Kerf
Vn .


xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.6.

- ?

zz

f f deff .
15.8. f Vn , .. rankf + deff = dim Vn .
. Vn , f Vn ,

(e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )
(15.17)
Vn . f (15.17) A. X
x Vn , Y y = f (x).
Y = AX.

(15.18)

Kerf = {x|f (x) = 0}, (15.18)

O = AX.

(15.19)

(15.19) . (15.19)
n rankA. , dim Kerf .
, n rankA = deff rankf + deff = dim Vn .

15.8.1. Kerf = {0} rankf = n.

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.7.

- ?

zz

1.15.7.
u Vn f ,
P ,
f (u) = u.
( ) f .
15.3. u .

f .

15.13. Kerf f ,
.
15.14.
, .
15.15. f , f (x) = x, P,
Vn .

1. .
. 1 2 , -

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.7.

- ?

zz

u f . f (u) = 1 u 1 , f (u) = 2 u 1 u = 2 u, (1 2 )u = 0. u
, 1 = 2 .

15.4. , 1, . f
.

2. u f
, u f .
. f (u) = u, , f (u) = f (u) = u = (u). 
3. u1 , u2 f
, u1 +u2 ,
.
. f (u 1 ) = u 1 , f (u 2 ) = u 2 . u 1 +u 2 6= 0. f (u 1 +u 2 ) = f (u 1 )+f (u 2 ) =
(u 1 + u 2 ).

15.8.2. u1 , u2 , . . . , uk f
, .
4. , , .
. f 1 , 2 , . . . , k ,
i 6= j , i 6= j. u i , i .
, (u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u k ) .
. k = 1, (, , ). ,
k 1 . , , k .
. , (u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u k ) . k
P
, i P, i = 1, k,
2i > 0, ,
i=1
k
X
i=1

i u i = 0.

(15.20)

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.7.


(15.20) f . f

k
P


i u i

= f (0)

i=1

k
P

- ?

zz

i f (u i ) = 0. u i

i=1

f i ,
f (u i ) = i u i .
k
X
i i u i = 0.
(15.21)
i=1

(15.20) m (15.21).
k1
X

i (i k )u i = 0.

(15.22)

i=1

u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u k1 , (15.22) , i (i k ) = 0,
i = 1, k 1. i , i k 6= 0, , i = 0, i = 1, k 1.
(15.20) , k = 0 (u k ). .

15.8.3. f Vn n , Vn , f .
Vn , Vn
.
15.9 ( ). f Vn ,
f .
. . f Vn .
Vn
(u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u n )
(15.23)
1 , 2 , . . . , n .

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.7.

- ?

zz

f (15.23). , , (15.23) f (15.23).

f (u 1 ) = 1 u 1 ,
f (u 2 ) = 2 u 2 ,
.............
f (u n ) = n u n .

1 0 . . . 0
0 2 . . . 0

f A =
. . . . . . . . . . . . , .. .
0
0 . . . n
. - Vn f ,
, .


xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.8. .

- ?

zz

1.15.8. .
( )?

(e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )
(15.24)
Vn , f Vn , (15.24) A. U u f (15.24).
f (u) = u ,
AU = U,
(15.25)

(A En )U = 0,

(15.26)

En .
, u
(15.25) (15.26). , (15.26)
,
det(A En ) = 0,

(15.27)

..

 a11
a12
...
a1n

 a21
a22 . . .
a2n

 ...
...
...
...

 an1
an2
. . . ann





 = 0.




(15.28)

(A En ) f ( A).
() = det(A En ) f ( A).
() = det(En A).

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.8. .

- ?

zz

det(A En ) = 0 f ( A). C (C
) f ( A).
15.5. , f . , , , ..
. : f Vn , ( R C), ( ), f .

1. . 

A1 O
. A =
.
B A2
A En :


A1 E 0
O
A En =
,
B
A2 E 00
E 0 , E 00 . () = det(A

En ) = det(A1 E 0 ) det(A2 E 00 ).
2. .
. B = S 1 AS. det(B En ) = det(S 1 AS En ) = det(S 1 AS
1
S 1 En S) = det(S 1 (A En )S) = det(S 1 ) det(A En ) det S =
det(A En ) det S = det(A En ).
det S

15.9.1.
.

() = det(A En ) = (1)n n + 1 n1 + . . . + n1 + n .

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.8. .

- ?

zz

, 1 = (1)n1 (a11 + a22 + . . . + ann ) = (1)n1 trA, trA A,

n = (0) = det A.

(15.29)

(15.29) .
15.10. , .
. r = n det A 6= 0 (0) 6= 0.


xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.9.

- ?

zz

1.15.9.
15.11. f Vn ,
0 ,
Vn . n r, r
A 0 En .
. , , 0 , (A 0 E)U = 0.

, 0 ,
L 0 .
15.12. 0 k- f .
L0 k, .. dimL0 6 k.
. , () f
() = ( 0 )k (),

(15.30)

(0 ) 6= 0.
0 l (1 6 l 6 n) (u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u l ). Vn .

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.9.

- ?

zz

(u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u l ) Vn , .. (u 1 , u 2 , . . . , u l , e l+1 , e l+2 , . . . , e n ).
f .
f (u 1 ) = 0 u 1 ,
f (u 2 ) = 0 u 2 ,
.................................
f (u l ) = 0 u l ,
l
n
P
P
f (e l+1 ) =
aj,l+1 u j +
ai,l+1 e i ,
j=1

i=l+1

.................................
l
n
P
P
f (e n ) =
ajn u j +
ain e i .
j=1

i=l+1

2

 0


0


.
..
() = 
0





0
...
0
0 . . .
0
...
...
...
0
. . . 0
O





C 
.




D() 

,
() = (0 )l |D()| = (0 )l q().
(15.30) (15.31), l 6 k.

(15.31)


15.13 ( ). f n- V ,
i

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.9.

- ?

zz

ki Li ki , .. ki = dim Li =
n rank(A i En ).

f
Vn
1) - Vn f
.
2) det(A En ) = 0 1 , 2 , . . . , n ,
.. .
3) 1 , . . . , n , , . .
, . ,
1 , . . . , n f . Vn ,
f .
4) (15.26)
.
5) , .
15.16. f R3,1 ,

1 4 8

4
7 4 .
A=
8 4
1
.
3 + 92 + 81 729 = 0.
: 1 = 9, k1 = 2; 2 = 9, k2 = 1.
, .

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.9.

- ?

zz

L1 ,
1 , (A E3 )U = 0 9.

8 4 8
0
4 2 4 U = 0 .
8 4 8
0
, U1 = [1, 2, 0]T , U2 = [0, 2, 1]T ,
L1 . L1 = L(U1 , U2 ). , U1 + U2 =

2 2 , , 2 + 2 > 0,

f , 1 = 9.
U3 = [2, 1, 2]T L2 . ,

2
, 2 = 9, U3 = , R, 6= 0.
2

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.10.

- ?

zz

1.15.10.
P () , P.
k

Jk () =

0
...
0
0

1
0

1
... ...
0
0
0
0

...
...
...
...
...

0
0
...

0
0
...
1

k.
,

J1 () = [], J2 (0) =

0
0

1
0

8
, J3 (8) = 0
0

1
8
0

0
1 .
8

J = diag{Jk1 (1 ), Jk2 (2 ), . . . , Jks (s )},
, .
15.6. , J 1 , 2 , . . . , s
.

15.14 ( ). A n C ,
.
, , [?, c.263].

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.10.

- ?

zz

15.7. , A Rn,n , A R J (. 15.17).

J Pn,n , A Pn,n ,
A.

1) det(A En ) = 0 A.
2) i ki .
3) i ki ,
Li , i . , A
s
s
P
P

dim Li =
(n rank(A i En )), 1 , 2 , . . . , s
i=1

i=1

A.
4) lm (i ) m, i ,

lm (i ) = rank(A i En )m1 2 rank(A i En )m + rank(A i En )m+1 .
(15.32)
5) i ()
m, .. () Jm (i ).
6) Jm (i ) J.
S, A
J, .. S , J = S 1 AS,
, (15.2).

0
15.17. A = 4
2

1
4
1

0
0 .
2

xx

I.
1.
1.15.
1.15.10.

- ?

zz

. A

1
0

4 4
0 ,
A E3 =
2
1 2

( 2)3 = 0.
1 = 2 k1 = 3, .
, A .
, 1 .

2 1 0
A 1 E3 = 4 2 0
2 1 0
, (3 rank(A 1 E3 )) = 3 1 = 2.
, , 3, (15.32),

2 0 0
. , J : J = 0 2 1 J =
0 0 2

2 1 0
0 2 0 .
0 0 2

1.16.
1.16.1..
1.16.2. .
1.16.3.
1.16.4.
1.16.5.
1.16.6.
1.16.7.

xx

I.
1.
1.16.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.1. .

- ?

zz

1.16.1. .
Vn , a, b
, ab
R, , :
1 . ab = ba, a, b Vn ;
2 . a, b, c Vn (a + b)c = ac + bc;
3 . a, b Vn R (a)b = (ab);
4 . a Vn aa > 0, aa = 0 a = 0.
16.1. a b < a, b > (a, b).

16.1. V3
ab = |a||b| cos(a, b).
16.2. R1,n n R ,
(1 , 2 , . . . , n )(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) =

n
X

i i .

i=1

16.3. C([a, b]) ,

[a, b], ,
Zb
fg =

(f (x)g(x))dx.
a

16.1.
, .. .
. Vn
(e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )

(16.1)

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.1. .

- ?

zz

. Vn (16.1).
a b Vn
ab =

n
X

xi y i ,

(16.2)

i=1

a=

n
X

n
X

xi e i , b =

i=1

yi e i , xi , yi R, i = 1, n.

i=1

, , (16.2), . ,
ba =

n
X

y i xi =

n
X

i=1

c=

xi yi = ab.

i=1

n
X

zi e i ,

i=1

(a + b)c =

n
X

(xi + yi )zi =

i=1

, R
(a)b =

n
X

xi zi +

i=1

n
X

yi zi = ac + bc.

i=1

n
n
X
X
(xi )yi =
xi yi = (ab).
i=1

i=1

,
aa =

n
X

xi2 > 0; aa = 0 a = 0.

i=1

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.1. .

- ?

zz

1. a, b, c Vn
c(a + b) = ca + cb.
. 1 2 .

2. a b
Vn
a(b) = (ab).
. 1 3 .
3. a Vn
0a = (0 a)a = 0(aa) = 0.

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.2. .

- ?

zz

1.16.2. .
a .
|a|.

aa =

a 2 a

, :
1. |a| > 0; |a| = 0 a = 0;
2. |a| = |||a|, R.
a b ,
cos =

ab
.
|a| |b|

(16.3)

16.2 ( ).
a b
|ab| 6 |a||b|.

(16.4)

. , (a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) = 2 a 2 + 2(ab) + b 2 > 0 R.

R , 0, ..
(ab)2 a 2 b 2 6 0 (ab)2 6 a 2 b 2 (ab)2 6 |a|2 |b|2 |ab| 6 |a||b|.

16.2. a b ,
|ab| = |a||b|.

16.3 ( ).
, ..
|a + b| 6 |a| + |b|, a, b Vn .

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.2. .

- ?

zz

. |a + b|2 = (a + b)2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 6 |a|2 + 2|a| |b| + |b|2 = (|a| + |b|)2

|a + b| 6 |a| + |b|.

16.3.1. R1,n n, .. R1,n = {(1 , 2 , . . . , n )
R}.
(1 , 2 , . . . , n )(1 , 2 , . . . , n ) =

n
X

i i .

i=1

-- ,
v
v
u n
 n
 u n
uX
X
 uX
2t
t



i2 .
i i
i

i=1

i=1

(16.5)

i=1

(16.5) i , i , i = 1, n.

v
v
v
u n
u n
u n
uX
uX
uX
2
t (i + i )2 6 t
i + t
i2 .
(16.6)
i=1

i=1

i=1

16.3.2. C([a, b]) ,

Rb
[a, b], f g = (f (x)g(x)dx).
a

, -- ,
f (x) g(x) C([a, b]) :
v
Zb
 u
Zb

 u
u
 f (x)g(x)dx  6 t f 2 (x)dx


a

v
u b
uZ
u
t g 2 (x)dx
a

(16.7)

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.2. .

- ?

zz

v
v
v
u b
u b
u b
uZ
uZ
uZ
u
u
u
t (f (x) + g(x))2 dx 6 t f 2 (x)dx + t g 2 (x)dx.
a

(16.8)

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.3.

- ?

zz

1.16.3.
a Vn b Vn , , .. ab = 0.
, a b, a b.

1. a b, b a, .
2. 0 a a Vn .
3. a Vn Vn , a = 0.
. , ab = 0 b = a, a 2 = 0. , a = 0.

4. (a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ) , b
, ai , 1 6 i 6 k, b
(a1 , a2 , . . . , ak ).
. ,
X
k
i=1

a i b = 0, i = 1, k.


k
X
i a i b =
i (a i b) = 0, i R, i = 1, k,
i=1

16.4. , , .
.
(a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a k )
(16.9)

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.3.

- ?

zz

, .. a i a j = 0, i 6= j, i , j = 1, k.
1 a 1 + 2 a 2 + . . . + k a k = 0, i R, i = 1, k,

(16.10)

, (16.10) a i , 1 6 i 6 k, i (a i a i ) = 0.
a i a i 6= 0, , i = 0 i (1 6 i 6 k). ,
(16.9) .

.
16.5. (16.9) .

(b1 , b2 , . . . , bk )

(16.11)

(a1 , a2 , . . . , ai ),

(16.12)

(b1 , b2 , . . . , bi )

(16.13)

, i (1 6 i 6 k)

.
. (16.11) , . b 1 = a 1 .
. , ,
i (i < k), .. (16.13), (16.12).
, (i + 1)- .
b i+1 = a i+1 + 1 b 1 + 2 b 2 + . . . + i b i ,

(16.14)

1 , 2 , . . . , i R. ,
(a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a i , a i+1 )

(16.15)

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.3.

- ?

zz

(b 1 , b 2 , . . . , b i , b i+1 )

(16.16)

l , l = 1, i . , (16.13)
(16.12), b i+1 (16.15). , (16.16)
(16.15). , (16.12)
(16.13), a i+1 (16.14) (16.16). , (16.15)
(16.16). , (16.15) (16.16).
l , l = 1, i , (16.14) , (16.16)
. (16.14) b s , 1 6 s 6 i .
b i+1 b s = a i+1 b s + 1 (b 1 b s ) + 2 (b 2 b s ) + . . . + i (b i b s ).
(16.13) , b j b s = 0, j = 1, i , j 6= s.
b i+1 b s = a i+1 b s + s (b s b s ).
s
a i+1 b s + s (b s b s ) = 0.

(16.17)

a i+1 b s
. b s = 0, (16.17) s . ,
bs bs
b i+1 b s = 0 , , (16.16) .

b s 6= 0, s =

a Vn , |a| = 1.
a
, a 6= 0,
.
|a|

(i 1 , i 2 , . . . , i n )
Vn , .

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.3.

- ?

zz

16.5
16.5.1. Vn .
16.5.2. (16.9) ,
(16.11) .
16.5.3. (16.9) , (16.11)
.

16.5 . .
16.4. (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ), a 1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), a 2 = (1, 3, 1, 3),
a 3 = (4, 0, 3, 1), (b 1 , b 2 , b 3 ).
. b 1 = a 1 , .. b 1 = (1, 1, 1, 1). b 2
b 2 = a 2 + 11 b 1 , 11 R.
b 1 . , b 1
b 2 , 11 :
0 = a 2 b 1 + 11 b 21 0 = 4 + 11 4 11 = 1.
b 2 = a 2 + b 1 = (2, 2, 2, 2).
b 3 . , b 3 = a 3 + 21 b 1 + 22 b 2 , 21 , 22 R.
b 1 , b 2 .
21 , 22 :

0 = 6 + 21 4,
0 = 16 + 22 16.
3
3
1 1
1
1

21 = , 22 = 1. b 3 = a 3 b 1 b 2 , .. b 3 =
, , , .
2
2
2 2
2
2
, (b 1 , b 2 , b 3 ),
b 1 = (1, 1, 1, 1),
b 2 = (2, 2, 2, 2, ),
1 1
1
1

b3 =
, , , ,
2 2
2
2
.

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.4.

- ?

zz

1.16.4.
Vn
(e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ),

(16.18)

x y Vn .
x y (16.18).
x=

n
X

xi e i , y =

i=1

n
X

yj e j , xi , yi R, i , j = 1, n.

j=1


xy =

n
P
i=1


xi e i

n
P


yj e j

j=1

= [aij = e i e j ] =

n
P

xi yj (e i e j ) =

i,j=1
n
P

aij xi yj = Y T AX,

i,j=1

A = (aij , i , j = 1, n) = (e i e j , i , j = 1, n), X, Y x
y (16.18).
A .
, A ,
ei ej = ej ei .
, . A
(16.18), B
(e 01 , e 02 , . . . , e 0n ).
S (16.18) (16.19).

(16.19)

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.4.

- ?

zz

X = SX 0 , Y = SY 0 , X, Y x, y (16.18), X 0 , Y 0
x, y (16.19). ,
xy = Y T AX = (SY 0 )T A(SX 0 ) = Y 0T (S T AS)X 0 = Y 0T BX 0 = xy .
, Vn . :
B = S T AS.
(16.20)
16.3. ,
xy =

n
X

xi yi = Y T X.

i=1

16.5. (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ) R1,3 , a 1 = (1, 3, 0), a 2 = (0, 1, 0), a 3 = (1, 1, 1).

. (e 1 , e 2 , e 3 ), e 1 = (1, 0, 0), e 2 = (0, 1, 0),
e 3 = (0, 0, 1), , (16.20) (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 )

B = S T S,
S (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ).

1 0 1
S = 3 1 1 ,
0 0 1

1
B= 0
1

3
1
1

0
1
0 3
1
0

0
1
0

1
10
1 = 3
1
4

3
1
1

4
1 .
3

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.5.

- ?

zz

1.16.5.

(i 1 , i 2 , . . . , i n )

(16.21)

(i 01 , i 02 , . . . , i 0n )

(16.22)

Vn , S (16.21)
(16.22). ,
. En = S T En S En = S T S. , S Vn

En = S T S S 1 = S T .
(16.23)
, (16.21) , S (16.21) (16.22)
(16.23), , , (16.22) ,
S T En S = S T S = En .
S, S T S = En , .

16.6.

cos
sin

sin
cos


.

16.6. . ,
, .

1. n- .

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.5.

- ?

zz

. A B n- . AB.
(AB)T = B T AT = B 1 A1 = (AB)1 .
, (AB) .
.
A . , A1 . ,
(A1 )T A1 = (AT )1 A1 = (AAT )1 = En1 = En .

2. A = (aij ) ,
:
n
X
aij aik = jk , j, k = 1, n,
i=1

n
X

aji aki = jk , j, k = 1, n,

i=1

jk .
16.6.1. A ,
() A Rn,1 (R1,n ).
. AT A = En .


xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.6.

- ?

zz

1.16.6.
( ) f ,
, .. x, y

f (x)f (y ) = xy .
(16.24)

.
16.7. . ,
f , .
. . (16.24) y = x.
f (x)f (x) = x 2 |f (x)|2 = |x|2 |f (x)| = |x|.
. f , x, y :
|f (x + y )| = |x + y | |f (x + y )|2 = |x + y |2 f (x + y )f (x + y ) = (x + y )(x + y ) (f (x) + f (y ))(f (x) + f (y )) =

= x 2 + 2xy + y 2 = f 2 (x) + 2f (x)f (y ) + f 2 (y ) = x 2 + 2xy + y 2 f (x)f (y ) = xy .


16.7.1. :
xy
f (x)f (y)
cos =
=
.
|x||y|
|f (x)||f (y)|

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.6.

- ?

zz

16.8. . -
, .
. y = f (x) , .. x, z Vn
f (x)f (z) = xz,
(i 1 , i 2 , . . . , i n )
(16.25)
Vn . A f (16.25),
Y, X y x (16.25). f
, Y = AX.

x 2 = X T En X, y 2 = Y T En Y.
, x 2 = y 2 X T En X = Y T En Y X T En X =
(AX)T En (AX) X T En X = X T (AT En A)X En = AT En A AT A = En . , A
.
,
16.7.

16.8.1. 1.
. AT A = En , det AT det A = 1. , det AT = det A,
(det A)2 = 1 det A = 1.

16.9. f , = 1.
. f , f (x) = x, x Vn , x
. x. f 2 (x) = (x)(x) = 2 x 2 .
, f , (16.24)
2 x 2 = x 2 2 = 1 = 1.

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.6.

- ?

zz


16.10. .
. 1, .

16.10.1. f Vn
Kerf = {0}.

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.7.

- ?

zz

1.16.7.
( ) f Vn
(), x, y Vn
f (x)y = xf (y ).

(16.26)

16.7. e : Vn Vn , e(x) = x.
16.8. 0 : Vn Vn , 0(x) = 0.
16.9. f : Vn Vn , f (x) = x.
, f (x)y = (x)y = x(y ) = xf (y ).

16.11. f
, .
. .
(i 1 , i 2 , . . . , i n )

(16.27)

Vn . A, X, Y f , x, y Vn . f , x, y (16.26). ,
xy = Y T En X, (16.26) :
Y T (AX) = (AY )T X Y T AX = Y T AT X Y T (A AT )X = O.
, X Y, , A = AT .
. A = AT A AT = O Y T (A AT )X = O Y T AX = Y T AT X Y T (AX) =
T
(AY ) X (16.26) .


xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.7.

- ?

zz

16.12. A .
. A f , Vn
, .. f . x f .
.
AX = X, X x. X T AX
, , A ,
= X T AX
= X T (AX)
= X T (X)
= XT
X
= X
T X.

X T AX
, A = AT ,
= X T AT X
= (AX)T X
= (X)T X
= X T X.

X T AX
T X)
= (X T X)
(
)(X T X)
= 0. , X T X
=
, (X

n
P
i=1

xi xi =

n
P

|xi |2 > 0, x

i=1

= 0 = ,
..
, , X .
.

16.13. A .
. J ,
 A,

1 1
. , J2 (1 ) =
,
0 1
.. J

1 1 . . .

J = 0 1 . . . .
.
. . . . . . ..
A f
Vn , Vn , J

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.7.

- ?

zz

f , (a 1 , a 2 , . . . , a n ).

f (a 1 ) = 1 a 1 ,
f (a 2 ) = a 1 + 1 a 2 ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
a 2 , a 1 .
f (a 1 )a 2 = 1 a 1 a 2 ,
a 1 f (a 2 ) = a 21 + 1 a 1 a 2 .

1 a 1 a 2 = a 21 + 1 a 1 a 2 .
f , f (a 1 )a 2 = a 1 f (a 2 )),
, a 1 = 0. , a 1 .

16.13.1.
, .
16.14. f Vn
.
. 16.13.1 f
:
(u 11 , u 12 , . . . , u 1k1 , u 21 , u 22 , . . . , u 2k2 , . . . , u s1 , u s2 , . . . , u sks ),
(u i1 , u i2 , . . . , u iki ) Li ,
i ki , i 6= j , i 6= j, k1 + . . . + ks = n.
Li = L(u i1 , u i2 , . . . , u iki ), 1 6 i 6 s.
Li f i .
u i1 , u i2 , . . . , u iki
v i1 , v i2 , . . . , v iki . , v ij , j = 1, ki ,

xx

I.
1.
1.16.
1.16.7.

- ?

zz

u ij . , v ij
f , i , .. v ij Li . ,

(v 11 , v 12 , . . . , v 1k1 , v 21 , v 22 , . . . , v 2k2 , . . . , v s1 , v s2 , . . . , v sks ).

(16.28)

, v i Li , 1 6 6 ki , v j Lj , 1 6 6 kj ,
.. v i v j = 0. f (v i ) = i v i , f (v j ) = j v j , f (v i )v j = i v i v j v i f (v j ) = j v i v j
i v i v j = j v i v j (i j )v i v j = 0. , i j 6= 0, v i v j = 0.
(16.28), .


1.17.
1.17.1.
1.17.2.
1.17.3.

xx

I.
1.
1.17.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.17.
1.17.1.

- ?

zz

1.17.1.
.
Vn , a, b ab,
a, b, :
1 . ab = ba, a, b Vn , ba , ba;
2 . a, b, c Vn (a + b)c = ac + bc;
3 . a b Vn C, (a)b = (ab);
4 . a Vn aa , aa > 0. ,
aa = 0 a = 0.
17.1.
.
. 16.1. Vn n
n
P
P
, (e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n ) . a =
xi e i , b =
yi e i ,
i=1

xi , yi C, i = 1, n,
ab =

n
X

i=1

xi yi .

i=1

, 1 4 .

xx

I.
1.
1.17.
1.17.2.

- ?

zz

1.17.2.
1. a(b + c) = ab + ac, a, b, c Vn ;

2. a(b) = ab,
a, b Vn , C;
= (ab).

. a(b) = (b)a = ba
3. 0a = a0 = 0.

xx

I.
1.
1.17.
1.17.3.

- ?

zz

1.17.3.
, , --
. , ,
.
A , , A
. A ,
A = AT .
A
(e 1 , e 2 , . . . , e n )

(17.1)

Vn , B
(e 01 , e 02 , . . . , e 0n ),

(17.2)

B = S AS, S (17.1) (17.2).

Vn , B = S AS S S = En . ,
S,

S S = En .
(17.3)
. ,
, (17.3), .
S Cn,n , S S = En , .

xx

I.
1.
1.17.
1.17.3.

- ?

zz

, .
17.2.
. , , .
17.1. , .

xx

I.
1.
1.18.

- ?

zz

1.18.
1.18.1.
1.18.2.
1.18.3.
1.18.4.
1.18.5.

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.1.

- ?

zz

1.18.1.
n x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) =

n X
n
X

aij xi xj ,

i=1 j=1

aij R, aij = aji , i , j = 1, n, .

aij f .
18.1. R C ,
.

f (x1 , . . . , xn ) =

n X
n
X

aij xi xj , aij R, i , j = 1, n

(18.1)

i=1 j=1

f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = X T AX,

(18.2)

A = (aij , i , j = 1, n), A = AT n n , X =

x1
x2
..
.

xn
.
A, f ,
f .

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.1.

- ?

zz

f rankf .
, f , n
P
, .. f (x1 , . . . , xn ) =
aii xi2
i=1

a11

0
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = X T
...
0

0
a22
...
0

... 0
... 0
X.
... ...
. . . ann

18.1.
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 3x12 + 4x22 4x32 + 6x1 x2 4x1 x3 2x2 x3 .
. ,

3
3 2
4 1 .
A= 3
2 1 4
A 3, 3.

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.2.

- ?

zz

1.18.2.
(18.1)
g(y1 , . . . , yn ) =

n
n X
X

bij yi yj , bij R, bij = bji , i , j = 1, n,

(18.3)

i=1 j=1

g(y1 , . . . , yn ) = Y T BY.
S = (sij , i , j = 1, n) .

x1 = s11 y1 + . . . + s1n yn ,
......................

xn = sn1 y1 + . . . + snn yn ,

(18.4)

X = SY,

X =

x1
x2
..
.

, Y =

y1
y2
..
.

(18.5)

xn
yn
S.
(18.1) x1 , . . . , xn y1 , y2 , . . . , yn , (18.4), (18.1) (18.3), ,
f g
(18.4).

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.2.

- ?

zz

, , f g, , g f .
f g f g,
,
.
, :
1) f f ;
2) f g, g f ;
3) f g g , f .
, f g, f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = X T AX = [ X = SY ] =
(SY )T A(SY ) = Y T (S T AS)Y = Y T BY = g(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ).
, B = S T AS,
, , ..rank f = rank g.
18.1.
. .
. .
:
f (x1 ) = a11 x12 a11 x12 .
, n 1.
, n .
:
1) aii , .
, a11 ( ).
(18.1)
f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (a11 x12 + 2a12 x1 x2 + 2a13 x1 x3 + . . . + 2a1n x1 xn ) + f1 (x2 , . . . , xn ),

(18.6)

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.2.

- ?

zz

f1 (x2 . . . xn ) (n 1)- .
, (18.6), ,
x1 .
a11 x12 + 2a12 x1 x2 + . . . + 2a1n x1 xn =
1
= a11 (x12 + 2x1
(a12 x2 + a13 x3 + . . . + a1n xn )+
a11
1
1
+ 2 (a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn )2 2 (a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn )2 ) =
a11
a11
1
1
(a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn )2
(a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn )2 .
=
a11
a11

(18.7)

(18.6)
f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =

1
(a11 x1 + . . . + a1n xn )2 + f2 (x2 . . . xn ),
a11

(18.8)

1
(a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn )2 . , f2 (x2 . . . xn ), , a11
(n 1)- . ,
, ..

y2 = b22 x2 + . . . + b2n xn ,

y3 = b32 x2 + . . . + b3n xn ,
.......................
(18.9)

yn = bn2 x2 + . . . + bnn xn ,
bij R, i , j = 2, n,
f2 (x2 . . . xn ) = f1 (x2 . . . xn )

f2 (x2 . . . xn )
2 y22 + . . . + n yn2 , i R, i = 2, n.

(18.10)

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.2.

- ?

y1 = a11 x1 + a12 x2 + . . . + a1n xn ,

y2 =
b22 x2 + . . . + b2n xn ,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..................

yn =
bn2 x2 + . . . + bnn xn .

zz

(18.11)

, (18.8), f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

1 2
y + 2 y22 + . . . + n yn2 .
(18.12)
a11 1
, f (18.12).
, (18.11) ,

a11
0

...
0

a12
b22
...
bn2

. . . a1n
. . . b2n

... ...
. . . bnn

;
2) aii (18.1) .
aij 6= 0, i 6= j, 1 6 i , j 6 n.
:

xi = yi + yj ,
xj = yi yj ,
(18.13)

xk = yk , k = 1, n, k 6= i , k 6= j.
(18.1). f

. . . + aij (yi2 yj2 ) + . . .

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.2.

- ?

zz

. . ,
.
, ,
.


.
18.2. . ,
. , (. 18.3), .
18.2. f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 2x12 + 7x22 + 4x32 8x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 6x2 x3
.
. aii , 1 6 i 6 3, , , a11 = 2 6= 0,
x1 :
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (2x12 8x1 x2 +4x1 x3 )+7x22 +4x32 6x2 x3 = 2(x12 2x1 (2x2 x3 )+(2x2 x3 )2 )2(2x2 x3 )2 +7x22 +4x32 6x2 x3 =
2(x1 2x2 + x3 )2 + (x22 + 2x2 x3 + 2x32 ).
x22 + 2x2 x3 + 2x32 x2 .
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 2(x1 2x2 + x3 )2 (x2 x3 )2 + 3x32 .

y1 = x1 2x2 + x3 ,
y2 = x2 x3 ,

y3 = x3 ,
2y12 y22 + 3y32 .
18.3. f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x1 x2 2x2 x3 .
. aii , 1 6 i 6 3, ,

x1 = y1 + y2 ,
x2 = y1 y2 ,

x3 = y3 .
, f g(y1 , y2 , y3 ) = y12 y22 2y1 y3 + 2y2 y3 .
y12 , y1 , y2 :
g(y1 , y2 , y3 ) = (y1 y3 )2 (y2 y3 )2 .

z 1 = y1 y3 ,
z 2 = y2 y3 ,

z 3 = y3 ,
z12 z22 .

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.2.

- ?

zz

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.3.

- ?

zz

1.18.3.

f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =

n X
n
X

aij xi xj

(18.14)

i=1 j=1

,
2
b1 y12 + b2 y22 + . . . + bl yl2 + bl+1 yl+1
+ . . . + br yr2 ,

(18.15)

, r = rank f .
, 1
-1, .
18.2.
.
.
. (18.15) ,
, , b1 > 0, . . . , bl > 0, bl+1 < 0, . . . , br < 0. -

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.3.

- ?

zz

z1 = b1 y1 ,

. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .

z
bp
l =
l yl ,

zl+1 = bl+1 yl+1 ,

(18.16)
. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .

zr = br yr ,

zr +1 = yr +1 ,

..................

z =y .
n
n
(18.15)
2
z12 + . . . + zl2 zl+1
. . . zr2 .

(18.17)


18.3 ( ).
, ,
, .
. f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = X T AX, Y = S1 X yi = i1 x1 + i2 x2 + . . . +
in xn , i , j = 1, n, ij R,
2
y12 + y22 + . . . + ys2 ys+1
. . . yr2 ,

(18.18)

Z = S2 X zi = i1 x1 + i2 x2 + . . . + in xn , i , j =
1, n, ij R,
2
z12 + z22 + . . . + zt2 zt+1
. . . zr2 .

(18.19)

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.3.

- ?

, s = t.
s < t, :

11 x1 + 12 x2 + . . . + 1n xn = 0,

21 x1 + 22 x2 + . . . + 2n xn = 0,

.....................................
s1 x1 + s2 x2 + . . . + sn xn = 0,

t+1,1 x1 + t+1,2 x2 + . . . + t+1,n xn = 0,

.....................................

n1 x1 + n2 x2 + . . . + nn xn = 0.

zz

(18.20)

(18.20) n t + s < n . , .
(1 , 2 , . . . , n ), i R .
.
,
n
n
n
n
n

2 P

2

2 P

2

2
P
P
P
f (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) =
1i i +
2i i +. . .+
si i
s+1,i i . . .
r i i = [
i=1
n
P

(18.20) ,

i=1

i=1

i=1

i=1

ji i = 0, j = 1, s]=

i=1

X
n

2
s+1,i i

...

X
n

i=1

2
r i i

6 0.

(18.21)

i=1

,
f (1 , 2 , . . . , n ) =

n
P

1i i

i=1
n
P

(18.20) ,

2

n
P

2i i

2

+ . . .+

i=1

n
P

ti i

2

i=1

n
P

t+1,i i

2

i=1

. . .

n
P

r i i

2

= [

i=1

ji i = 0, j = t + 1, n]=

i=1

X
n
i=1

2
1i i

+ ... +

X
n
i=1

2
ti i

> 0.

(18.22)

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.3.

- ?

zz

, (18.21) (18.22) , f (1 , . . . , n ) = 0. (18.22) (18.20)

1
1
2
2

, S2
. . . = 0, . . . 6= 0. , det S2 6= 0, . ,
n
n
s t. , s t.

, .

.
18.3.1. A S ,

T
S AS =

1
0 ... 0
0
0
1 ... 0
0
... ... ... ... ...
0
0 ... 1
0
0
0 . . . 0 1
... ... ... ... ...
0
0 ... 0
0
0
0 ... 0
0
... ... ... ... ...
0
0 ... 0
0

... 0
... 0
... ...
... 0
... 0
... ...
. . . 1
... 0
... ...
... 0

0
0
...
0
0
...
0
0
...
0

... 0
... 0
... ...
... 0
... 0
... ...
... 0
... 0
... ...
... 0

1, -1 A S.
,
.
18.4 ( ).

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.3.

- ?

zz

n , .
18.4. f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x12 +3x22 +2x32 +6x1 x2 4x1 x3 18x2 x3 .
. . , 18.1, x1 , x2 .. (., , 18.2).

y1 = x1 + 3x2 2x3 ,
1

y =
x2 + 12 x3 , y12 6y22 y32 .
2
2
y3 =
x3 ,

z1 =y1 ,

z2 = 6y2 ,
,
1

z 3 = y3 ,
2
: z12 z22 z32 .
18.5. ,
f1 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 2x12 + 3x22 + x32 4x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 2x2 x3 , f2 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 3x1 2x22 5x32 4x2 x3 .
. (. 18.4). f1 z12 + z22 + z32 , f2
u12

u22 u32 . ,

3 3. ,
, , 3,
-1. 18.4 ( ) , f1
f2 .

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.4.

- ?

zz

1.18.4.
x1 , . . . , xn , x1 = x2 = . . . = xn = 0.
x1 , . . . , xn ,
n
P
, , ..
xi2 > 0.
i=1

f (18.1). , f (0, 0, . . . , 0) = 0.
f , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , ..
n
P
(xi )2 > 0.
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) > 0,
i=1

f , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , ..
n
P
(xi )2 > 0.
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) < 0,
i=1

.
18.5. , .
. f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = X T AX,

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.4.

- ?

zz

g(y1 , . . . , yn ) = Y T BY, A, B Rn,n , A = AT , B = B T . f g, f .

f g,

s11 x1 + s12 x2 + . . . + s1n xn = y1 ,

s21 x1 + s22 x2 + . . . + s2n xn = y2 ,

(18.23)
.............................

sn1 x1 + sn2 x2 + . . . + snn xn = yn ,

g f .
. g . ,
y1 , y2 , . . . , yn , g(y1 , . . . , yn ) 6 0.
, (18.23) y1 = y1 , y2 = y2 , . . . , yn = yn , , x1 , . . . , xn .
g f , g(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ), , f (x1 , . . . , xn ) 6 0

x1 , . . . , xn . .
18.6. , .
. 18.5.

18.7. n
n , ..
y12 + y22 + . . . + yn2 .

(18.24)

. f n

1 y12 + 2 y22 + . . . + n yn2 .
, i = 1, i = 1, n.

(18.25)

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.4.

- ?

zz

. i , 1 6 i 6 n, , i = 0, i = 1.
: x1 = 0, . . . , x2 = 0, . . . , xi = 1, . . . , xn = 0.
, (18.25)
0. (18.25) . (18.25) f ,
f . 18.5.

18.8. n
n , ..
y12 y22 . . . yn2 .

(18.26)

1 . f (x1 , . . . , xn ) =

n P
n
P

aij xi xj ,

i=1 j=1

aii > 0 i = 1, n.
. f (x1 , . . . , xn ) , x1 , . . . , xn .
, f (1, 0, . . . , 0) = a11 > 0, f (0, 1, . . . , 0) = a22 > 0, . . . , f (0, . . . , 1) = ann > 0.


18.3. , 1 , , .
, f (x1 , x2 ) = x12 10x1 x2 + x22 , a11 = a22 = 1.
, x1 = x2 = 1 f (1, 1) = 8 < 0.

2 . .
. f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = X T AX .
X = SY ,
, .. f g, g(y1 , . . . , yn ) = Y T BY B = En n. B = S T AS, det B = det S T det A det S 1 = (det S)2 det A.
, det A > 0.


3 . n n.

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.4.

- ?

zz

. 2 .

A :

A=




 a11
 a11 a12 



1 = |a11 |; 2 = 
; = a
a21 a22  3  21
a31

a11
a21
a31
...
an1

a12
a22
a32
...
an2

a13
a23
a33
...
an3

. . . a1n
. . . a2n
. . . a3n
... ...
. . . ann

A
:

a12 a13 
a22 a23  ; . . . , n = det A.
a32 a33 

18.4. A, , A. , , n = 3, A :
11 = |a11 |; 12 = |a22 |; 13 = |a33 |; 


 a11 a12 




 ; 22 =  a22 a23  ; 23 =  a11 a13  ; 31 = det A.
21 = 
 a32 a33 
 a31 a33 
a21 a22 

18.9 ( ).
, :
n 2
1 2 2 2
y1 +
y2 + . . . +
y , 0 = 1.
0
1
n1 n

(18.27)

, , [?].
18.10 ( ).
, ,
.

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.4.

. . f (x1 , . . . , xn ) =

- ?

n P
n
P

zz

aij xi xj , aij

i=1 j=1

R, f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = X T AX, . k P
k
P
fk (x1 , . . . , xk ) =
aij xi xj , aij R, 1 6 k 6 n,
i=1 j=1

"" n x1 , . . . , xn k x1 , . . . , xk .
fk (x1 , . . . , xk ) , ..





k = 




a11
a21
a31
...
ak1

a12
a22
a32
...
ak2

. . . a1k
. . . a2k
. . . a3k
... ...
. . . akk






 > 0, 1 6 k 6 n.





, A f (x1 , . . . , xn ) =

n P
n
P

aij xi xj

i=1 j=1

.
. A ,
.. k > 0 k = 1, n. f

1 2 2 2
n 2
y +
y + ... +
y .
0 1
1 2
n1 n

(18.28)

(18.28) , 18.5
f .


xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.4.

- ?

zz

, f (x1 , . . . , xn ) ,
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) .
:
1 . , ;
2 . n ,
, n , , n ;
3 . n ,
n.
18.11 ( ).
, ,
,
.
18.6. f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 4x12 + x22 + x32 + 2x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 6x2 x3
?

4
1
2
1
3 .
. f : A = 1
2 3

:




 4
1
2 
 4 1 

 = 3 > 0; 3 =  1
1
3  = 3 52 > 0.
1 = 4 > 0; 2 = 

1 1 
 2 3

52
, f >
.
3

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.5.

- ?

zz

1.18.5.


f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =

n X
n
X

aij xi xj , aij R, aij = aji , i , j = 1, n

(18.29)

i=1 j=1

f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = X T AX, A Rn,n , A = AT .
,
g(y1 , . . . , yn ) =

n
X

bii yi2 , bii R, i = 1, n,

i=1

g(y1 , . . . , yn ) = Y T BY = Y T

b11
0

...
0

0
b22
...
0

... 0
... 0
Y.
... ...
. . . bnn

, X = HY, f g. A B
B = H T AH,
B .
, A (18.29) f Vn
(i 1 , i 2 , . . . , i n )

(18.30)

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.5.

- ?

zz

.
, f (. 16.14)

(18.31)
(i 01 , i 02 , . . . , i 0n )
f .
, S- (18.30) (18.31), :
1) S 1 AS f (18.31);
2) S 1 AS ,
f ;
3) , (18.30), (18.31) , 16.6
S 1 = S T , .. S .
, , (18.29) , X = SY, S - , .. Vn .
, .
18.12. f , f .

n

1) A .
2) , .. A.
.
3) n ( Vn , f , A).

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.5.

- ?

zz

4) .
5) .
18.7. ,
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = 5x12 + 2x22 + 5x32 4x1 x2 2x1 x3 4x2 x3 .
. ,

5
2 1
2
2
A = 2
1 2
5


 5
2
1 


2
2  = 0 3 + 122 36 = 0.
det(A E3 ) = 0  2
 1
2
5 
1 = 6, 2 = 0 k1 = 2, k2 = 1.
A
f , .. f 6y12 + 6y22 .
, . (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ,
1 = 6 k1 = 2, (15.26),
1 . , u1 + 2u2 + u3 = 0.

1
2

0 L1 ,
1
, U2 =
U1 =
1
0
1 . , L1 = L(U1 , U2 ) dim L1 = 2.
(u1 , u1 , u3 ) , 2 = 0 k2 = 1,

5u1 2u2 u3 = 0,
2u1 + 2u2 2u3 = 0.

1
U3 = 2 L2 , ,
1
L2 = L(U3 ) dim L2 = 1.
, (U1 , U2 , U3 ) . .
L1 L2 .

xx

I.
1.
1.18.
1.18.5.

- ?

zz

L1 . , U1 , U2

15
2

2
: V1 = U1 = 1 , V2 = U2 V1 =
25
. V1 V2 ,

5
0
1

130
25

2
0
1 ,
V10 =
.
V
=

30
5

5
30

0
L2 u3 :
1

V30 =

6
2
6
1
6

V10 , V20 , V30 S , 6y12 + 6y22 :

1
25 130
6

1
2
230
S = 5
.
6

5
1
0
30
6

x1 =

x2 =

x =
3

25 y1
1 y1
5

1 y2
30
2 y2
30
5 y2
30

+
+
+

1 y3 ,
6
2 y3 ,
6
1 y3 .
6