2 MARKS QUESTIONS OPTICAL COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKS UNIT I OPTICAL NETWORKING COMPONENTS

1. What is an optical network? An optical network is not necessarily all-optical: the transmission is certainly optical, but the switching could be optical, or electrical, or hybrid Also, an optical is not necessarily packet-switched. 2. What are the advantages of optical network?

Huge bandwidth, Low signal attenuation (as low as 0.2 dB/km), Immunity to electromagnetic interference, High security of signal because of no electromagnetic radiation, No crosstalk and interferences between fibers in the same cable, Low signal distortion, suitable for carrying digital information, Low power requirement, Low material usage, small space requirement, light weight, non-flammable, cost-

effective and high electrical resistance. 3. Give an example for the First generation and second generation optical networks? First generation optical networks, FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) SONET/SDH (Synchronous optical network/ Synchronous digital hierarchy) ESCON (Enterprise serial connection). Second generation optical networks, Services Transparency. WDM Architecture.

Optical Components.

4. Why is WDM technique preferred over TDM?

WDM is the favorite multiplexing technology for practical optical communication networks since all of the end-user equipment needs to operate only at the bit rate of a WDM channel, which can be chosen arbitrarily, e.g., peak electronic processing speed. 5. Why do you need multiplexing? What are the different types of multiplexing? The need for multiplexing is driven by the fact that it is much more economical to transmit data at higher rates over a single fiber than it is to transmit at lower rates over multiple fibers, in most applications. There are three types of multiplexing, Time division multiplexing (TDM) Optical time division multiplexing (OTDM) Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)

6. Define transparency. Transparency can be defined as the lightpaths can carry data as a variety of bit rates, protocols, and so forth, and can, in effect, be made protocol insensitive. Transparency can be defined as an operator can provide a variety of different services using a single infrastructure. The infrastructure is future-proof in that if protocols or bit rates change, the equipment deployed in the network is still likely to be able to support the new protocols and bit rates without requiring a complete overhaul of the entire network. 7. What is the function of couplers? What are the different types of optical couplers? A coupler is a device which is used to combine and split signals in an optical network. Different types of couplers, Directional coupler, Star coupler, Fused fiber coupler,

2 x 2 coupler. Good optical couplers should have low insertion losses. Good optical couplers should have low polarization-dependent loss. Insensitive to temperature. Reliability.

8. What are the requirements of good couplers?

9. What is the function of isolators?

An isolator is a device used to allow transmission in one direction through it but block all transmission in the other direction. Isolators are used in systems at the output of optical amplifiers. Types of isolators, A polarization-dependent isolator, A polarization-independent isolator.

10. What is an isolator? List the two important key parameter of an isolator?

An isolator is a device used to allow transmission in one direction through it but block all transmission in the other direction. Isolators are used in systems at the output of optical amplifiers. Key Parameter: Insertion Loss Isolation Loss

11. What is the function of circulators? A circulator is similar to an isolator, except that it has multiple ports, typically three or four ports. In a three-port circulator, an input signal on port 1 is sent out on port 2, an input signal on port 2 is sent out on port 3, and an input signal on port 3 is sent out on port 1. Types of circulators, Three-port circulator, Four-port circulator.

12. What is the function of filter? List the different types of filter. A filter is a device used to select on particular wavelength and reject all other wavelengths. Types of filters,

Fixed filter Tunable filter. Gratings Bragg gratings Fabry perot filter. Mach zehnder interferometer. Good optical filters should have low insertion losses. The loss should be independent of the state of polarization of the input signals. The passband of a filter should be insensitive to variations in ambient temperature. The passband skirts should be sharp

Fixed filter:-

Tunable filter:-

13. What are the requirements of a good filter?

14. Define grating. The term grating is used to describe almost any device whose operation involves interference among multiple optical signals originating from the same source but with different relative phase shifts. An exception is a device where the multiple optical signals are generated by repeated traversals of a single cavity; such devices are called etalons. Type of gratings, A transmission grating, A reflection grating.

15. What is the transfer function of fabry perot filter?

The power transfer function of a filter is the fraction of input light power that is transmitted by the filter as a function of optical frequency f, or wavelength. The transfer function is given by,

This can also be expressed in terms of the optical free-space wavelength as,

16. What is the transfer function of Mach-Zehnder interferometer? The power transfer function of the Mach-Zehnder interferometer is given by,

17. What is the transfer function of Acousto-optic tunable filter? The power transfer function of the Acousto-optic tunable filter is given by,

18. What is Multiplexer? List the different types of multiplexer. A multiplexer combine signals at different wavelength on its input port onto a common output port and demultiplexer performs the opposite function. Types of multiplexers, Gratings Bragg gratings Multilayer dielectric thin film filter. Arrayed waveguide grating.

19. What is the function of an optical amplifier?

The main function of the optical amplifier is to strengthen the weak signal without being any conversion. Three different types of optical amplifiers:

Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, Raman amplifiers, and Semiconductor optical amplifiers.

20. Write the principle of operation of EDFA. Stark splitting Three of the energy levels of erbium ions in silica glass are labeled El, E2, and E3 in order of increasing energy. Each energy level that appears as a discrete line in an isolated ion of erbium is split into multiple energy levels when these ions are introduced into silica glass. This process is termed Stark splitting. Thermalization Within each energy band, the erbium ions are distributed in the various levels within that band in a nonuniform manner by a process known as thermalization. 21. State the important parameters used to characterize the suitability of a switch for optical networking. Extinction ratio, Insertion loss, A latching, The reliability of the switch is an important factor, Switches should have a low polarization-dependent loss (PDL).

22. What are the main considerations in building large switches?

Number of switch elements required. Loss uniformity. Number of crossovers. Blocking characteristics.

23. What are the different types of architecture available in large switches? Crossbar Clos Spanke Benes Spanke-Benes

24. What is the function of wavelength converters? A wavelength converter is a device that converts data from one incoming wavelength to another outgoing wavelength. There are four fundamental ways of achieving wavelength conversion: (1) Optoelectronic approach, (2) Optical gating, (3) Interferometric, and (4) Wave mixing. 25. What is the need of wavelength conversion? Wavelength converters are useful components in WDM networks for three major reasons. Data may enter the network at a wavelength that is not suitable for use within the network. Wavelength converters may be needed within the network to improve the utilization of the available wavelengths on the network links. Wavelength converters may be needed at boundaries between different networks if the different networks are managed by different entities.

UNIT II SECTION - I 1. What is SONET?

SONET AND SDH NETWORKS

Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) or Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Lower rates can also be transferred via an electrical interface. 2. What are the advantages of TDM? It is possible to transmit more number of signals through a single channel. It is immune to amplitude non-linearities. Equal time slot is allocated for more number of users, hence the traffic gets reduced. More number of signals can be transmitted in a single wavelength with equal time slot, since the bandwidth utilization is more efficient. 3. What is statistical time division multiplexing? Statistical time division multiplexing (STDM) is one method for transmitting several types of data simultaneously across a single transmission cable or line (such as a T1 or T3 line). STDM is often used for managing data being transmitted via a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN). In these situations, the data is often simultaneously transmitted from any number of input devices attached to the network, including computers, printers, or fax machines. The concept behind STDM is similar to TDM, or time division multiplexing.

4. What is PDH? List the draw backs. The Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) is a technology used in

telecommunications networks to transport large quantities of data over digital transport equipment such as fibre optic and microwave radio systems. The basic data transfer rate is a data stream of 2048 kbit/s.

Drawbacks: In PDH it is difficult to pick low bit rate stream from high bit rate stream. In PDH it is very difficult to connect one vendor's equipment to another's via a transmission link. Service restoration time is several seconds to minutes. Network Management is totally failure in PDH.

5. List out different layers in SONET architecture? Line Layer Path Layer Section Layer Photonic Layer

6. What is the function of Line layer? The main function of the line layer is to provide synchronization and to perform multiplexing for the path layer. Its functions include protection switching, synchronization, multiplexing, line maintenance, and error monitoring.

7. What is the function of Path layer? The main function of the path layer is to map the signals into a format required by the line layer. Its functions include reading, interpreting, and modifying the POH for performance and APS. 8. What is the function of Section layer? The section layer deals with the transport of an STS-N frame across the physical medium. Its main functions are framing, scrambling, error monitoring, and section maintenance. 9. What is the function of Photonic layer? Its main function is the conversion between STS-N and OC-N signals. Its functions include wavelength launching, pulse shaping, and modulation of power levels. 10. What are the elements of STS-1 frame? The STS level 1 (STS-1) is the basic building block of SONET optical interfaces with a data rate of 51.84 Mbps. The STS consists of two parts: the STS payload and the STS overhead. STS-1 frame consisting of 9 rows and 90 columns. First 3 bytes of each row is TOH and the remaining bytes are POH and Payload.

11. How is STS-1 frame organized? As shown in Figure, the first three columns of the STS-1 frame are for the Transport Overhead. The three columns each contain nine bytes. Of these, nine bytes are overhead for the Section layer (for example, Section Overhead), and 18 bytes are overhead for the Line layer (for example, Line Overhead). The remaining 87 columns constitute the STS-1 Envelope Capacity (payload and path overhead).

The basic signal of SONET is the Synchronous Transport Signal level 1, or STS-1. The STS frame format is composed of 9 rows of 90 columns of 8-bit bytes, or 810 bytes.

12. Define TOH. TOH is transport overhead. It contains two layers such as SOH and LOH. SOH provides communication between adjacent network elements such as regenerators. LOH is used for communication between STS-N signals and STS Mulitiplexer and demultiplexer. 13. Define LOH. The line overhead (LOH) of the SONET STS-1 frame consists of 18 bytes found in rows 4 to 9 of columns 1, 2, and 3 of the SONET frame. The LOH is processed by all SONET NEs except for regenerators or repeaters. The LOH is responsible for performance monitoring of the individual STS-1s, carrying express orderwire communications information, data channels for OAM&P, pointers to indicate the start of the SPE, protection switching information.

14. Define POH.

The POH is assigned to and transported with the SONET payload. It is created by the PTE as part of the SPE until the payload is demultiplexed at the terminating path equipment.

The STS POH is responsible for performance monitoring of the STS SPE, signal labeling (equipped or unequipped), carrying the path status, and path trace.

15. What is the actual data rate of the SPE of a SONET STS-1 frame? The actual data rate of the SPE can be computed as follows: Data Rate = 87 columns * 9 rows * 8 bits/byte * 8000 frames/sec = 50.112 Mbps
16. What are VTs?

The sub STS-1 signals are called as VTs. VT is virtual tributaries. Four types of VTs defined in SONET VT 1.5 (DS-1: 1.544 Mbit/s) VT 2 (E-1: 2.048 Mbit/s) VT 3 (DS-1C: 3.152 Mbit/s) VT 6 (DS-2: 6.312 Mbit/s)

An STS - SPE 1 which is sub divided into lower data rate blocks are called virtual tributaries.

It is of 108 bytes each bit rate is 108*8*8000 = 6.912 Mbps.

17. Define SONET alarms.

SONET alarms are defined as anomalies, defects, and failures. An anomaly is the smallest discrepancy that can be observed between the actual and desired characteristics of an item.

If the density of anomalies reaches a level at which the ability to perform a required function has been interrupted, it is termed a defect.

The inability of a function to perform a required action persisted beyond the maximum time allocated is termed a failure.

18. What are the different types of Network elements used in SONET architecture?

Regenerator Terminal Multiplexer Add/Drop Multiplexer Broadband Digital Cross-Connect Wideband Digital Cross-Connect Digital Loop Carrier

19. What are the different types of Topologies available in SONET architecture?

Point to point topology.

Point-to-Multipoint Topology

Hub Topology Ring Topology Mesh Topology

20. Differentiate Unidirectional and Bidirectional Rings in SONET standards.

Unidirectional Ring The working traffic is routed over the clockwise direction. Data is always passed on the working path and not on the protection path. Large round trip delay Single time slot is allocated to both working and protection fiber path.

Bidirectional Ring The working traffic is routed over the anticlockwise direction. Data is passed on both working path and the protection path. Less delay It estabishes fullduplex path for connection over shortest path in a ring.

21. What is function of Network management in SONET architecture? The functions of the NMs are as follows, Fault management (FM), Performance management (PM), Accounting management (AM), Security management (SM), Configuration management (CM), Trouble ticketing, and Billing applications and all is the function of the operations support system (OSS).

22. What is the difference between SONET and SDH? SONET SDH

Synchronous Optical Networking. SONET standards are employed in North America. Bit rate is 51.84 Mbps. SONET uses VT, such as VT 1.5, 2, 3, 6.

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy. SDH standards are employed in Europe or Japan. Bit rate is 155.52 Mbps. SDH uses VT, such as VC 11, 12, 2, 3, 4.

SECTION II 23. What is SDH? Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) or Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers or light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Lower rates can also be transferred via an electrical interface. 24. Why do we need Multiplexing? Explain. Multiplexing is needed in a network to avoid traffic problem. Multiplexing is a process by which more number of signals is transmitted through a single fiber. Multiplexing also reduces the number of laser sources required at the transmitter side and number of detector sources at the receiver side. If multiplexing is not done or employed, Large bandwidth will be occupied. Power consumption will be more. Traffic problem is also increased. Circuit become complex.

25. List out different layers in SDH architecture? Path Layer

Multiplex Section Layer Regenerator Section Layer Photonic Layer

26. What is the function of Path layer? The main function of the path layer is to map the signals into a format required by the line layer. Its functions include reading, interpreting, and modifying the POH for performance and APS. 27. What is the function of Section layer? The section layer deals with the transport of an STM-N frame across the physical medium. Its main functions are framing, scrambling, error monitoring, and section maintenance. 28. What is the function of Photonic layer? Its main function is the conversion between STM-N signals and light pulses on the Its functions include wavelength launching, pulse shaping, and modulation of

fiber media. power levels. 29. What are the elements of STM-1 frame? The STM-1 base frame is structured with the following characteristics: Length: 270 column x 9 row = 2430 bytes Duration (Frame repetition time): 125 s i.e. 8000 frame/s Rate (Frame capacity): 2430 x 8 x 8000 = 155.520 Mbit/s Payload = 2349bytes x 8bits x 8000frames/sec = 150.336 Mbit/s 30. Define TOH.

TOH is transport overhead. It contains two layers such as SOH and LOH.

SOH provides communication between adjacent network elements such as regenerators.

LOH is used for communication between STM-N signals and STM Mulitiplexer and demultiplexer.

31. Define LOH. The line overhead (LOH) of the SDH STM-1 frame consists of 18 bytes found in rows 4 to 9 of columns 1, 2, and 3 of the SDH frame. The LOH is processed by all SDH NEs except for regenerators or repeaters. The LOH is responsible for performance monitoring of the individual STM-1s, carrying express orderwire communications information, data channels for OAM&P, pointers to indicate the start of the SPE, protection switching information. 32. Define POH. The POH is assigned to and transported with the SDH payload. It is created by the PTE as part of the SPE until the payload is demultiplexed at the terminating path equipment. The STM POH is responsible for performance monitoring of the STM-N SPE, signal labeling (equipped or unequipped), carrying the path status, and path trace. 33. What is the actual data rate of the SDH STM-1 frame? The SDH STM-1 line rate of 155.520 Mbps can be computed as follows: Line rate = 270 columns * 9 rows * 8 bits/byte * 8000 frames/sec = 155.520 Mbps

34. Define SDH alarms. SDH alarms are defined as anomalies, defects, and failures.

An anomaly is the smallest discrepancy that can be observed between the actual and desired characteristics of an item.

If the density of anomalies reaches a level at which the ability to perform a required function has been interrupted, it is termed a defect.

The inability of a function to perform a required action persisted beyond the maximum time allocated is termed a failure.

35. What are the different types of Network elements used in SDH architecture? Regenerator Terminal Multiplexer Add/Drop Multiplexer Broadband Digital Cross-Connect Wideband Digital Cross-Connect Digital Loop Carrier

36. What are the different types of Topologies available in SDH architecture?

Point to point topology.

Point-to-Multipoint Topology

Hub Topology Ring Topology Mesh Topology

37. Differentiate Unidirectional and Bidirectional Rings in SDH standards. Unidirectional Ring Bidirectional Ring

The working traffic is routed over the clockwise direction. Data is always passed on the working path and not on the protection path. Large round trip delay Single time slot is allocated to both working and protection fiber path.

The working traffic is routed over the anticlockwise direction. Data is passed on both working path and the protection path. Less delay It estabishes fullduplex path for connection over shortest path in a ring.

38. What is function of Network management in SDH architecture? The functions of the NMs are as follows, Fault management (FM), Performance management (PM), Accounting management (AM), Security management (SM), Configuration management (CM), Trouble ticketing, and Billing applications and all is the function of the operations support system (OSS).

UNIT III

BROADCAST AND SELECT NETWORKS

1. What is broadcast and select Networks? The Network sends the signal received from each node to all the nodes. Thus no routing function is provided by the network.

Information stream from multiple sources are optically combined by the star coupler and the signal power of each stream is equally split and forward to all of the nodes on their received fiber. Ex: - Ethernets, Token Rings, FDDI Networks.

2. Name any 2 network topologies for Broadcast and select Network? Star topology Bus topology

3. What is star topology?

All nodes are connected by a central unit (or) hub It requires less no of couplers. Propagation loss is given by Lstar = 10 log10n (2n-1) 10 log10

4. What is Bus topology?

In bus topology nodes transmit into the bus througha coupler and received from the bus via another coupler. All nodes are directly connected to the bus It requirs more no of couplers Propagation loss is given by Lbus = 2 (1-) 2n-32n-1

5. What is single-hop network?

Single hop refers to networks where information transmitted in the form of light reaches its destination without being converted to an electrical form at any intermediate point.

6. What is multi-hop network?

There is an electro optical conversion takes place between transmitter and receiver. There is no direct connection of nodes in this network. The transmission of datas in this network purely depends on the signal wavelength.

7. Compare Single-hop and Multi-hop Networks. SINGLE HOP MULTI HOP

There is no electro optical There is an electro optical conversion conversion between transmitter and takesplace between transmitter and receiver. receiver. Nodes are directly connected. There is no direct connection between Nodes.

8. List the importance of Media Access control protocol. To resolve contentions. Avoid or minimize collisions. To improve the level of system performance.

9. List the three (any) Media access control protocol. The three types of Media Access control protocols are Slotted Aloha / Slotted Aloha protocol DT WDMA protocol Scheduling protocol.

12. What is synchronisation in Broadcast and select network? Synchronisation means that all nodes have a suitable time reference so that signals transmitted in diferent slots do not collide anywhere in the network. 13. What is SA/SA protocol?

Whenever a node, say x, has a data packet to send, it sends a control packet in a control slot and the data packet in the data slot immediately following it. 14. What is DT-WDMA protocol? On the data channels as well as the control channel, time is divided into slots, but the size of a data slot is n times that of a control slot. Unlike SA/SA the data slots do not overlap in time and control slots are (-1,0),(0,1), (1,2) data slots can be (-n,o),(o,n),(n,2n). 15. What is scheduling protocol? Scheduling protocol is defined as that all nodes that have packets to transmit to the same destination node schedule their transmissions in different data slots so that they never contend with each other. 16. Define Access delay in SA/SA protocol. The Access delay is defined as the delay between the time at which a packet is available for transmission at a Node and the time at which it is first transmitted. 17. What is Media Access control protrocol? To resolve contentions and avoid or minimize, wasteful collisions, some co-ordination is required between the various nodes in the network. A mechanism that provides this coordination is called MAC protocol. 18. What is matching algorithm? What are its different types? Matching is a subset of packets such that no packets in the subset have the same source node (or) destination node. The algorithm used for matching is called matching algorithm. Types of matching algorithm Maximum matching algorithm Maximal matching algorithm.

19. Write notes on Lambdanet testbed. Developed by Bellcore

Topology Number of Wavelength Wavelength Spacing Bit rate per wavelength

Star 18 2 nm 1.5 Gb/s

20. Write notes on NTTs testbed. Topology Number of Wavelength Wavelength Spacing Bit rate per wavelength Star 100 1 nm 622 Gb/s

21. Write notes on Rainbow-I testbed. Topology Number of Wavelength Wavelength Spacing Bit rate per wavelength Star 12 1 nm 300 Gb/s

22. Write notes on Rainbow-II testbed. Topology Number of Wavelength Wavelength Spacing Bit rate per wavelength Star 4 1 nm 1 Gb/s

23. Write notes on STARNET-I testbed.

Topology Number of Wavelength Wavelength Spacing Bit rate per wavelength

Star 2 10 GHZ 1.25 Gb/s

24. Write notes on BBC testbed. Topology Number of Wavelength Wavelength Spacing Bit rate per wavelength Interconnected Star 16 4 nm 2.5 Gb/s

UNIT IV

WAVELENGTH ROUTING NETWORKS

1. What is a wavelength routing network? The nodes in the network are capable of routing different wavelengths at an input port to different output ports. This enables to setup many simultaneous lightpaths using the same wavelength in the network; (i.e,) the capacity can be reused spatially. 2. What is meant by wavelength reuse in wavelength routing networks? The number of wavelengths available may be limited; the network can still provide enormous capacities, since wavelengths can be spatially reused in the network. Here two separate lightpaths are both carried at the same wavelength 1. Thus the number of lightpaths that the network can support can be much larger than the number of wavelength available. 3. What is meant by Virtual Topology?

The virtual topology is the graph consisting of the netwok nodes, with an edge between two nodes if there is a lightpath between them. The virtual topology thus refers to the topology seen by the higher layers using the optical layer, the lightpaths look like links between ATM switches. 4. What is static network? In static network, the set of lightpaths that can be established between users is fixed. A static network does not have any switches or dynamic wavelength converters in it. Otherwise, the routing pattern at the nodes is fixed and it cannot be changed. A static network uses no switches inside the WXC nodes.

5. What is reconfigurable network? A reconfigurable network contains switches or dynamic wavelength converters, giving it the capability to change the routing pattern at the nodes. In reconfigurable network, the set of lightpaths that can be changed, by changing the states of the switch or wavelength converters at the WXC nodes. A reconfigurable network uses switches inside the WXC nodes or wavelength converters. 6. What are the different types of regeneration techniques for digital data in node design? 3R Regeneration with retiming and reshaping. 2R Regeneration with reshaping and without retiming. 1R Retransmitted without reshaping and retiming.

7. What is fixed and full wavelength conversion in node design?

In fixed wavelength conversion, a signal entering the node on wavelength i must always leave the node on wavelength j, regardless of its input or output ports.

In full wavelength conversion, a signal entering the node on i can leave the node on any wavelength j.

8. What is degree of transparency in node design?

The degree of transparency offered by an electronic implementation depends on the type os signal regeneration employed within the node. If the implementation is fully analog, it can offer almost the same level of transparency as the optical one. If the implementation is digital, it clearly cannot support analog traffic.
9. Compare optical and electronic wavelength cross connects.

Optical WXC Transparency Wavelength Conversion Bit rates Cross connect size Yes Difficult > 10 Gb/s Small

Electronic WXC Difficult Easier 2.5 Gb/s Large

10. What are the issues in Network design and operation of wavelength routing networks? Equipment cost Number of wavelengths required Capacity of the network Number of wavelength converters required Regeneration and retransmission steps Routing and Wavelength assignment of lightpaths.

11. What is online and offline lightpath in network design?

In online lightpath, the demands of lightpaths arise one at a time, and each lightpath must be provided on demand without waiting for future lightpath demand.

In offline lightpath, the entire set of lightpaths that are to be routed up front. the offline is equal to the online case with the additional freedom of rerouting existing lightpaths when new demands for lightpath arise.

12. Define Routing and wavelength assignment. The routing and wavelength assignment can be defined as a set of end to end lightpath requests, determine a route and wavelengths for the requests, used the minimum possible number of wavelengths. 13. What are the conditions essential for a network with undirected lightpaths and undirected edges in wavelength assignment? Two lightpaths must not be assigned the same wavelength on a given link. If no wavelength conversion is available, then a lightpath must be assigned the same wavelength on all the links in its route. 14. Write the steps for wavelength assignment using greedy algorithm. Number the wavelength from 1 to L. Start with the first lightpath from the left and assign to it wavelength 1. Goto the next lightpath starting from the left and assign to it the least numbered wavelength possible, untill all lightpaths are colored. 15. What is meant by chromatic number in wavelength assignment? The minimum number of colors needed to color the nodes of a graph is called the chromatic number of the graph.

16. List the different types of RWA algorithms.

Random-1 For a lightpath request between two nodes, choosen at random. Random-2 Fix two shortest paths between every pair of nodes. Max-used-1 For a lightpath request between two nodes. Among the available wavelength.

Max-used-2 Fix two shortest paths between every pair of nodes.

17. Define wavelength routing testbeds.

Wavelength routing testbeds have been realized because of cooperative efforts involving several companies, both network operators and network equipment suppliers.

With the help of these testbeds it is possible to build operational networks based on existing components and have brought up a number of issues that need to be solved before these networks can be commercialized.

18. Write notes on MWTN testbed. Architecture Topology Router ports Wavelengths OWXC Ring/Mesh 4 4 4 622 Mb/s 230 Km

Channel Spacing Bit Rate Distance -

19. Write notes on AON testbed. Architecture Static

Topology Router ports Wavelengths

Star 8 20 0.4 2.5 Gb/s 100 Km

Channel Spacing Bit Rate Distance -

20. Write notes on ONTC testbed. Architecture Topology Router ports Wavelengths OWXC Linked Rings 2 4 4 155 Mb/s 150 Km

Channel Spacing Bit Rate Distance -

21. Write notes on NTT testbed. Architecture Topology Router ports Wavelengths OADM Ring 2 15 0.8

Channel Spacing -

Bit Rate Distance

622 Mb/s 120 Km

22. Write notes on Alcatel testbed. Architecture Topology Router ports Wavelengths OEADM Ring 2 4 1.6 2.5 Gb/s 160 Km

Channel Spacing Bit Rate Distance -

23. Write notes on MONET testbed. Architecture Topology Router ports Wavelengths OWXC Mesh/ Ring 4 8 1.6 10 Gb/s 2000 Km

Channel Spacing Bit Rate Distance -

24. Write notes on NTONC testbed. Architecture OADM

Topology Router ports Wavelengths

Dual ring 2 4 4 2.5 Gb/s 700 Km

Channel Spacing Bit Rate Distance -

25. Write notes on PHTON testbed. Architecture Topology Router ports Wavelengths OWXC Mesh 2 8 3.2 2.5/10 Gb/s 500 Km

Channel Spacing Bit Rate Distance -

26. What is the function of simple network management protocol? Configuration management. Performance management. Fault management. Security management. Accounting management.

UNIT V 1. Write the concept of SDM.

HIGH CAPACITY NETWORKS

In SDM, bit rate is kept constant with use of more number of fibers. It has two main drawbacks. It requires more fibers and the cost of laying new fibers varies widely.

2. Write the concept of TDM.

In TDM, the transmission bit rate is increased on the fiber. The two major disadvantages are the chromatic dispersion and polarization mode dispersion (PMD).

3. Write the concept of WDM. In WDM, bit rate is kept constant with addition of more wavelengths, each operating at the original bit rate over the same fiber.
4. How WDM approach differ from TDM approach?

Because of the lower bit rates, the distance limit due to chromatic dispersion is much larger for WDM systems than for equivalent TDM systems.

In WDM transparent capacity can be increased in a modular manner by adding additional wavelengths.

WDM system can be designed to be transparent systems. In WDM, network design is less complicated.

5. What is meant by photonic packet switching Networks?

The optical Networks that are capable of providing packet switched service at the optical layer are known as photonic packet switching networks.

The main purpose of PPS networksa is to provide much highet speed of data transmission with good accuracy.

6. Define synchnonization Synchnonization can be defined as the process of alighing two signal streams in time. In PPS networks, it refers to the alignment of an incoming pulse stream and a locally available clock pulse stream or to the relative alignment of two incoming pulse streams. 7. What is switching in PPS networks? It is the process of switching the incoming packet to the appropriate output port determined by the forwarding process. 8. Define OTDM At the inputs to the network, lower speed data streams are multiplexed optically in to a higher speed stream and at the outputs of the network. At the output side the lower speed streams must be extracted from the higher speed stream optically by means of a demultiplexing Function. In OTDM, the multiplexing and demultiplexing operations are performed entirely optically at high speeds. 9. What is meant by bit-interleaving? Optical signals representing data streams from multiple sources are interleaved in time to produce a single data stream. The interleaving can be done on a bit by bit basis. In bit-interleaving, framing pulses plays a major role. If n input data streams are to be multiplexed a framing pulses are used for demultiplexing individual packets from a multiplexed stream of packets. 10. What is meant by packet-interleaving? Optical signals representing data streas from multiple sources are interleaved in time to produce a single data stream. The interleaving can be done on a packet by packet basis. In

packet interleaving, framing pulses plays a major role which is used for demultiplexing individual packets from a multiplexed stream of packets. In packet interleaving, Framing pulses mark the boundary between packets. 11. Define Fire bit-interleaved data stream A bank of five AND gates is used to break up the incoming high speed stream into fire parallel streams each with Five times the pulse spacing of the multiplexed stream. This procedure is called as five bit interleaved data stream. 12. Write short notes on NOLM.

NOLM Non-linear optical Loop mirror. The Non-linear optical loop mirror consists of 3-dB directional coupler, a fiber loop and a non-linear element (NLE) located asymmetrically in the fiber loop.

13. What is meant by NALM?

NALM Nonlinear amplifying Loop mirror. When the pulse travelling in the fiber loop clockwise direction is amplified by an EDFA shortly after it leaves the directional coupler. The use of an amplifier inside the Fiber loop is known as nonlinear amplifying loop mirror.

14. What is TOAD? TOAD Terahentz optical asymmetric demultiplexer. The configuration has the following two properties are called TOAD.
I.

First Non-linear effects that works with shorter lengths of Fiber. Second, to realize an AND gate, it require an NLE whose non-linear

II.

properties can be conveniently controlled by the use of control pulses.

15. What is meant by soliton trapping? The two pulses undergo wavelength shifts in opposite directions so that the group velocity difference due to the wavelength shift exactly compensates the group velocity difference due to birefringence. This phenomenon is called soliton trapping. 16. What is the need for tunable delay in PPS?

Tunable delay is very essential to achieve the synchronization. A tunable delay line capable of realizing any delay in excess of a reference delay from 0 to T-2-k, in steaps of 2-k

The parameter k controls the resolution of the delay.

17. What is the need for phase lock loop? A phase lock loop can be used to adjust the frequency and phase of a local clock source - a mode locked laser of an incoming periodic stream. 18. How can we improve the effect of non-linearity in phase lock loop? The two wavelengths can be choosen to lies symmetrically on either side of the zero dispersion wavelength of the fiber so that the group velocities of the two pulse streams are equal. 19. What is a Broadcast OTDM network? The OTDM network is based on a star topology or a bus topology is known as Broadcast OTDM networks. In a star based network, all the nodes are connected by a pair of optical fibers to a control star coupler. In Broadcast OTDM networks, a multichannel media-access protocol is required so that the nodes can decide how to tune transmitters and receivers.

20. What is switch based networks? The electronic packet switched network is based on an arbitany mesh topology is called a store and forward network. (Eg: ATM and IP networks) In switch based networks, the links run at very high speeds (100 GB/s) and the signals are handled entirely optically within each routing node. 21. List out the functions of a Routing node. Synchnonization Header Recognition Buffering

22. Define Deflection Routing Deflection routing was invented by Baran in 1964. It was implemented in the context of processor interconnection networks in the 1980s. In PPS, buffers are very expensive for high transmission speeds; hence deflection routing is used as an alternative to buffering. Deflection routing is also sometimes called Hot-potato routing. 23. What is meant by buffering? Buffering is the process of store the packets from the incoming links before they can be transmitted or forwarded on the outgoing links. 24. What are the reasons to store or buffer a packet before it is forwarded on its outgoing link? First to determine how the packet must be routed. Second to find the free input and output switch port for avoiding the queue. Third to making the packets wait for its turn.

25. What is meant by hot potato routing? Deflection routing which doesnt use buffers except for packet header processing is called as hot potato routing. 26. Define Deadlock or Livelock. When a network employs deflection routing, there is the possibility that a packet will be deflected forever and never reach its destination. This phenomenon is called as dead lock.
27. Define OTDM Testbeds

The main objective of the OTDM testbeds is the demonstration of certain key optical TDM network Functions such as multiplexing, demultiplexing, routing/switching, header recognition optical clock recovery, pulse generation, pulse compression and pulse storage. 28. Write notes on KEOPS testbed. Topology Bit Rate Switch 2.5 Gb/s & 10 Gb/s 4 x 4 Switch, Switching, Packet Synchronizer. 16 x 16 broadcast select and switching. 29. Write notes on FRONTIERNET testbed. Topology Bit Rate Switch 2.5 Gb/s 16 X 16 tunable lasers.

Functions Demonstrated -

Functions Demonstrated -

30. Write notes on NTT testbed. Topology Bit Rate Switch 10 Gb/s 4 x 4 broadcast select.

Functions Demonstrated -

31. Write notes on Synchrolan testbed.

Topology Bit Rate

Bus 40 Gb/s Bit-interleaved data transmission and reception.

Functions Demonstrated -

32. Write notes on BT Labs testbed. Topology Bit Rate Switch 100 Gb/s Routing in a 1 x 2 switch based on optical header recognition.

Functions Demonstrated -

33. Write notes on Princeton testbed.

Topology Bit Rate

Switch 100 Gb/s Packet Compression, TOAD based demultiplexing.

Functions Demonstrated -

34. Write notes on AON testbed.

Topology Bit Rate

Helix 100 Gb/s Optical phase lock loop, pulse generation.

Functions Demonstrated -

35. Write notes on CORD testbed.

Topology Bit Rate

Star 2.5 Gb/s Contention resolution.

Functions Demonstrated -