DEE3253/6533 ANALOGUE

ELECTRONICS FUNDAMENTAL
Diodes
Subtopics
1.0 Semiconductor diodes (3 hours)
1.1 Introduction to semiconductors materials
1.2 Introduction to diode
1.3 Introduction to Zener diode and LED

2.0 Diode applications ( 6 hours)
2.1 Load line analysis and diode approximation
2.2 Series-Parallel Configuration
2.3 Half-wave and Full-wave rectification
2.4 Clippers and Clampers
2.5 Zener diode application
Early Diodes
Thermionic diodes are thermionic valve devices (also known as
vacuum tubes)
Electrodes surrounded by a vacuum within a glass envelope, similar in
appearance to incandescent light bulbs.


Semiconductor Diodes
Most modern diodes are based on semiconductor p-n junctions
In a p-n diode, conventional current can flow from the p-type
side (the anode) to the n-type side (the cathode), but cannot
flow in the opposite direction.
Diode symbol
Semiconductor Materials
Semiconductor means the elements having a
conductivity between a conductor and an
insulator
Commonly used:
Germanium (Ge)
Silicon (Si)
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
Single-crystal
Compound
Atomic Structure
Every atom is composed of 3 basic particles: electron, proton &
neutron
The outermost orbit are called valence electrons
Semiconductor have only 3 5 valence electrons
Carbon Silicon
Germanium
Atomic Structure
Covalent bonding is the
bonding of atoms,
strengthened by the sharing
of electrons
Ex: covalent bonding of
silicon atoms
Energy Levels
There are specific energy levels
associated with each orbiting
electron





To become a conductor,
electron from valence band
must absorb energy to across
the energy gap and into the
conduction band

The energy levels are different for every element

Extrinsic Materials
n-type materials
Extra electrons in the
covalent bond gets from
n-type materials such as
antimony, arsenic and
phosphorus
Extrinsic Materials
p-type materials
Extra holes in the
covalent bond gets from
p-type materials such as
boron, gallium and
indium
Semiconductor Diodes
By simply joining the n-type and p-type
material together, a semiconductor diode
was born
depletion
region
Semiconductor Diodes
Connect the diode to a source:





The electrons in n-type material will attracts to +ve terminal of
the source
The holes in p-type material will attracts to ve terminal of the
source
So, the depletion region becomes bigger and electrons cannot
pass, hence no current flows
This is called REVERSE BIAS
Semiconductor Diodes
Connect the diode to a source:





The electrons in n-type material will attracts to +ve terminal of
the source and jump into p-type material
The holes in p-type material will attracts to ve terminal of the
source and jump into n-type material
So, the depletion region becomes lesser/gone and electrons
can pass, hence current will flows
This is called FORWARD BIAS
Semiconductor Diodes
To conclude, diode can be represented as a
switch (but not ideal)
For a forward-bias, 0.7V (knee voltage, V
D
)
have to be applied for the diode (for silicon)
For germanium, V
D
= 0.2 ~ 0.3V
For gallium arsenide, V
D
= 1.2 ~ 1.4V
Semiconductor Diodes
Comparison of Ge, Si and GaAs diodes
Zener region
Zener Diode
A special type of diode that is supposed to be reversed biased
Zener diode works in zener region where the diode start to
breakdown at breakdown avalanche voltage (V
Z
), and the
current is avalanche current (I
Z
)
It limits a voltage to a certain point to pass through the zener
diode
LED (Light-Emitting Diode)
In a forward-biased p-n
junction, recombination of the
holes and electrons requires
energy possessed by the
unbound free electrons
In Si and Ge, most of the
energy is dissipated in the form
of heat and photons
But in other material such as
GaAs, the energy generate light
but it is invisible for the eye to
see (infrared)
Other materials that emit light
during forward-bias operation
Color Construction Forward
Voltage
Amber
Blue
Green
Orange
Red
White
Yellow
AlInGaP
GaN
GaP
GaAsP
GaAsP
GaN
AlInGaP
2.1
5.0
2.2
2.0
1.8
4.1
2.1
LED (Light-Emitting Diode)
How an LED works
Diode Approximation
Diode equivalent circuits:
Ideal Equivalent Circuit
Simplified Equivalent Circuit
Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit
Purpose: to represent diode
Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit
Approximation representation of the actual diode
Diode have V
D
and r
av
for the slope region
Simplified Equivalent Circuit
Assume straight vertical line of I
D
at V
D

No r
av

Ideal Equivalent Circuit
Diode as an ideal switch
No V
D
or r
av

Load-Line Analysis
A simple analysis which used the diode characteristic to obtain
the Q-point (operation point)
A series diode circuit and characteristic:
Load-Line Analysis

For
For
Connect a line between E / R and E
The overlap of the lines becomes the Q-point of the
diode and I
DQ
and V
DQ
will be obtained
R D R D
I V V V E + = + =
R
E
I R I R I E V
D D D D
= = + = = , 0 , 0
E V V R V E I
D D D D
= = + = = , ) 0 ( , 0
Load-Line Analysis
Problem 2.1a
Determine I
D
, V
D
& V
R
The circuit:
Problem 2.1a
The diode characteristic:
Problem 2.1a
Solution:
The circuit representation:
For


For
R I V V V E
D D R D
+ = + =
mA 24 . 24
33 . 0
8
0 , 0
= = =
+ = =
k R
E
I
R I E V
D
D D
V 8
) 0 ( , 0
= =
+ = =
E V
R V E I
D
D D
Problem 2.1a
The load-line analysis becomes:
R
E
E
Q-point
DQ
I
DQ
V
Problem 2.1a
From the analysis:
V
DQ
= V
D
0.9 V
I
DQ
= I
D
21.5 mA
For V
R
,
V 095 . 7
) 33 . 0 )( 5 . 21 (
=
=
=
k m
R I V
D R
Problem 2.1b
Re-do Problem 2.1a using approximate (simplified) model for
diode and compare the result
The diode characteristic becomes:
Problem 2.1b
The solution:
Problem 2.1b
V
D
is always 0.7 V, so V
D
= V
DQ
= 0.7 V
From the graph, I
DQ
= I
D
22 mA
So, we get V
R
= (22m)(0.33k) = 7.26 V 7.3 V
Using Kirchoffs voltage law, E = V
D
+ V
R




The answer are the same
V 3 . 7
7 . 0 8
=
+ =
R
R
V
V
Problem 2.1c
Re-do Problem 2.1a using ideal model for diode and compare
the result
The diode characteristic becomes:
Problem 2.1c
The solution
Problem 2.1c
V
D
is always 0 V, so V
D
= V
DQ
= 0 V
It acts like an ideal switch
From the graph, I
DQ
= I
D
24.24 mA
So, we get V
R
= (24.24m)(0.33k) = 7.9992 V 8 V
Using Kirchoffs voltage law, E = V
R



The answer are the same
V 8 =
R
V
Series-Parallel Configuration
Diode can be applied to any circuits
Usually diode is represented as an
approximated (simplified) model diode
To keep the calculation simple, just use the
Kirchoffs voltage & current law
Hint: it is easier to use nodal analysis
technique for circuit representation
Important: strong knowledge in CIRCUIT
THEORY!!!!!
Problem 2.5a
Find I
The circuit:
Problem 2.5a
For Si, V
D
= 0.7 V
Notice that the diode is in reverse-bias
configuration
So, no current will flow, I = 0 A
Problem 2.5b
Find I
The circuit:
Problem 2.5b
Solution:
Using nodal analysis, node V

is equal to the
voltage supplied, so V = 20
V
Problem 2.5b
Using the simple Ohms law:
A 965 . 0
20
7 . 0 20
=

= =
R
V
I
Problem 2.5c
Find I
The circuit:
Problem 2.5c
Solution:
One of the diode is in reverse-bias resulting in
open circuit for that part
Problem 2.5c
So, by using the simple Ohms law:
A 1
10
10
= = =
R
V
I
Problem 2.7a
Find V
o

The circuit:
Problem 2.7a
Both the diode are in forward-bias, so both are short-circuited
For Si, V
D
= 0.7 V
For Ge, V
D
= 0.3 V
The circuit becomes:
0.7 V 0.3 V
19 V
SIMPLIFIED
Problem 2.7a
Solution:
Using nodal analysis, voltage at V
o
:
V 5 . 9
2 2
19
0
0 0
=
=

V
k
V
k
V
Problem 2.7b
Find V
o

The circuit:
Problem 2.7b
The circuit becomes:
0.7 V
Problem 2.7b
Solution:
The nodal analysis of node V
o
:
V 7
7 . 4
) 2 (
2 . 1
7 . 0 10
0
0 0
=

=

V
k
V
k
V
Problem 2.11a
Find V
o
& I:
The circuit:
Problem 2.11a
For Si, V
D
= 0.7 V
For Ge, V
D
= 0.3 V
Because of this, current
will flow in the Ges
diode route
Naturally, current will
select the
easiest/fastest route
So, the circuit
becomes:
0.3 V
Problem 2.11a
Solution:
Using Kirchoffs voltage law:


For I, by using basic Ohms law:
V 7 . 9 3 . 0 10
0
= = V
mA 7 . 9
1
7 . 9
0
= = =
k R
V
I
Problem 2.11b
Find V
o
& I:
The circuit:
Problem 2.11b
For the same type of
diode, the circuit will
becomes:
Because there is no
resistor exist in the
parallel route of the
diode, current will flow
in only one of the
diodes route
0.7 V 0.7 V
0.7 V
Problem 2.11b
Solution:
Using Kirchoffs voltage law:


For I, by using Ohms law:
V 6 . 14 7 . 0 7 . 0 16
0
= = V
mA 553 . 0
7 . 4
12 6 . 14
=

=
k
I
Problem 2.13
Find V
o
& I
D

The circuit:
Problem 2.13
The circuit becomes:
0.7 V
0.7 V
9.3 V
SIMPLIFIED
9.3 V
SIMPLIFIED
Problem 2.13
The solution:
The nodal analysis for node V
o
:




For I
D
:
V 2 . 6
2 1
3 . 9
0
0 0
=
=

V
k
V
k
V
mA 55 . 1
2
2 . 6 3 . 9
=

=
k
I
D
Rectification
Rectify means improvement, cure healing
(pembaikan, penambahbaikan)
For a sinusoidal waveform or any supply that
has a variation of input value, diode can be
used for rectification
Rectification are used to modified the input
value to become only the signal that we want
Half-Wave Rectification
For a full cycle of a sinusoidal or continuous waveform,
only half of the waveform is taken to be rectified

Half-Wave Rectification
For the period 0 T/2, the sinusoidal input will give
a forward bias supply to the circuit
The diode will on and current will pass through
Assume that the diode is ideal
Half-Wave Rectification
For the period T/2 T, the sinusoidal input will give
a reverse bias supply to the circuit
The diode will off and no current can pass through
Assume that the diode is ideal
Half-Wave Rectification
For a continuous
periodic waveform, the
rectified waveform will
become:
Where as:
m dc
V V 318 . 0 =
Problem 2.25
Sketch V
o
and determine V
dc
:
Problem 2.25
Solution:
To obtain V
m
from V
rms
:


The output V
o
will be:


V
dc
will be:
V 56 . 155 ) 110 ( 2
2
= =
=
rms m
V V
V 47 . 49 ) 56 . 155 ( 318 . 0
318 . 0
= =
=
m dc
V V
Problem 2.26
Sketch V
o

Problem 2.26
Solution:
For the positive input supply:



The circuit becomes:
For V
i
< 0.7V: For V
i
0.7V:
0.7 V
Problem 2.26
The output for the positive input supply becomes:




For the negative input supply:

Problem 2.26
The circuit becomes:





For maximum V
o
: - The output becomes:

+
-
V V
k
V
k
V
o
091 . 9
10 1
10
0 0
=
=

Problem 2.26
Combine both the output becomes:
PIV or PRV
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or Peak Reverse
Voltage (PRV)
It is a rating to make sure for the reverse-bias
operation, the diode didnt enter the Zener
region
PIV is set according to the circuit and the
input voltage
m
V rating PIV >
for half-wave rectifier
Full-Wave Rectification
The whole cycle of input signal is used and
rectified
Two commonly types of full-wave rectifier:
Bridge Network
Center-Tapped (CT) Transformer
The dc level from a sinusoidal input can be
improved 100%. So the V
dc
becomes:
m dc
V V 636 . 0 =
Full-Wave Rectifier: Bridge Network
The most commonly bridge network
configuration are build with 4 diodes
Full-Wave Rectifier: Bridge Network
For the positive input supply, the current will
take the route as shown below, and the
output will becomes:
Full-Wave Rectifier: Bridge Network
For the negative input supply, the current will
take the route as shown below, and the
output will becomes:
Full-Wave Rectifier: Bridge Network
Combine both of the output becomes:
Full-Wave Rectifier: Bridge Network
Due to the maximum voltage from the input
supply is V
m
, to keep the diode away from
the Zener region, the PIV rating is:
m
V rating PIV >
for full-wave rectifier: bridge network
Full-Wave Rectifier: Center-Tapped
(CT) Transformer
It is constructed with 2 diodes and a center-tapped transformer
The transformer ratio is 1:2
Full-Wave Rectifier: Center-Tapped
(CT) Transformer
For the positive input supply:
Full-Wave Rectifier: Center-Tapped
(CT) Transformer
For the negative input supply:
Problem 2.28
The circuit:
1 k
120 V
rms

All diodes are silicon
Problem 2.28a
Determine DC voltage for output
Solution:
V
m
:
V
o
:
So, V
dc
:
( ) ( ) V 71 . 169 120 2 2 = = =
rms m
V V
V 31 . 168 7 . 0 7 . 0 71 . 169
0
= = V
( ) ) 31 . 168 ( 636 . 0 .636 0
0
= = V V
dc
Problem 2.28b
Determine the required PIV rating for each
diode from problem 2.28
Solution:
PIV: V 01 . 169 7 . 0 31 . 168 (load) PIV = + = + =
D m
V V
Problem 2.28c
Find the maximum current through each
diode
Solution:
I
D(max)
:
mA 31 . 168
1
31 . 168
(max) 0
(max)
= = =
k R
V
I
L
D
Problem 2.28d
What is the required power for each diode?
Solution:
( )( ) mW 82 . 178 7 . 0 31 . 168
(max)
= = = m V I P
D D
Problem 2.31
Sketch V
o
and determine V
dc

The input and circuit:
Problem 2.31
Solution:
For the positive input supply:
Simplified the circuit:
v
i

+
-
v
o

v
i

+
-
v
o

SIMPLIFIED
1.1 k
Problem 2.31
V
o(peak)
:



The same for negative input supply
So the output will becomes:
V 67 . 56
1 . 1 2 . 2
170
0
0 0
=
=

V
k
V
k
V
56.67 V
Clippers
Configuration that employ diodes to clip
away a portion of an input signal without
distorting the remaining part of the applied
waveform
Mainly, there are two types of configuration
Series
Parallel
Clippers
Example of series configuration and the output waveform:
Clippers
Example of parallel configuration and the output waveform:
Clippers
Notice something?
Is the configuration similar to something?
Half-wave rectifier
is a part of
CLIPPERS
configuration
Example 2.18
Sketch v
o

For positive input cycle:





The output will be the
sum of v
i
and +5V
Example 2.18
The output waveform
will become:
5
0
+ =
i
v v
Example 2.18
For negative input cycle:
For v
i
5: - For v
i
5:
+
-
i
v v = 5
0
+
-
0
0
= v
Example 2.18
The output waveform will becomes:
Example 2.18
By comparing the input with the whole output:
Example 2.20
Sketch v
o

Example 2.20
For positive input cycle:
For v
i
4 - For v
i
4
i
v v =
0
+
-
4
0
= v
Example 2.20
The output waveform will become:
Example 2.20
The output for negative input cycle will always +4V due to the
external supply of 4V series with the diode
The diode will always be in the on mode
The circuit becomes: - The output waveform:
4
0
= v
Example 2.20
By comparing the input
with the whole output:

Clampers
Construct of a diode, a resistor and a
capacitor
It will shift the waveform to a different level
without changing the appearance of the
original input signal
The capacitor and resistor ( ) must be
large to ensure it doesnt discharge during
the interval that the diode is non-conducting
RC = t
Clampers
The circuit:
Clampers
Steps for clampers analysis:
1. Start the analysis with the condition where the
diode is in forward bias
2. The capacitor will charge up instantaneously
during the interval of +ve or ve input supply
where the diode is in forward-bias condition
3. The capacitor will discharge during the next
interval of +ve or ve input supply where the
diode is in reverse-bias condition
4. Check that the total swing of the output is the
same with the input


Example 2.22
Sketch v
o

Example 2.22
Just to check whether the capacitor is appropriate for clampers
configuration:

For the input given:

For every half interval (+ve or ve input cycle):


This shows that the capacitor is capable of charging and
discharging according to the clampers configuration requirement
ms 10 ) 1 . 0 )( 100 ( = = = t k RC
ms 1
1000
1
f
1
T = = =
ms 5 . 0
2
ms 1
2
T
= =
2
T
>> t
Example 2.22
To start the analysis with the diode in forward-bias mode, the
negative input cycle has to be inserted first into the circuit
The circuit: - The output waveform:
The capacitor will charge up to 25V
Example 2.22
For the next half input cycle that is the +ve cycle:
The circuit: - The output waveform:
The capacitor will discharge the
voltage of 25V
Example 2.22
The whole output waveform
will become:
Checking the total swing of the
output must match the input:

The total swing of the output is the same with the input that is 30 V
Zener Diodes
The application of Zener diodes have been
explained in Subtopic 1.3
The analysis of Zener diodes can be divided
into 3 categories:
Fixed V
i
and R
L

Fixed V
i
, variable R
L

Variable V
i
, fixed R
L

To make the analysis simple, the analysis will
be explain directly from the examples
Example 2.26a (Fixed V
i
and R
L
)
Determine V
L
, V
R
and I
Z

Example 2.26a (Fixed V
i
and R
L
)
To check whether V
Z
is in the on or off mode, the value of V
L

must be determine first
To do that, take out the Zener diode from the diode
The circuit become:
Example 2.26a (Fixed V
i
and R
L
)
By doing a nodal analysis for the node V
L





As we can see, the value of V
L
is smaller than V
Z
, so the Zener
diode is in the off mode
Which will result in:

And:
V 73 . 8
2 . 1 1
16
=
=

L
L L
V
k
V
k
V
A 0 =
Z
I
V 27 . 7 73 . 8 16 = =
+ =
R
L R i
V
V V V
Example 2.26b (Fixed V
i
and R
L
)
Repeat Example 2.26a with R
L
= 3k
3 k
Example 2.26b (Fixed V
i
and R
L
)
The same analysis is repeated from Example 2.26a where the
Zener diode is taken out to examine the value of V
L

The circuit becomes:
3 k
Example 2.26b (Fixed V
i
and R
L
)
By doing a nodal analysis for the node V
L





As we can see, the value of V
L
is larger than V
Z
, so the Zener
diode is in the on mode
When the Zener diode is in the on mode, it will maintain the
voltage of 10V. Because of that V
L
becomes:

And V
R
becomes:
V 12
3 1
16
=
=

L
L L
V
k
V
k
V
V 0 1 = =
Z L
V V
V 6 10 16 = =
R
V
Example 2.26b (Fixed V
i
and R
L
)
Using current divider theory:
mA 67 . 2
3
10
1
6
=
=
=
=
k k
R
V
R
V
I I I
L
L R
L i Z
Example 2.27 (Fixed V
i
, Variable R
L
)
Determine the range of R
L
and I
L
that will result in V
L
being
maintained at 10 V
Example 2.27 (Fixed V
i
, Variable R
L
)
To maintain V
L
at 10 V, the Zener diode must be in the on
mode
For I
ZM
= 32 mA, the current at load:





The load would be:
mA 8
32
1
10 50
=

=
=
m
k
I I I
ZM R L
O = = = k 25 . 1
8
10
m I
V
R
L
L
L
Example 2.27 (Fixed V
i
, Variable R
L
)
For I
Z
(min), the Zener diode are assume off but the voltage V
Z

are maintained at 10 V
The load current would be:





The load would be:
mA 40
1
10 50
=

=
=
k
I I
R L
O = = = 250
40
10
m I
V
R
L
L
L
Example 2.27 (Fixed V
i
, Variable R
L
)
Retrieve back all the I
L
and R
L
value:
O = =
O = =
250 mA 40
k 25 . 1 mA 8
L L
L L
R I
R I
I
L
(min)
I
L
(max) R
L
(min)
R
L
(max)
Example 2.28 (Variable V
i
, Fixed R
L
)
Determine the range of V
i
that will maintain the Zener diode in
the on mode
Example 2.28 (Variable V
i
, Fixed R
L
)
To maintain Zener diode in on mode, V
Z
must equal to V
L
:


Taking the maximum current of the Zener diode, input current
becomes:




The input voltage will become:
V 20 = =
L Z
V V
mA 67 . 76
2 . 1
20
60
=
+ =
+ =
k
m
I I I
L ZM R
V 87 . 36
) 220 )( 67 . 76 ( 20
=
= =
i
R i
V
m R I V
Example 2.28 (Variable V
i
, Fixed R
L
)
For I
Z
(min), the Zener diode are assume off but the voltage V
Z

are maintained at 20 V
Using nodal analysis at node V
L
:




Retrieve back all the value of V
i
:
V 67 . 23
2 . 1
20
220
20
=
=

i
i
V
k
V
V 67 . 23 V 87 . 36 = =
i i
V V
V
i
(max) V
i
(min)
Voltage multiplier circuits use a combination of diodes
and capacitors to step up the output voltage of rectifier
circuits.

Voltage Doubler
Voltage Tripler
Voltage Quadrupler
Voltage Multiplier Circuits
Voltage Doubler

This half-wave voltage doublers output can be calculated as

V
out
= V
C2
= 2V
m


V
m
= peak secondary voltage of the transformer.
Operation of a Voltage Doubler Circuit
The 1
st
capacitor charges up to V
m
during the positive half of the cycle,
then the 2
nd
capacitor charges up to V
m
in the same polarity as the 1
st

capacitor,
finally the output is the sum of the voltages across both capacitors:
Vout = 2V
m
Voltage Tripler and Quadrupler Circuits

By adding more diode-capacitor networks the voltage can be
increased.
Practical Applications of Diode Circuits
Rectifier Circuits
Conversions of AC to DC for DC operated circuits
Battery Charging Circuits

Simple Diode Circuits
Protective Circuits against
Overcurrent
Polarity Reversal
Currents caused by an inductive kick in a relay circuit

Zener Circuits
Overvoltage Protection
Setting Reference Voltages