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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERIVIEW
Our project Exam Paper Security System is a system which will replace the traditional manual exam paper printing and distribution. Manual paper printing and distribution has many loopholes and have more chances of leakage of exam question papers. So, our idea is to make a fully automatic paper printing and distribution system which ensures the integrity of the examinations.
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1.2 CAPABILTIES
Our project will provide the complete solution which can prevent the examination paper leakage. The centre authority will be allowed to give command. There is only single computer which will be controlled by exam cell in-charge. This computer is directly connected to the printing press room. In printing press room, the computer will give command to print the question papers. There is an infrared counter which count the number of copies printed from the printer. This will increase the efficiency of the system. The paper will be dropped and collected in a wooden box which is also called safe box. The box will be locked automatically. There are a known number of copies in the box. Now, this box will be passed to outside the room with the help of a conveyor belt. The box will be collected at window and respective boxes will be distrusted to centers respectively. Here we can observe that only person is operating the whole process. In this project, there is very few chances of paper leak. Even though, if it happens then only one person is responsible and this will bring out the defaulter. There is no interference of Human being in the whole process and it increases the efficiency as well as decreases the chances of paper leak and the financial loss of government due to re-examination will be reduced.
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These drawbacks of traditional paper printing were not acceptable if something goes wrong before the examinations date arrives. The government has to suffer with huge financial loss which occurs due to re-examination as well as precious time of students also gets wasted. As far as distribution is concerned, it does not have a real time application of date and time.
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organization is PROMETRIC. This year PROMETRIC conducted CAT 2011 exam. We studied the examination system of both the organizations. In Question Paper printing, work is segregated into three Parts : Composing & Proofreading Printing Packing
2.4.1 Composing & Proofreading With an inhouse composing house, we do work with highest confidentiality. The facility of Proofreading is also within the premises with subject wise experts. We are having experts of almost all language for Proofreading and translations, which help us to do our jobs efficiently without any error. 2.4.2 Printing Secondly the composed paper is printed on latest machines available till date any quantity can be printed from 100(in lakhs) in minimum time duration.
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2.4.3 Packing The third step is packing of Question Paper-Booklets. In above mentioned all steps phase no. 3 which is packing, is one of the most important and crucial in itself. Today, most of our clients demand centrewise packing. We do centrewise packing with the help of computerised programming which is 99.9% error less. In this our clients / institutes provides us the paper number, quantity, centrewise distribution details. We feed all these informations in our software programme and got printed the envelope labels. Centrewise challans are also taken out of computer.
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examination. This is very costly and extremely tedious to conduct an examination. Side by side online examination is a very sophisticated examination conducting system. Lot of companies is gladly taking this modern system to exemption form the tedious written examination system. Low cost, minimum effort, minimum employee deployment, saving time, instant result and conduct an examination India and abroad.
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the East coast relayed information to students on the West coast; that scheme took advantage of the three-hour time difference between the two regions. While electronic glitches are rare, they have been known to occur, for instance when computer crashes voided the efforts of thousands of GMAT takers. There are also cases in which the correction software has corrupted scores.
Earlier we were planning to use DS12887 RTC chip (Serial Communication) but it is not available in the market in Jaipur. So, we have to drop our idea of using DS 12887 and finally we went for DS1307 RTC chip with same function with different protocol (i2c protocol).
Synchronization of various modules and sequential arrangement were also made due to some technical problem and mechanical assembly.
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Power Supply
Keyboard
LCD
MICRO CONTROLLER
Alarm
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and have holes drilled through them. These holes can either accommodate component leads or via-holes. The via holes also known as plated through holes (PTH) provide connections through the substrate to other track areas. These aroused in case of double sided and multilayer PCBs only.
FIGURE 4.2 PCB FEATURES Once PCB is designed and fabricated, the circuit can be assembled easily by mounting and soldering the component in the holes provided for them.
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6. Reliability: All the above factors bring reliability in performance of the equipment 7. Now-a-days component wiring and assembly can be mechanized by wave soldering of vapour phase reflow soldering. Disadvantages 1. As the copper tracks are very thin, they can carry little current. Hence a PCB cannot be used for circuit with heavy currents because in that case the strips will be heated up and can cause problems. 2. Soldering needs precautions as the risk of strips being overheated and destroyed is always there.
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FIGURE 4.3 SINGLE SIDED PCB 4.3.3.2 Double Sided PCB These are used where space is more important than cost of the PCB. Double sided boards are Cu-coated on both sides. Circuit is etched on both sides but components are mounted only on one side. Tracks on one side can be joined to tracks on the other side by means of wire links. Now a days plated through holes (PTH) are available which do the same thing, but their use makes the PCB expensive. So the total number of PTH should be kept to a minimum for reasons of economy and reliability.
FIGURE 4.4 DOUBLE SIDED PCB 4.3.3.3 Multi layered PCB In multi-layered boards, two or more boards with circuitry formed upon them are carefully aligned, stacked up and bonded together. These boards are used where a very large circuit has to be fabricated on a single board. At the same time, they are the most complex from manufacturing point of view. Here also, components are mounted on only one side of the board. Electrical connections are established from one side of the board to the other and to the inner layer circuitry by using PTH.
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FIGURE 4.5 MULTI-LAYERED PCB 4.3.3.4 Flexible PCB This is basically a highly flexible variant of the conventional rigid PCB. The flexible boards are of two types, static and dynamic. Static flexible circuits can be bent into particular configuration which remains constant throughout product life and results in space saving. Dynamic flexible circuits can be deformed continuously during operations and are used to interconnect devices which need to he moved relative to each other.
4.3.4 Laminates
The board on which the circuit is etched consist of base material\laminate on which conductor foils are bonded or deposited by some process. (a) Base material: PCBs are laminates. They are made from two or more sheets of base materials stuck together. There are many materials used for making laminates for PCBs. Commonly used materials are phenolic resin reinforced with paper filler (phenolic laminates) for low cost, melamine resin reinforced with glass filler (melamine laminates) for abrasion resistance, epoxy resin reinforced with glass filler (epoxy laminations) for higher mechanical strength, low dimensional change and fungus resistance; Teflon reinforced with glass (Teflon laminations) for microwave applications; silicon resin reinforced with glass (silicon laminates) for high temperatures. Reliability of PCB greatly depends on the quality of base material used. (b) Conducting material: The conducting materials used for coating the laminate are copper, silver, gold, brass and aluminium. However, the most widely used material is high purity electrolytic copper and the laminates coated with copper foil are called as Cu clad laminates.
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Throughout the manufacturing process of a PCB, visual and electrical inspection is carried out to locate any flaws that might have crept in due to process automation like Tombstone effect when the solder is heated too quickly and one end of the component lifts up from the board failing to make contact, or excess flow of solder or bridging. Even after the manufacturing process, the boards are tested for the output levels under varying conditions of environment, stress and strain.
Before designing a PCB layout, complete circuit diagram must be available with the designer. The design of the layout is done on the computer using CAD (Computer Aided Design) or a standard drawing program. The layout is designed in such a way as to accommodate the whole circuit in minimum space avoiding use of jumpers as far as possible. Besides the complete outlines and interconnections, the layout should include information on:
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a. Component hole diameter b. Conductor width c. Minimum spacing to be provided between the tracks. Finally take the print out of the pattern / layout on a normal A4 size paper. Also make sure that it is the correct size; Check the layout carefully. This printout is called as positive film.
Film Maker Machine: Collect the positive film from the CAD lab. Cut lithography film on which the negative is to be made to the size equal to the positive film. Start the machine for 5 seconds. Take the negative film out of the machine by lifting it from the corners.
Development: Take a developing tray. Put sufficient developer in the tray so that the negative film is dipped completely in it. The film should be handled at its corners with the help of forceps. Now slide the negative film through the developing solution. Turn the tray quickly and lift the tray on each side of rotation. This is continued throughout the developing time (1-1.5min).
Stop bath: After the development is over, the film is lifted above the developing tray (with the help of forceps) for a few seconds so that the excess developer drops out. Immediately thereafter, the film is immersed in to the stop bath (plain water taken in a tray) for 1 min. This will effectively stop the development action
Fixing: Now mix 1 cap of fixer solution in 1 glass of water in a tray. Place the film in this fixing bath for 0.5 min.
Washing: Take out the film from the fixer bath and wash it in running water. Washing is an important stage in film master preparation because if some chemicals
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remain on it, they will decompose and attack the image, causing stained and faced film.
Pre-processing
As its name, this step involves all the initial preparation to be made before actual processing of copper clad laminate starts, such as a) Collect the printout of the layout from the CAD lab. b) Cut the copper clad laminate to the required size using a cutter. c) Clean the board by scrubbing with steel wool or very fine wet sand paper. Dry the board thoroughly. Make sure that the board is clean and free from fingerprints or any traces of contamination.
d) Drill tooling/mounting holes.
Lithography
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Lithography is typically the transfer of the copper track and land pattern from the negative film to a material (copper clad). It includes the following steps:
1. Pattern Transfer: To precede you will need a cut-out of a single PCB image from the
glossy paper, a very clean copper board and a clothes iron. The PCB-to-be needs to be very clean.PCB can be washed with hot water and dish soap. Using acetone or alcohol to rub it clean seems to work well but may not be necessary. Make sure the copper is dry and that no soap or chemical residue remains. Do not touch the copper with your fingers as you'll spread greasy human juice which may keep the toner from sticking. You can gently sand the board, using very fine sandpaper. When the copper looks clean, shiny and new, you are ready to proceed. Place the PCB mirror image face down on the copper, ensuring it is correctly positioned. You can use a few pieces of tape to secure the glossy paper to the board but I find that, if you are careful when you begin to iron, the paper sticks and stays in place on its own. Preheat your trusty clothes iron, using the hottest setting its got (cotton, linen or above). When you are done, be careful as the board will be hot. Immerse the board and paper in hot water for a few minutes (up to 10 if you've got the patience). This will soften things up a bit. Carefully remove the paper. If certain areas seem particularly difficult to peel off, you can try soaking a bit more. If everything went well, you will have a copper board with your PCB pads and signal lines traced out in black toner. You can see that even fine lines, such as the contour, have been successfully transferred.
2. Development: After lithography process, the image of the pattern transferred on the
copper clad needs to be developed. The development stage involves removal of less soluble unexposed area of resist in case of negative resist and exposed areas in case of positive resist. Here, we are using a negative photo resist Method. Take a tray and put sufficient developer solution in it such that the board can be completely dipped in it. Developer solution is prepared by mixing liquid photo resist developer concentrate with 1 part developer to 9 part of water. Place the board into the white developer solution. The board should be handled at its corners with the help of forceps. Now lift the tray on each side in rotation so that the liquid developer is flowed over and back on the board. This is continued throughout the
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developing time (1 min). During development, the developer solution etches away the unexposed region of the negative photo resist showing copper and the PCB layout will be revealed. After the development is over, lift the board and wash it in stop bath. This will effectively stop the development action.
3. Fixing: To fix the pattern on the board, mix 1 cap of fixer (blue die solution) in 1 glass of
water in tray. Place the board in the solution for at least 0.5 min. Remove the board from the fixer bath and wash it under running water.
4. Etching: This process is used for removal of PCBs copper surface, which is not
protected by the photo resist. Thus final Cu pattern is formed on the board after etching. The board obtained after photolithography is dipped in an etching solution and heated for 6-10 min. at 400C. The solution etches \ dissolves away the exposed\ undesired copper areas, leaving the desired copper pattern on the board. The different Types of etching solution used are: a. Ferric Chloride (FeCl3) b. Chromatic Chloride c. Cupric Chloride (CuCl2) d. Alkaline Ammonia
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Out of these four, ferric chloride is the most commonly used etchant. The reaction of FeCl3 and CuCl2 etching solutions with copper are: FeCl3 + Cu FeCl2 + CuCl Ferric chloride Copper Ferrous chloride CuCl2 + CuCl 2CuCl Chromatic acid etching is usually carried out with the addition of Sulphuric acid. Hence it is called chromic Sulphuric acid. The choice of suitable etchant solution for PCB production depends on factors like etching speed, copper dissolving capacity, etchant price etc. Stripping
After etching, the negative photo resist coating left on the copper pattern can be removed using a tube of photo resist stripper and the PCB is washed clean under tap water and dried using tissue paper. Drilling
Drilling is used to create the component lead holes and through holes in a PCB. These holes pass through the land areas and should be positioned correctly. The drilling process can be performed by using manually operated drilling machines or by using CNC drilling machines. For a particular PCB, a wide range of drill holes may be required smaller holes are required for component leads whereas larger diameter holes are required for bolting heat sinks, connectors etc.
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Before mounting the components on the PCB, this bare board needs to ensure that the required connections exist (i.e. visual inspection), and that there are no short circuit (i.e. continuity testing) and that drill holes are properly placed. After drilling and testing, the board the board is now ready to stuff components. Loading Component
Loading of components on a PCB is the process of inserting components in to the holes in the board. This loading can be done by hand or by machine. Machine is used when there is mass production of boards of the same pattern. Soldering
Solder the components loaded on the PCB by using either manual soldering or wave soldering technique. Manual soldering is done with the help of soldering iron, while in wave soldering; large number of joints is made simultaneously using a older bath. Wave soldering is a more efficient method and is used in large scale industry where high productivity is required.
FIGURE 4.9: COMPONENT SOLDERED Finally take the print out of the pattern / layout on a normal A4 size paper. Also make sure that it is the correct size; Check the layout carefully. This printout is called as positive film.
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PCB Layout PCB designs with an easy-to-use manual routing tools, shape-based auto router and auto-placer. Schematic Schematic Capture with multi-level hierarchy and export to PCB Layout, Spice or Net list. Component and Pattern Editors allow you to make new parts and footprints. Standard Libraries - include 100,000+ parts. Import/Export Features - allow you to exchange designs and libraries with other EDA tools. Step-by-Step Tutorial - learn the software and start real work in a few hours.
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components onto your document and connect them together using the wire and bus tools. Multi sheet and hierarchical schematics are supported. Then select the menu option 'Convert to PCB' to convert the schematic to PCB. Layout can be updated from Schematic in a few clicks at any time. When you create or edit design objects they are highlighted to improve your work.
Smart placement and auto-placement features: After converting Schematic to PCB
layout, place board outline and arrange components. Then use "placement by list" for chips/connectors and auto-placement for other components to get acceptable result in a few minutes and start routing.
Easy to use manual and powerful automatic routing: Express PCB software
includes 2 automatic routers (Shape-based and Grid-based). Shape Router is able to route complex layouts with SMD components as well as single-layer boards. Grid Router can also make single-layer boards with jumper wires. With Spectra DSN/SES interface you can use external shape-based or topological auto router. Intelligent manual routing tools allow you to create and edit traces by 90, 45 degree or without any limitations. Curved traces are supported. Through, blind or buried vias can be used in automatic and manual routing. Board size is not limited.
Shape-based copper pour: Powerful copper pour system can help to reduce your
manufacturing costs by minimizing the amount of etching solution required. To use it, all you have to do is insert a copper area on your board in the PCB Layout program and any pad or trace inside the selected area will be automatically surrounded with a gap of the desired size. Using copper pour you can also create planes and connect them to pads and vias (different thermal types are supported).
Advanced Verification Features: Schematic and PCB design modules have number
of verification features that help control project accuracy on different design stages: The ERC function shows possible errors in Schematic pin connections using defined rules and allows you to correct errors step-by-step. DRC function checks the clearance between design objects, minimum size of traces, and drills. Errors are displayed graphically and you can fix them step-by-step and rerun the DRC in one click after any corrections. Net Connectivity Check verifies if all nets of PCB are electrically
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connected. This feature uses traces; copper pour filled area and shapes to control connectivity, then reports broken and merged nets with area details. Comparing to Schematic allows you to check if routed PCB is identical with Schematic.
Spice Support: With Express PCBSchematic Capture or Component Editor specify
spice settings or attach models to the parts. Then export .cir net-list of your Schematic to LT Spice or another simulation software to verify how it works.
Import/Export Features: Package modules allow you to exchange schematics,
layouts and libraries with other EDA and CAD packages (DXF, Eagle, P-CAD, PADS, ORCAD). Express PCB Schematic Capture and PCB Layout also support Accel, Allegro, Mentor, PADS, P-CAD, Protel and Tango net list formats.
Manufacturing output formats: Express PCB provides support for a number of
different manufacturing output formats. Using this PCB software you can produce N/C Drill files for numerically controlled (N.C.) drilling machines and RS-274X Gerber files for sending to board manufacturers. Vectorizing function allows exporting true-type fonts and raster images. Also Express PCBDXF output.
Producing PCBs using milling method: Express PCBallows you to export edge
poly lines to DXF. The DXF files can be converted to G-code with Ace Converter. Before edge exporting the DRC function of PCB layout program checks the design and shows possible problems if exist.
Standard component libraries: Express PCB package includes component and
your own symbols and patterns. To create complete components simply connect them together using Component Editor.
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Some of the features that have made the 8051 popular are:
64 KB on chip program memory. 128 bytes on chip data memory (RAM). 4 register banks. 128 user defined software flags. 8-bit data bus 16-bit address bus 32 general purpose registers each of 8 bits 16 bit timers (usually 2, but may have more, or less). 3 internal and 2 external interrupts. Bit as well as byte addressable RAM area of 16 bytes. Four 8-bit ports, (short models have two 8-bit ports). 16-bit program counter and data pointer. 1 Microsecond instruction cycle with 12 MHz Crystal.
8051 models may also have a number of special, model-specific features, such as UARTs, ADC, OpAmps, etc...
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Ports There are 4 8-bit ports: P0, P1, P2 and P3. PORT P1 (Pins 1 to 8): The port P1 is a general purpose input/output port which can be used for a variety of interfacing tasks. The other ports P0, P2 and P3 have dual roles or additional functions associated with them based upon the context of their usage. PORT P3 (Pins 10 to 17): PORT P3 acts as a normal IO port, but Port P3 has additional functions such as, serial transmit and receive pins, 2 external interrupt pins, 2 external counter inputs, read and write pins for memory access. PORT P2 (pins 21 to 28): PORT P2 can also be used as a general purpose 8 bit port when no external memory is present, but if external memory access is required then PORT P2 will act as an address bus in conjunction with PORT P0 to access external memory. PORT P0 (pins 32 to 39) PORT P0 can be used as a general purpose 8 bit port when no external memory is present, but if external memory access is required then PORT P0 acts as a multiplexed address and data bus that can be used to access external memory in conjunction with PORT P2. P0 acts as AD0-AD7, as can be seen from fig 5.1. Oscillator Circuits The 8051 requires the existence of an external oscillator circuit. The oscillator circuit usually runs around 12MHz, although the 8051 (depending on which specific model) is capable of running at a maximum of 40MHz. Each machine cycle in the 8051 is 12 clock cycles, giving an effective cycle rate at 1MHz (for a 12MHz clock) to 3.33MHz (for the maximum 40MHz clock). This is "program select enable". In order to use the external memory it is required to provide the low voltage (0) on both PSEN and EA pins.
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Data and Program Memory The 8051 Microprocessor can be programmed in PL/M, 8051 Assembly, C and a number of other high-level languages. Many compilers even have support for compiling C++ for an 8051. Program memory in the 8051 is read-only, while the data memory is considered to be read/write accessible. When stored on EEPROM or Flash, the program memory can be rewritten when the microcontroller is in the special programmer circuit. Program Start Address The 8051 starts executing program instructions from address 0000 in the program memory. Direct Memory The 8051 has 256 bytes of internal addressable RAM, although only the first 128 bytes are available for general use by the programmer. The first 128 bytes of RAM (from 0x00 to 0x7F) are called the Direct Memory, and can be used to store data. Special Function Register The Special Function Register (SFR) is the upper area of addressable memory, from address 0x80 to 0xFF. A, B, PSW, DPTR are called SFR. This area of memory cannot be used for data or program storage, but is instead a series of memory-mapped ports and registers. All port input and output can therefore be performed by memory move operations on specified addresses in the SFR. Also, different status registers are mapped into the SFR, for use in checking the status of the 8051, and changing some operational parameters of the 8051. General Purpose Registers The 8051 has 4 selectable banks of 8 addressable 8-bit registers, R0 to R7. This means that there are essentially 32 available general purpose registers, although only 8 (one bank) can be directly accessed at a time. To access the other banks, we need to change the current bank number in the flag status register. A and B Registers
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The A register is located in the SFR memory location 0xE0. The A register works in a similar fashion to the AX register of x86 processors. The A register is called the accumulator, and by default it receives the result of all arithmetic operations. The B register is used in a similar manner, except that it can receive the extended answers from the multiply and divide operations. When not being used for multiplication and Division, the B register is available as an extra general-purpose register.
Computer A computer is a programmable machine designed to sequentially and automatically carry out a sequence of arithmetic or logical operations. The particular sequence of operations can be changed readily, allowing the computer to solve more than one kind of problem. Conventionally a computer consists of some form of memory for data storage, at least one element that carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control element that can change the order of operations based on the information that is stored. Peripheral devices allow information to be entered from external source and allow the results of operations to be sent out. A computer's processing unit executes series of instructions that make it read, manipulate and then store data. Conditional instructions change the sequence of instructions as a function of the current state of the machine or its environment. The first electronic computers were developed in the mid-20th century (19401945). Originally, they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs). Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and can be powered by a small battery. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "computers". However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.
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Real-Time Clock (RTC) Counts Seconds, Minutes, Hours, Date of the Month, Month, Day of the week, and Year with Leap-Year Compensation Valid Up to 2100 56-Byte, Battery-Backed, General-Purpose RAM with Unlimited Writes IC Serial Interface Programmable Square-Wave Output Signal Automatic Power-Fail Detect and Switch Circuitry Consumes Less than 500nA in Battery-Backup Mode with Oscillator Running Optional Industrial Temperature Range: -40C to +85C Available in 8-Pin Plastic DIP or SO
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5.3 RESISTORS
Resistors are components that have a predetermined resistance. Resistance determines how much current will flow through a component. Resistors are used to control voltages and currents. A very high resistance allows very little current to flow. Air has very high resistance. Current almost never flows through air. (Sparks and lightning are brief displays of current flow through air. The light is created as the current burns parts of the air.) A low resistance allows a large amount of current to flow. Metals have very low resistance. That is why wires are made of metal. They allow current to flow from one point to another point without any resistance. Wires are usually covered with rubber or plastic. This keeps the wires from coming in contact with other wires and creating short circuits. High voltage power lines are covered with thick layers of plastic to make them safe, but they become very dangerous when the line breaks and the wire is exposed and is no longer separated from other things by insulation. Practical resistors have a series inductance and a small parallel capacitance; these specifications can be important in high-frequency applications. In a low-noise amplifier or pre-amp, the noise characteristics of a resistor may be an issue. The unwanted inductance, excess noise, and temperature coefficient are mainly dependent on the technology used in manufacturing the resistor. They are not normally specified individually for a particular family of resistors manufactured using a particular technology. A family of discrete resistors is also characterized according to its form factor, that is, the size of the device and the position of its leads (or terminals) which is relevant in the practical manufacturing of circuits using them.
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5.4 CAPACITOR
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a device for storing electric charge. It commonly consists of wire leads attached to two sheets of metal foil, separated by insulating film, rolled into a tube.
FIGURE 5.8: CIRCUIT SYMBOL OF CAPACITOR Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes. A capacitor is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops in the dielectric that stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. The capacitance of certain capacitors decreases as the component ages. In ceramic capacitors, this is caused by degradation of the dielectric. The type of dielectric and the ambient operating and storage temperatures are the most significant aging factors, while the operating voltage has a smaller effect. The aging process may be reversed by heating the component above the Curie point. Aging is fastest near the beginning of life of the component, and the device stabilizes over time. Electrolytic capacitors age as the electrolyte
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evaporates. In contrast with ceramic capacitors, this occurs towards the end of life of the component.
5.5. POTENTIOMETER
A potentiometer (colloquially known as a "pot") is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side and the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick.
FIGURE 5.10: POTENTIOMETERS Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power (more than a watt), since the power dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled
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load (see infinite switch). Instead they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on audio equipment), and as control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly control the brightness of lamps.
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5.7.1 Operation
A crystal is a solid in which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. Almost any object made of an elastic material could be used like a crystal, with appropriate transducers, since all objects have natural resonant frequencies of vibration. For example, steel is very elastic and has a high speed of sound. It was often used in mechanical filters before quartz. The resonant frequency depends on size, shape, elasticity, and the speed of sound in the material. High-frequency crystals are typically cut in the shape of a simple, rectangular plate. Low-frequency crystals, such as those used in digital watches, are typically cut in the shape of a tuning fork. For applications not needing very precise timing, a low-cost ceramic resonator is often used in place of a quartz crystal. When a crystal of quartz is properly cut and mounted, it can be made to distort in an electric field by applying a voltage to an electrode near or on the crystal. This property is known as piezoelectricity. When the field is removed, the quartz will generate an electric field as it returns to its previous shape, and this can generate a voltage. The result is that a quartz crystal behaves like a circuit composed of an inductor, capacitor and resistor, with a precise resonant frequency. Quartz has the further advantage that its elastic constants and its size change in such a way that the frequency dependence on temperature can be very low. The specific characteristics will depend on the mode of vibration and the angle at which the quartz is cut
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(relative to its crystallographic axe). Therefore, the resonant frequency of the plate, which depends on its size, will not change much, either. This means that a quartz clock, filter or oscillator will remain accurate. For critical applications the quartz oscillator is mounted in a temperature-controlled container, called a crystal oven, and can also be mounted on shock absorbers to prevent perturbation by external mechanical vibrations.
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in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in. LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in colour or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the development of LCD technology, the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888. By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units. Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. In most of the cases the liquid crystal has double refraction. The surfaces of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is unidirectional rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO). Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device (still the most common liquid crystal device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This reduces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the centre of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can
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be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. This electric field also controls (reduces) the double refraction properties of the liquid crystal. The optical effect of a twisted nematic device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, these devices are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). These devices can also be operated between parallel polarizers, in which case the bright and dark states are reversed. The voltage-off dark state in this configuration appears blotchy, however, because of small variations of thickness across the device. Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field). When a large number of pixels are needed in a display, it is not technically possible to drive each directly since then each pixel would require independent electrodes. Instead, the display is multiplexed. In a multiplexed display, electrodes on one side of the display are grouped and wired together (typically in columns), and each group gets its own voltage source. On the other side, the electrodes are also grouped (typically in rows), with each group getting a voltage sink. The groups are designed so each pixel has a unique, unshared combination of source and sink. The electronics or the software driving the electronics then turns on sinks in sequence, and drives sources for the pixels of each sink.
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5.8.1 Applications
LCD have been adopted by the United States of America military instead of CRT displays because they are smaller, lighter and more efficient, although monochrome plasma displays are also used, notably for their M1 Abrams tanks. For use with night vision imaging systems a US military LCD monitor must be compliant with MIL-L-3009 (formerly MIL-L-85762A). These LCD monitors go through extensive certification so that they pass the standards for the military. These include MIL-STD-901D - High Shock (Sea Vessels), MIL-STD-167B Vibration (Sea Vessels), MIL-STD-810FField Environmental Conditions (Ground Vehicles and Systems), MIL-STD-461E/FEMI/RFI (Electromagnetic Interference/Radio Frequency Interference), MIL-STD-740B Airborne/Structure borne Noise, and TEMPESTTelecommunications Electronics Material Protected from Emanating Spurious Transmissions.
5.9 BUZZER
FIGURE 5.14: BUZZER A buzzer or beeper is an audio signalling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarms, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke. Mechanical A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer.
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Electromechanical Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers made. Piezoelectric
A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.
5.9.1 Uses
Annunciator panels Electronic metronomes Game shows Microwave ovens and other household appliances Sporting events such as basketball games
5.10 SWITCHES
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FIGURE 5.16: DIFFERENT TYPES OF SWITCHES Switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either 'closed' meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or 'open', meaning the contacts are separated and non conducting. A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch. Automatically-operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be pad-locked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.
5.11 DIODE
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Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as germanium are sometimes used. In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode (now little used except in some high-power technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction) while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behaviour is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers. However, diodes can have more complicated behaviour than this simple on-off action. This is due to their complex non-linear electrical characteristics, which can be tailored by varying the construction of their P-N junction. These are exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, specialized diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes), and to produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in some types of circuits.
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FIGURE 5.18: TYPICAL DIODE SYMBOLS AND CODES A modern semiconductor diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor like silicon that has impurities added to it to create a region on one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type semiconductor. The diode's terminals are attached to each of these regions. The boundary within the crystal between these two regions, called a PN junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. The crystal conducts a current of electrons in a direction from the N-type side (called the cathode) to the P-type side (called the anode), but not in the opposite direction; that is, a conventional current flows from anode to cathode (opposite to the electron flow, since electrons have negative charge). Another type of semiconductor diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction.
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5.11.2 Applications
Radio demodulation The first use for the diode was the demodulation of amplitude modulated (AM) radio broadcasts. The history of this discovery is treated in depth in the radio article. In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of voltage, whose amplitude or envelope is proportional to the original audio signal. The diode (originally a crystal diode) rectifies the AM radio frequency signal, leaving an audio signal which is the original audio signal, minus atmospheric noise. The audio is extracted using a simple filter and fed into an audio amplifier or transducer, which generates sound waves. Power conversion Rectifiers are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert alternating current (AC) electricity into direct current (DC). Automotive alternators are a common example, where the diode, which rectifies the AC into DC, provides better performance than the commutator of earlier dynamo. Similarly, diodes are also used in CockcroftWalton voltage multipliers to convert AC into higher DC voltages. Over-voltage protection Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances. When the voltage rises above the normal range, the diodes become forward-biased (conducting). For example, diodes are used in (stepper motor and H-bridge) motor controller and relay circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur. (Any diode used in such an application is called a flyback diode). Many integrated circuits also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors. Specialized diodes are used to protect from overvoltages at higher power (see Diode types above). Logic gates Diodes can be combined with other components to construct AND & OR logic gates. This is referred to as diode logic.
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Ionizing radiation detectors In addition to light, mentioned above, semiconductor diodes are sensitive to more energetic radiation. In electronics, cosmic rays and other sources of ionizing radiation cause noise pulses and single and multiple bit errors. This effect is sometimes exploited by particle detectors to detect radiation. A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volts of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material. If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement of the particles energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer or etc. These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current. Temperature measurements A diode can be used as a temperature measuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature, as in a Silicon band gap temperature sensor. From the Shockley ideal diode equation given above, it appears the voltage has a positive temperature coefficient (at a constant current) but depends on doping concentration and operating temperature (Size 2007). The temperature coefficient can be negative as in typical thermistors or positive for temperature sense diodes down to about 20 Kelvins. Typically silicon diodes have approximately 2 mV/C temperature coefficient at room temperature. Current steering Diodes will prevent currents in unintended directions. To supply power to an electrical circuit during a power failure, the circuit can draw current from a battery. An Uninterruptible power supply may use diodes in this way to ensure that current is only drawn from the battery when necessary. Similarly, small boats typically have two circuits each with their own battery/batteries: one used for engine starting; one used for domestics. Normally both are charged from a single alternator, and a heavy duty split charge diode is used to prevent the higher charge battery (typically the engine battery) from discharging through the lower charged battery when the alternator is not running.
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The hex keypad is a peripheral that connects to the DE2 through JP1 or JP2 via a 40-pin ribbon cable. It has 16 buttons in a 4 by 4 grid, labelled with the hexadecimal digits 0 to F. Internally, the structure of the hex keypad is very simple. Wires run in vertical columns (we call them C0 to C3) and in horizontal rows (called R0 to R3). These 8 wires are available externally, and will be connected to the lower 8 bits of the port. Each key on the keypad is essentially a switch that connects a row wire to a column wire. When a key is pressed, it makes an electrical connection between the row and column. The specific mapping of hex keypad wires (C0 to C3 and R0 to R3) to pins is given below:-
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a) The building is equipped with a fire alarm system. b) The locking device, and all similar devices in the access to exit leading to the exit door, release upon actuation of the fire alarm signal. c) the locking device releases immediately upon loss of power controlling the electromagnetic locking mechanism and its associated auxiliary controls. d) the locking device releases immediately upon actuation of a manually operated switch readily accessible only to authorized personnel.
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Range of Plain Point LEDs and Seven Segment LED options. LCD modules in many configurations.
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Momentary ON keys. A variety of keypads upto 4 X 8 key matrix. Toggle switches. All modes of onchip serial port communication facility. I2C components including RTC, EEPROMs. SPI Bus based EEPROM devices.
All modes of the serial port. Interfacing I2C/SPI Bus devices. Range of keypads. Many LED/LCD interfacing possibilities.
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6.3 ALGORITHM
Step 1: Display Date and Time. Step 2: Exam authority log in into smart box security system. Step 3: Smart box check Log-in date and time. Step 4: If date and time matches, initialize the user attempts else RESET the system. Step 5: If attempts are less than or equal to 3, then ask for password or go to step 4. Step 6: If number of attempts exceed 3, then TERMINATE the system with 5 minute delay. Step 7: If password matches, open the smart box and distribute the papers. Step 8: End
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6.4 FLOWCHART
NO
YES
NO
YES
INITIALLIZE ATEMPT=1
NO
IF ATTEMPTS <= 3
YES
X
ATTEMPT ++
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IF PASSWOR D MATCHES
YES
OPEN THE SMART BOX
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module. Later on, we have sort out the problem associated with smart box synchronization with other modules.
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CHAPTER 8 APPLICATIONS
8.1 Introduction
In present scenario, most of the examinations are conducted offline at different cities across the globe. The existing system of exam conduction is completely manual. From the beginning of the procedure, there is complete manual interface such as paper printing, paper collection, distribution and finally deliver to the exam center and it increases the chances of paper leak. One basic requirement of exam should be maintained. These should be right time of paper printing, collection, and distribution as per exam schedule. So, this project will be helpful to reduce the chances of examination paper leak. This methodology can be applied in many national level exam, university and board exam specially. This technology is helpful to reduce the government loss because there is huge amount which is spent on conducting exam on national level.
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8.3 Applications
The proposed outcome is Exam Paper Security System which can also be developed for further improvements. This project can be efficiently utilized in organizing examination of university boards and competition level exams. This technology is helpful to reduce the government loss because there is huge amount which is spent on conducting exam on national level.
It will also save the time wasted because of conduction of re-examination. If the paper is leaked then only one person is responsible for that who can be easily caught.
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CONCLUSION
In the project stage I, we have already done with the documentation part of the project and analysis and study of various module and components that will be using in the circuit. In the project stage II, we completed our project within stipulated time and done all the works ranging from PCB designing to interfacing of hardware and software.
Advantages
The traditional exam paper printing and distribution system (manual mtheod) is having so many loopholes and being a reason of exam paper leak. This offers a great financial loss to the government and exam boards due to re-conduction of the exams. Students also have to suffer from exam paper leak and time wastage due to exam re-conduction. This fact aspires us to make a real time application which can prevent exam paper leak. Parameter Paper printing counting Paper distribution Manual and A publisher Automated and Using a counter for paper counting and stop after counting limits. By smart box and conveyer belt. The centre authority will be allowed to give command. There is only single computer which will be controlled by Exam cell in-charge. The papers will be dropped and collected in a wooden box which is also called safe box. The box will be locked automatically. There is a known number of copies in the box. Now, this box will be passed to outside the room with the help of conveyer belt. The box will be collected at the window and respective box will be distributed to the centre respectively. Here we can observe that only one person is operating the whole process. In the project, there is very few chances of paper leak. Even though, if it happens then only one person is responsible and this will bring out the defaulter. There is no human intervention in the whole process and it increases the efficiency as well as decreases the chances of paper leak.
prints
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Limitations
1. Smart box circuitry should be monitored by the exam cell authority time to time. 2. If someone changes the data on Real Time Chip (dd/mm/yyyy) the paper can be bring outside the scheduled date of exam and time
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ANNEXURE
A1. DATA SHEETS
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A2. CODING
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S. No.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.
Particulars
Glass PCB 8051 Microcontroller Crystal Oscillator (various) Chip Socket (various) Capacitor (various) Resistor (various) Push to on Switch Connectors (male and female) Network Resistance LED Positive Voltage Regulator (7805 & 7812) LCD (16*2) DS 1307 (RTC) Hex keypad Stepper Motor Electromagnetic Lock Diode Two Pins Connectors
Quantity
1 2 4 5 10 10 4 5 2 20 4 2 1 1 2 1 4 6 Total
Cost (Rs.)
180 100 30 25 30 10 12 20 24 10 20 240 80 240 300 2000 4 15 3340/-
2. Consumable Cost
S. No.
1. 2.
Particulars
Wooden Box Report Writing & Stationary Cost
Quantity
1 6 Total
Cost (Rs.)
1500 2100 3600/-
REFERENCES
[1] http://www.mikroe.com/eng/chapters/view/65/chapter-2-8051-microcontrollerarchitecture [2] http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/embedded_system/8051_Microcontroller [3] http://www.freewebs.com/maheswakhede/lcd.html [4] http://www.8051projects.net/lcd-interfacing [5] http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/login.jsp?url=http%3A%2F%ieee.org
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[6] http://www.engineersgarage.com/microcontroller/8051projects/interface-lcd-at89c51circuit [7] http://www.botskool.com/user-pages/tutorials/electronics/2X16-lcd-and4X4keypadinterfacing-8051-assembly-language [8] http://www.beyondlogic.org/parlcd/parlcd.html [9] http://www.engineersgarage.com/sites/default/files/LCD%2016X2.pdf [10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/registers [11] http://en.wikipedia/wiki/capacitors [12] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/voltage_regulator [13] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/light-emiting-diode [14] http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/components/led.html [15] http://www.itl.nist.gov/iad/mig/publications/AShistory/index.html [16] http://www.businessweek.com/1998/08/b3566022.html
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
[1]. Ramakand Gayakwad, Op-Amps and Linear Integrated Circuits, Prentice Hall India Publication Company. [2]. Roy Choudhuri, Linear Integrated Circuits, New Age Inernational Pvt. Ltd. [3]. J. Bannet, D.W. Price, A. Rudys, J. Singer, and D. S. Wallach, Hack-A-Vote: Security Box, IEEE Security and Privacy, pg 32-37, Jan-Feb 2004. [4]. Michel Mouly & Marie-Bernadatte Pautet, The conveyor belt system for the box security, Pearson Publication. [5]. William Stallings, Wireless Communication, Tata Magraw Hill Publication [6]. Stephen ansolabehere, resudial security box attribute to technology, the Caltech/Mit box technology Project,version 2,march 30,2001. [7]. The History of box technology system Evaluations at NIST. [8]. L.Rabiner, A tutorial on hidden Markov models and selected applications in box technology Proc. IEEE, vol. 77,pp.257-286,feb.1989.
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