In the manufacture of this book, the publishers have observed the recommendations of the War Production Board and any varition from previ- ous printings of the same book is the result of this effort fo conserve paper and other critical materials os on aid to the war effort. Engineers LibesssBooxs raox Bau. Trursnoxs Laroxarosies ‘THEORY OP VIBRATING SYSTEMS AND_SOURD. ‘ayia 3 Chavos ate Member of the Techn So Bull Telephone Laberdones, CONTEMPORARY, PHYSIC Kast K, Daszow, entero he Techical Sef, ‘be Edeplne Labrr: PROBABILITY AND ITS EROIEERING USES. Dy “Twomerox C. FEY, Member fae Techical Stef, Be Telephone Laboratories. TLEMENTARY, DIFFERENTIAL HQUATIONS. 3 “Tuossrox C. Fav. Second Bai 2conOMic CONTROL OP QUALITY OP MANUFACTURED PRODUCT. ‘By W. A. Suswnant, Member of te Technical ‘Slap, Bell Pelephone Laboratories POISSON'S EXPONENTIAL BINOMIAL LIMIT. By F.C. “Maupin, Seitching Theory Engineer, Bal Telephone Labora: TRANSMISSION CIRCUITS FOR TELEPHONIC COM- "MUNICATION METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN. By KS Joss, Member of the Tecate Saf, Bl [AYUGUE IN CYCLES AND DELS. By Jom ns, Member ef the Tecnico! Sta, Bell Telephone Labort ‘TRANSMISSION NETWORKS AND WAVE FILTERS. By TE. Sura, Speiol Product Engineer, Ball Telephone Laborers ‘THE APPLICATION OF ELECTROMECHANICAL IMPED- ‘ANCE ELEMENTS IX TEANSDUCERS AND. WAVE FILTERS, “By Wanarn P. Masos, Member f the Tech ical Sta, Bll Telephone Laboratories, nc RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN. By A. E. Hauora, Bell Tephone Laboratories ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES. A. Soxmuxoyorr, ‘Mentor of te ecbie Se al Pepa La . Vaw Nosraaxp Company, Ive.RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGNy Array of rhombic antennas, American Telephone | and Telegraph transatlantic radiotelephone receiving station.RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN BY ° A. E. HARPER BELL TELEPHONE LABORATORIES NEW YORE D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, INC. 250 FOURTH AVENUECopyright 1941 by D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, INC. e All Rights Reserved This book, or any parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without written per- mission from the author and the publishers. Printed in the United States of AmericaEn br.364-) 35> av FOREWORD When there was built in 1929 at Lawrenceville, New Jersey, @ radio telephone station for initiating overseas short-wave service, the most pictured feature of the now establishment was a gigantio wire fence or net, a mile long, stretched across the landscape on a row of 185 foot towers. This comprised the transmitting antenna complement for the three telephone circuits to Europe. A year ago the nets were taken down, the towe@s dismantled and@ sold for junk, Near them had arisen a number of telephone poles carrying at odd looking angles a few almost invisible wires, While this was the most spectacular conquest of the rhombic antenna, it is not the only measure of its impact on short wave radio telephony, Subsequent stations constructed in Florida and California made use of this simple, efficient radiator from the start and its economy was a factor in justifying the establishment of the new routes to South Americd, Hawaii and the Orient. , Although the rhombic has been known since its first published description by E, Bruce in 1951, it has nét been widely adopted outside the radio telephone field of the Western Hemisphere. One reason for this, no doubt, is the lack of easily usable information on the rational design of this antenna to fit it in each case to the work to be done - anda sound design is necessary to successful use of any directive system, To make design information available to radio telephone engineers of the Bell System, A, E, Harper compiled this handbook from the published and unpublishe@ work of his colleagues in Bell Telephone Laboratories, The prospect that libraries, students and engineers in other departments of the radio art would like to have this material has prompted its formal publication. RALPH BOWN Bell Telephone Laboratories VII 1070422 Engineer.PREFACE This text has been compiled for the convenience of engineers engaged in the design of short wave radio communi- cation circuits. For this reason emphasis has been placed upon current design and construction practices, rather than “upon basic theory. In order to meet the requirements of the practical designer, it includes an introductory discussion of directional radio transmission, followed by a description of horizontal Thonbic antenna design methods and mechanical construction practices, Tabulated and graphical functions found useft in ‘antenna development work have been included to expedite compu- tation, The plans of typical transmitting and receiving antennas have been appended to indicate the overhead wire line hardware ordinarily required. The subject matter has been collected from the published and unpublished reports of many engineers associated with the development and construction of directional antennas in the Bell Telephone Systen. Since so large a number of in- | vestigators is concerned, it is impractical to make personal acknowledgment for each contribution. The publications cited ~ in the bibliography have been selected solely from the standpoint of furnishing modern information on antenna design. They are in no way indicative of priority, nor are they intended to give a historical account of the development of the art, While much materiel has been taken from the papers cited, the greater part of the design data given has been obtained from unpublished memoranda.14. TABLE OF CONTENTS General Discussion of Directional Antennas Antenna Gain Antenna Location Horizontal Orientation Vertical Angles of Arrival and Departure Properties of Rhombic Antennas Effect of Ground Plene Directivity Equations Tabulated Functions for Directional Computations Typical Directional Characteristics Measurement and Computation of Antenna Gains Multiple Wire and Twin Antenna Types Measurement and Significance of Terminal Impedance Transmitting Antennas A. Terminating Impedance B. Antenna-Line Impedancogvatching Receiving Antennas A. Antenna and Termination Impedance B, Antemna-Line Impedance Matching, Coupling Networks Maintenance Provisions . Lightning Protection Construction Tables Bibliography Index Construction Drawings 66 67 69 72 76 77 79 83 104 109 AppendedTLLUSTRATIONS ® ovalf iB Antenna Gains and Patterns Defined Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Directivity Gain Bearings of Principal European Cities from Washington, D.C. Transmission Paths Between Bermuda, B.W.I., and Lawrenceville, N. J. Dimensional Nomenclature of Horizontal Rhombio 10 Antennas Statistical Distribution of Vertical Angles of ll Arrival, Rugby, England to Holmdel, N. J. Graphical Method for Computing Vertical Angles 1s Reflection Coefficient Amplitude Ratio K fore = 4 17 Reflection Coefficient Phase Angle y for e = 4 18 Reflection Coefficient Amplitude Ratio K for e = 10 19 Reflection Coefficient Phase angle y for e = 10 20 Reflection Coefficient Amplitude Ratio K fore =30 21 Reflection coer ricfent Phase Angle y for € = 30 22 Reflection Coefficient Amplitude Ratio K for e = 60 23 Reflection Coefficient Phase Angle y for € = 80 2 Free Space Rhombic Antenna, Maximized Design 31 Asymmetrical Directivity. Factor F) 34 Height Factor Fp a 35 Phasing Factors Fy and Fy 36 Asymmetrical Directivity Factor F, Expressed in 38 Decibels Height Factor Fo Expressed in Decibels 39 Phasing Factors F, and F, Expressed in Decibels 40 Azimthal Direotivity of a Rhombic Antenna 43 Yortion, Plene Directivity of a Rhombic Antenna, 44 21.5 Yortica, Plane Directivity of a Rhombic Antenna, 45 = 2.0 gts Plane Directivity of a Rhombic Antenna, 46 = 3,0 Yogi, Plane Directivity of a Rhombic Antenna, 47 = 4,0 XIII| ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Noe Page 28 Vertical Plane Directivity of a Rhombic Antenna = 48 afr = 4.8 29 Vertical Plane Directivity of a Rhombic Antenna 49 | ah = 6.0 | 30 Voltage Cutput of a Half Wave Dipole in Space 55 i 31 Free Space Rhombic Antenna Directivity Gain 57 32 | Effect of Ground on Rhombic Antenna Gain 58 33 Chart for the Location of Impedance Irregularities 62 on Open Wire Transmission Lines 34 Substitution Method for the Measurement of Antenna 64 Impedances 35 ‘Terminal Impedance, Single Wire Rhombic Antenna 68 36 ‘Terminal Impedence, Three Wire Rhombic Antenna mm } 37 Schematic and Attenugtiou Characteristic of Karly 73 Model Receiving Ante@ha Coupling Unit 38 Schematic of D-157000 Receiving Antenna Coupling = 75 { unit ij 39 Lightning Protection for Poles 78 40 Sag and Tension Charts, Copperweld Wire Spans 80 | 110-238 ft. | 41 Sag and Tension Charts, Copperweld Wire Spans al : 238-600 ft. | 42 Single Wire Receiving Antenna, Construction ‘Appended Details | 43 Three Wire Transmitting Antenna, Construction appended Details ; 44 Design for Transmitting Antenna Resistance Appended TerminationVIII TABLES Nomenclature. Typical Ground Constents, Measured Signal Gains, Terminal and Termination Impedance. Types of Overhead Construction. Tabulated Values of sin x/x in terms of x radians Tabulated Values of (1 cos A sin (f + 8)) Tabulated Values of sin x and cos x 83 84 85 86 87 93 99erie RHOMBIC ANTENNA DESIGN 1, General Discussion of Directional Antennas It was realized very early in the history of radio comunication that substantial improvements in transmission could be obtained by limiting radiation or reception to the small solid angle which includes the direction of the transuis- sion path’. By this means it is possible to produce a required field strength at the receiving station without prodigally radiating power in undesired directions, Proportionately Anportent advantages may be realized by the use of directional receiving antennas, for noise arriving from directions not in- cluded in the solid sector of desired receptivity 1s reduced in proportion to the directional discrimination of the system, Me rapid advances in transogganic radio communication have been closely paralleled by the develoyment of the various forms of directional antenna systems, including coil antennas!, arrays of verticals”?**, wave antennas, rhombic antennas®*”, and arrays of rhombics®, The economy of transmitter power result- ing from the use of directional transmitting and receiving antennas has in many cases permitted the operation of radio circuits which would otherwise have been impractica15+15:29_ 2, Antenna Gein Fundamentally the advantage to be derived from a directive transmitting antenna is the power economy effected by confining the radiation to a limited solid angle. Such a directive or beam characteristic is obtained by so shaping and locating the units of the antenna system that the vector addition of waves from various parts of the system will pro- duce reinforcement in a desired sector, and cancellation in undesired directions*, The completeness of this reinforcenent and cancellation is often a function of the physical size of the antenna structure, and the antenna may represent en Anvestment comparable with that of the transmitting apparatus.22 4 ‘Te percentage of the time thet a radio circuit is available for commercial service depends principally upon the maintenance of a satisfactory signal-to-noise ratio.!” this in turn is governed by the transmitter power and the effective- ness of the transmitting and receiving entennas'®, It is con- sidered good practice to minimize the total annual charges by proportioning the investment in apparatus, and in transmitting and receiving antennas so that the annual expense of a given incremental signal-to-noise improvement will be approximately the seme, whether obtained by increases in transmitter powr, or in the effectiveness of either antenna system®, A convenient numeric for stating the effectiveness of a directive tr@amitting antenna is obtained from the ratio of the power consumed by a reference antenna of known charac~ teristics to the power consumed by the antenna in question, when equal field intensities are produced at a specified distant point®+, this ratio expressed in decibels has been called the signal gain of the antenna’. Likewise for receiy- ing antennas, the signal gain is the ratio of the power at the @irectional antenna terminals, to that at the terminals of a reference antenne when the same signal field is applied to each. It 1s obvious that optimum transmission can only be obtained when the horizontal end vertical angles of maximum antenna radiation and reception coincide with the correspond- ing horizontal and vertical angles of optimum radio transmi. sion, Since the vertical angles of the optimum radio trans- mission path are a function of path length, frequency” and ionized layer neight!®*+*, and deviations of path azimuth often occur, measurements of antenna signal gain must be made over the radio path for which the circuit was designed, and should cover an extended period substantially undisturbed by magnetic storms®??®,vom x AEA GANS AO RATER + mp anmerr (ypothotioo Antenne with Sphericel Directional Pattern an No Hest Toes bte Reference Cain) a a = Taput Power, PR = Radiated Foner, H = Beet Loss, L = 10 tog EE ap Hemen By Dertnttton: oe w Py am 0 wT fm oe, 7 : PLA ~*~ ae Re Ea=Ee ‘From (1) and (2) wo obtain: PE i 8, Oy Ph ia a [ae ~oa, oe = @ 35, Hm, Noe eB or tn ab Figaro hitthe 05-0560 LQD5e2a) “ BCE Asus PEPE eee repre eee Tira rower. By Dottntston: Se We mee ey SA) sn mrazrstig re ae WATCHED ae i Ws. : tee te) Sey EE] ~~~ ete to sho ste ne srumsesn at rentin Sigh gene of an antensn ate shite {hareqution sore aii Fesponding to (4) does not exist). OTTO FR B= Field intensity in Diftorent Directions et s Great By Definition: a Sp Elinere xo ts & constant. (7) Se jae itp te) B= cones. = 394 Invepotey of eves Arriving Pram By Definition: Fa RVG J imere 1m 19 @ constant mm 7G | W the received power, Pree ape dectpbestey Reecees tz Polione shot, the shapes of aa grovel tlae’pEt tetas as asfisete Sutton ine : ryfte io 20)-4- The attached Figure 1 shows that the transmitting signal gain of an antenna is equal to its receiving signal gain. It does not necessarily follow, however, that equivalent im- provements in signal-to-noise ratio may be obtained by a given increase in the signal gain at either the transmitting or re- ceiving antennas. Little discussion is required to show that an increase in the transmitting antenna signal gain propor- tionately increases the amplitude of the received signal rela- tive to received noise and receiving apparatus noisé, and thereby increases the signal-to-noise ratio. At the receiving station, however, if we could increase the signal gain and hold the directional discrimination constant, we would increase the amplitude of the signal relative to the receiving apparatus noise but not improve the ratio of signal to received radio noise!®, on the other hand, if we decrease the receptivity of the antenna in undesired directions relative to reception in the desired direction, radio noise arriving from these angles will be reduced relative to the desired signal’. a somewhat more explicit explanation of the part played by directivity gain in the reduction of received noise is shown on the attached Figure 2. quantitatively the directivity gain of a directional antenna, referred to. a completely non-directional antenna, would be the ratio of the power per unit solid angle flowing in the direction of maximum radiation or reception, to the average power per unit solid engle flowing in all directions to or from the antenna, In this discussion we shall define the unit solid angle as the angle subtended by a unit area on a sphere of unit radius circumscribed about the sending or receiving antenna in question. Unfortunately the difficulty of integrating the directional characteristic prevents an analytical computation of directivity gain in many practical cases.FIORE 2 SIGHAL 0 NOISE RATIO & DIREOTIVERY GAT { / seniet enetag ose) ar Emer betes at ee SS arr aa i. PATTERNS TA No (OUTORY DrsmrUTION ASoMpTT a ‘The energy recstved in ® period Tf fron the noise sources Joceted in a unit solid angle As constant in all directions, "ANT. A bea ~ agi, = rx 2? x ap 20H, = HOt x 24? x ap NOISE ° z z ‘SOURCES Where aQN 10 the energy recetved in a period 7 from the totes Sources loceted in the solid angie dp and Wore constant, Me onesies received in a pertod By swmetien: nme the ligule ase, &, Seat wan digee } (2) a 5 ® Nero fe 0 const. (2) ax, = ax Sagay } eesti? | rx (1) ond (2) wo obtein the everege signel to noise ratio inprovenent of ontense A over pete () Pram (5) ead [(10) Fig. 2] st foliows that Shy oy 7 (a om,” @, oF the S/i taprovanont of @ receiving antonns ie equal to its directivity gain, Teo etgne) ceins and dizectivity gains are equal for antenses without heet lose, (6) stows that a11 antenna without beet lose bave identical holes ovteeter “Tray be severe) Lours or days when local thunderstorms upset the uatfom distribution of noise sources,, ieial If we assume a random or omnidirectional distribution of radio noise sources about a receiving station, it is appar- ent from the above definition that the average signal-to- received-noise ratio will be proportional to the directivity gain of the antenna. Random distribution of received noise is not often found in practice on account of the existence of localities of high thunderstorm frequency, whose positions and effects vary with season and hour, Measurements continued over long periods show that a close agreement between directiv- ity gain and the average signal-to-noise ratio actually exists. Briefly summarizing the above discussion, the funda- mental purpose underlying the use of ordinary directive antennas is the attainment of high signal-to-noise ratios. High signal gain at the transmitting antenna reduces the effect of received noise and receiving apparatus circuit noise. High signal gain at the receiving antenna reduaps the effect of apparatus noise, and high directivity gain reduces the effect of external radio noise sources. 3. Antenna Location When choosing a site for any form of directive antenna it is desirable to avoid obstructions such as mountains or con- ducting structures which lie directly in the radio transmission path. Level or uniformly sloping ground is ordinarily assumed in the design formulas and this type of topography gives re- sults which can be accurately predicted®*}#»4# sources of natural noise such as annual thunderstorm concentrations and mountain renges of high thunderstorm ocourrence should not be in the radio transmission path near the receiving station if it is possible to avoid them. Receiving antennas must be located in places sub- stantially free from sources of man-made radio noise'*4), rt 4s obvious that such sources of noise when located in the radio transmission path of the received signal, ere of considerably more importance than noise sources to the rear, or in compar- atively insensitive sectors of the directional characteristic.-7- Rural sites have been found satisfactory for the avoidence of the disturbances usually associated with large cities, such as miscellaneous industrial sources, electrical therapy and diathermy apparatus, electrical railway stopping and starting transients, and many other continuous and intermittent noises. ' Sven in the more thinly populated districts consideration must be given to the disturbances arising on motor highways, powor boat channels and power transmission lines!®, The resultant radiated or received signal field is the vector sum of a direct ray and a ray reflected from the ground. Since a level and substantially univorm ground plane is assumed in the theory underlying a practical design, per- formance in agreement with theory can only be expected when actual ground conditions approximate those assumed/®, pevie- tions from the predicted vertical plane directivity of exist- ing antennas have been traced to topography or unexpected ground properties. 4, Horizontal Orientation An antenna is ordinarily oriented so that its azimuth of maximum radiation or reception lies in the plane of the great circle transmission path joining the transmitting and receiving stations. Recent studies of transatlantic radio trensmission”® show that rather wide departures from a great circle transmission path occur at times of disturbed trans- mission, and when the path is partially or wholly blanketed by darkness. To avoid discrimination against desired signals which depart from a great circle path, and to preserve a reasonable suppression of undesired signals, a directive char- acteristic with a broad transmission sector and a suppression of secondary lobes in excess of +12 db has been found more to be desired than a characteristic with an extremely sharp major lobe. Preliminary estimates of the azimuth of the great circle transmission path, and data on the approximate geograph- ical coverage of the horizontal trensmission sector of theconve 04,0 Se 18.7 MC TOFT., 9°75, h=S8FT. |4.80METERS FIG.3—BEARING OF PRINCIPAL EUROPEAN CITIES IN APPROXIMATE RELATION TO 7! A TRANSATLANTIC TYPE RHOMBIC ANTENNA, NIGHT HEIGH' DAY HEIGHT: SURFACE OF EARTH DIRECTIVITY OF rANGENT ATA" FIG. 4 — TRANSMISSION PATHS. LAWRENCEVILLE ~ BERMUDA ANGLE | DEG. Tac | 178 | tao_| 220 TAF | 344 vac | 425-9- directional characteristic may be obtained either from azi- muthal projection maps or from great circle sailing charts, Unfortunately aziquthal maps are only accurate for bearings teken from locations near the point for which the map was designed and are available for azimuths about Washington, D.C, and San Francisco, Californie®!, the attached Figure 3 is based on this type of map projection. The great circle seil- ing charts or gnomonic projections published by the U. S. Hydrographic Office, have a more general utility because they ney be used to find the great cirele bearing to or from any point shown on the map. They have the slight disadvantage that although all great circles appear as straight lines on the chart, reference must be made to a simple geometrical construction to determine the azimuth or distance, These charts are available for the North and South Atlantic, the North and South Pacific and the Indian Oceans®, The great circle distance end the exact azimuth of the radio transmission path extending between two radio sta- tions "A" and "B" at the opposite ends of the path, may be determined by spherical trigonometry without special map projections, using equations.(1), (2) and (3). Let La = Latitude of station A, positive for N let., negative for S lat. = Latitude of station B, positive for N lat., negative for S lat. Lg(ap) = Longitude difference between A and B, €, = sirection of B from A, degrees E or W from north in Northern Hemisphere and from S in Southern Hemisphere. Cy = Direction of A from B. Dy.g * Great circle distance in minutes of arc or nautical miles (1 minute of arc = 1 nautical mile = 1.853 KM = 1.152 statute miles) (1) Gos Dy_p = sin Lyssin Ly + cos Ly+cos Ly-cos Loi any (2) Sin ¢, = cos Ly-CSC Dy _p-sin L, ‘o(AB) Sin Og = cos 14.080 Dy _p*sin Loan)-lo- DIRECTION — nore — puases REFERRED 70 po FOR ELEMENTS, TO RESPECTIVE SBE APEXES FOR ELEMENTS @) AND @) SIDE ELEVATION IN INCIDENT PLANE OF WAVE-ORECTION _croUNo. FIG, 5-HORIZONTAL RHOMBIC ANTENNA DIMENSIONS ANGLE ABOVE HORIZONTAL- DEGREES:8 3 0 2 Oo 22t | 12 ANGLE ABOVE HORIZONTAL- DEGREES 4l oraz 051 2 5 10 20 40 60 60 90 05 08 09 008 PER CENT OF TIME SIGNAL IS BELOW INDICATED ANGLE. FIG.6 DISTRIBUTION OF MEAN VERTICAL ANGLES OF ARRIVAL RUGBY-HOLMDEL TRANSMISSION PATH, 0300-1300 GMT. ONE DAY PER WEEK MAY 1933-MAY 1934-12- 5. Vertical angles of Arrival and Departure ‘The vertical angle of maximum antenna sensitivity is ordinarily prealigned to coincide with the mean direction of arrival of a desired wave group. For transaitting antennas it is common practice at present to meke the "angle of fire" equal to the angle of arrival used for the design of a corresponding receiving antenna for communication over the same transmission path. 4? Methods for the measurement of the angles of arrival are beyond the scope of this discussion, but are covered in detail by Friis, Feldman and Sherpless'®, An example of the statistical distribution of the mean vertical angles of arrival observed on the transatlantic path between Rugby, England and Holmdel, New Jersey for one day per week between 0300 and 1300 G.M.T. from May 1933 to May 1934, is plotted on Figure 6. It is known that the angle of arrival changes with the hour and season and it is probable that a long period variation exists”, Experience with 4 to 20 megacycle radio circuits has shown that in general the optimum vertical path angles are low when the path lengths exceed 2500 miles. Antennas intended for communication over great distances are therefore often designed to give maximum transmission or reception at 0 - 10 degrees above the horizon plane at the highest operating fre- quency. At lower frequencies the vertical path angles are generally greater as shown statistically on Figure 6. Due to the inherent properties of horizontal rhombic antennas the vertical angle of maximum transmission is an inverse function of the frequency, as shown progressively on Figures 24 - 29, inclusive. The antenna vertical sector of maximum transuis- sion therefore follows the transmission path angle as the frequency is reduced, At distances shorter than 2500 miles it is desirable to give special attention to the determination of the optimum vertical path angles. Lacking exact measured data, the path9 “wnb3 JO S3NI1 3¥v S3NM O3HSVO GaNUND IHL "WIAIZDIY YO UALLINGNWAL ZHI LY WANOZIUOH 3HL HIM S3XVN AVY HL HOIMM STONY SHI“ ONININUS130 MOS LUVHD ANSMINDITY — 2 "O14 Engmee, $u313NOTM NI‘ ‘3oNVISIO a 000 cos» coor oose _oove _oosz__— coves 0001 20002 000¢ 0007 2005 WoL AHOISH TwaLalA -13- (Nouwa2ra 40 a70Nv 0432) 0H 3NO ¥Os a MNAIXYRftnade angles may be estimated by dividing the transmission path into a number of skips between the earth and the reflecting ionized layers®»*1, 4 sample of this type of estimate is shown on Figure 4. A graphical method for estimating the angle of arrival”® from published monthly infomation®® on the "Characteristics of the Ionosphere at Washington, D.C.” has been recently devised by Newbern Smith of the U.S. National Bureau of Standards, and is shown on Figure 7. To use this chart pass a line or straight edge through the virtual height of the fonized reflecting layer, and the distance as measured with increasing distance to the left. The intersection of this line with the ordinate corresponding to the distance measured at the bottom of the chart with increasing distance to the right, determines a point which falls on or between the curves of equal vertical path angle. If this operation is repeated for one half the distance, one third the distence, etc., we will have the angle of arrival or departure for single, double and triple hop waves. The relative importance of these higher multiple skip waves depends upon the trensmission frequency and the properties of the ionized layer at the time under consideration. A high angle requires a greater number of hops and reflections, each of which has @ transmission loss which increases with the frequency. Since the optimum transmission*! frequency and associated vertical path angles vary with the hour and season, continuity of transmission requires the use of several oper- ating frequencies, The ideal antenna therefore must meet the circuit gain requirements at the operating frequencies and have transmission sectors corresponding to the vertical path angles. To approach this ideal it is customary to determine the time distribution of the vertical path angles at differ- ent frequencies, and to design the antenna for a vertical angle which corresponds to the path engle during the heaviest-15- traffic period, making use of all operating frequencies as effectively as possible. On account of the hourly and seasonal variations in the virtual height of the ionized layers, and the tendency of the transmission path to suddenly change from one number of skips to another, it is often considered advantageous to make the principal lobe of the vertical directivity dlagrem rela- tively broad. This expedient avoids discriminating against desired transmission at varying vertical angles but sacri- fices gain at the lower frequencies. In practice it has been found that for transoceanic transmission rhombic antennas approximately one wavelength above the ground with sides 6 wavelengths long at the highest operating frequency give a satisfactory compromise. An alternative design is an antenna of variable directivity! or a musa array®. 6. Properties of Horizontal Rhombie Antennas The horizontal rhombic antenna provides an economical means for obtaining signal and directivity gains comparable with those secured by other more costly antennas of limited frequency range. The first and annual costs of single rhombic antennas compare favorably with those of known types of single channel arrays, and the rhombic type has the advantage that although optimum performance is obtained only in the neiehbor- hood of a predetermined frequency, 1t will operate reasonably satisfactorily over a wide range of adjacent frequencies. The low cost, in addition to the ease of design, construction, and maintenance of the rhombic type has led to its almost universal use for point-to-point radio communication in the Bell System. The wide frequency range obtained with @ horizontal rhombic antenna when used for either transmitting or receiving, is due primarily to the fact that it approximates an aperiodic system with a relatively constant input impedance. This is i supplemented by the fortunate coincidence that the trend of-16- vertical angle variation with frequency of the antenna, is the same as that of the mean vertical angle of arrival or depar- ture of a long radio transmission path. It will be shown later that a receiving horizontal rhombie antenna is unaffected by vertically polarized waves originating in the plane of the antenna or in a vertical plane through its axis. This property is of great service in re- ducing the interference caused by ignition systems. The horizontally polarized component of the noise is rapidly attenuated in traveling parallel to the ground, and the vertically polarized component arrives very nearly in the plane of the antenna and therefore produces Little or no interference. (49) 7. ‘Bffect of the Ground Plene Before considering in detail the directivity equa- tions of a horizontal rhombic, 4& little attention will be devoted to the effect of the ground plane over which the antenna is erected, If an antenna could be constructed in free space, it would only be necessary to examine the direc- tional behavior of a single directly transmitted ray between the radio transmitter and receiver. Actually however, the radiated field observed at a distant point, or the resultant field, received from a distant transmitter, is the vector sum of a directly transmitted field end a component reflected from the ground in front of the antenna. The reflected com- ponent is modified in amplitude by the ground losses, and in phase by both the phase change at reflection and the phase angle due to the difference in the length of the transmission paths of the two components. Adding the two vectors we obtain equation (4) for the ratio of the resultant to the directly transmitted component,!!?57159+45, this ratio provides us with useful factor for obtaining the directivity of an actual antenna from that of an ideal free space antenna.-17- SINT N3MOMG AG NOLLWZIAI0d TWANOZIHOH “S3NIT GIOG AG NMONS S} NOLLWZIW Od WILLA ‘S3Mdav LI HOI o4 (3/92 =)B 40 3M WA ZHI SAND JnuNd HVT NO WABNNN 3H, —P=9 HOS ANIDIIIIO9 NOUIIsIY 40 JONLINOWW—O 914 2 woo FNS 109" ro vo090 roc900 Ve egy ec 2 Pp ogy e 2 asye 2 ese ce OM ose e 2 OF 1000 2650) {2000 tse] jeoo-o 966 jroo seco} sooo 660) [9000 2660] {e000 100 260) i200 460} leo 960) ages S60} soo 360) l200 20°] l200 29] zo a co so} ro so| so vo| 0 WANOZHOH 20} 5 SWULNA iso ect or oh a Fhe 2 @ ama m8 talon we J SrgineeS2NN N3y0Ue A@ NOLLYZIEW04 “WLNOZIEON S3NI7 GMOS AB NMOS 61 NOLLVZINYIO8 WWoILWIA sa7Wdv 11 Hatin O1 [3/025] °40 Sten Sk SIND shwMD ROWS NO ea8NMN Shu "P=3 BOY NOUIIIITN Lv LaKS 36vHs 6 D1 2 ws oo. 1900, 000 roo00 2 osee 2 N's osu e 2 “Ve osve 2 “Neosve 2 iso leo avanozisoH “WwoUaA — WIN DEGREES (4.2) -18- B82 8 YIN DEGREES FOR VERTICAL POLARIZATION fo cas & spe 2 Im ek Oo Fe (gg 29930, 1 9 3 cin-19- SN N3HOUB AB NOLLWZIAvTIOd WINOZIHOH “S3NN7 AMOS AB NKOKE $) NOLLWZIWIOd TWo1LesA Sarday at Wom o4 [4/02=)B 40 3MWA Ski S3AID 3AYND HOVE NO USBAMN 3h4 1-9 WO INSID 48309 NOID3TISY JO FONLINDWN — 01-51 2) us 190, - 1090, 10000 100900 Te ose ¢ 2 ze ose e cM ose e 2 1000 Sle ose ec 2 Pe acy e sesso ty 8860] jzoo0 L660] lecoo oso) yoo see {sooo eso] l2000 2689] lso00 69] 100 260] zo = iso] Jeov 2 960] yoo sso} soo 60} soo 260 leo0 ol ro 20} eo re co 80 vo so Iso 9 Iso TWiNoRuOH === at WwOILeaA ons £ ro. Tob” ce oa rary t oie &@ @ oa sree 7 ro 6334930 NI 25 — aa SSL0NW NI?IN DEGREES (HP) ¥ “S3NI7 N3vOWE, Ae _NOLLYZivy704 TWLNGZWOH 'S3N7 OFIOS AB NMOHS 51 NOLLYZIMY 10d “WOILHSA Sanday 41 WM OF (:/a2=}b 40 '3MWA. IHL S3AID IMUM WOVE NO UIBANN JHA Ol=2 HOS NOUIITIZE 4 L4IKS 38vHd— 11/94 or Woo y Ns 1000 10000, 10900 le osve 2 eosre 2 “Yo ocye 2 Wo ose e 2 UPS ose ec 2 0 TWINOZRIOH === SyoUs3A— eae R 8 feet YIN DEGREES FOR VERTICAL POLARIZATION & oo en a see tig ee OE z s3auo3e ni 2> Sa10Nn° e053" Ge OA w or 3 > s33u030 Ni? oce9 SBL0NIN Nt 2 Noa wwoisu3n 19 NOLSIISIY 40 3GNLINDVN— 21 “D14 10909 12000 000 2000 {cooS3NM N3WOHB AG _NOLLWZIHVIOd WWINOZIHOH “SANIT AMOS AB_NMOHS §1 NOLLYZIHYIOG TwoILE3A ‘S5Mdey LI HOIHM OL (4/a2=)B 40 3NTWA 3HL SIND BAND HOVINO YIOMAN IHL “OE=9 YOJ NOUITUSY AY L4G IsvHS—EVDI4 2 ia 1009, v000'9 100900 We osy ec 2 4% eee e 2 NG oer c 2 50+ $ is sofoe- r ¥ 3 7 ¥ANOZRAOH feo 4 4 " WUsA— 7 WIN DEGREES (H.R) - 22 - a ~T 030 Ni: SBL0NIW N29= 23 - S2ND N3MOWS A NOlLWZI8v70s WINOZHOH *S3NI7 O:OE AG NMOHS $1 NOLLWZIEWIO4 TW>ILHIA Saray 4) HOM OL (4 D2=)B-4O 3TWA SHI S3AID 3AUND HOVR NO WSRNNN 3HL “O9~9 UO IN3ID.13909 NOLOTeY JO JONLINDEW = 1 914 1 0 190 sere 2 ue vor. 000 zg iM ese ec 2 OE 0000 1000 200 ¥ 160 lcoo vero} jroo seo} {soo Peo} 200 zeo| ls00 so} ro eo} zo xo} Heo ool Avo sob ile Fo) Iso TWINOZIHOH ===—= zo) a AyaiLu3A. = Toe & oc Ee 1% tea s3zuos0 Ni 2 SBLNNI NI &- 246 S3NI] N3VO¥S A NOLLYZMYTO4 TWINOZRIOH “S3NIT OMIO8 AG NMOKS 61 NOLLYZIEVTOS TWOLHIA SM aaw 11 HIM OL (1/022) 40 aMI¥A BHI SIND BAEND HOV NO UBENTN DHL -O8=9 LOS NOWDSTSIY Lv Laks 35vHd—SI 914 2 is ro 100 1000 10008 100900 gye_z Tesere 2 Ne osve 2 Me osre ¢ Goer e 2 38 leo on 50 ie ‘ VIN OcGREES ( TeANoziuoH ——~—— TvSLNA z pe oe eH Ogre f fe ee a sve v ro 'sa30030 NI 2) ‘SAINI NI 29.- 25 - 2 Eo [iP ot - a coe ty - 4 ote a? (4) 1 ~ [laso? + ax sin® (y/2)]® (For nomenclature see Table 1) were y= y - 48 sing and K = amplitude ratio of reflected to direct wave y tx = phase difference between direct and reflected waves Vt «x = phase advance at reflection. Hquation (4) gives the ratio of the resultant field strength to the directly transmitted field strength for either plane of polarization, provided that values of K and y appro- priate for the required plane of polarization are used. In the application of equation (4) the ratio K or (1-K) ana the angle for the specified plane of polarization may be taken from Figures 8 - 15 inclusive, on which these quantities are plotted as functions of the vertical angle ft» (called 4 elsewnere in this discussion), e and 2o/f. The dielectric constant ¢ and the conductivity ¢ of some commonly encountered types of soil are listed in Table II. where a soil of high conductivity such as salt marsh is known to exist, the computations for horizontelly polarized waves are often simplified by arbitrarily setting K = 1; y= 0, as on Figs. 16 and 21. To obtain values of 1-K and ¥ for smaller values of Ep than are plotted, use is made of the fact that both of these quantities are proportional to Ee in this range of angies,4, this linear relationship holds for the lowest= 26 - cycle of the curves, so that the parts of the curves in this cycle may be used to obtain values of 1-K and y below the edge of the charts as follows. Multiply Ep by the smallest power of ten thet will give a value on the chart, read this value and divide by the power of ten originally used. To obtain values of 1-K and y for values of 2¢/f greater then those plotted, divide the given 20/f by some power of one hundred and read the desired value of 1-K or ¥ opposite the value of sin {p multiplied by the square root of the number by which 2¢/f was divided. 8. Directivity Equations The power radiated per unit solid angle”? in a given direction (B,A) is called the intensity of radiation #, and is given by equation (5) below. This quantity is simfler to the power Q passing through a unit area on the surface of a sphere of radius r, and is defined!® vy equation (5A). The field is proportional to the square roots of these quantities. (5) o = SEK x 15s ,2 (sa) = 255, xi oo LEE Sp x2 is a factor which depends upon the coordinates of the direction of radiation, end therefore, determines the antenna directivity. It is expressed in equation (6) in terns of the notation used by Bruce, Beck and Lowry’, to be con- sistent with other portions of this discussion. The effect of the conductive ground plane under the antenna will be disregarded for the present and will be considered later in equation (9).727 - a2 12 9?| lein® Lt (1-cos 4 sin (¢ + 8) (6) x2 = 8 A ___—___ Fs F x (1-cos A sin (g + 8) : sin® & (1-005 a sin (f - p)) x Joos® g] x }——A_—__-—__ (1-cos A sin (f - g)) Substituting equation (6) in equation (5) we obtain equation (7) which gives the radiation intensity of a free space rhombic antenna in watts per unit area at a unit distance, wk. ) 2 2 2, 460 x12 4 sin*( sin’ a ee eel x where Oy = l-cos A sin (g +8) {Re = l-cos A sin (¢ -8) The radiation intensity of equation (7) includes the radiation intensities produced by fields polarized both in a plane parallel to the plane of the antenna and in a plane Perpendicular to the plane of the antenna. This resultent may be analyzed into its components as shown in equations (7a) and (7). (7a) bay + ©. (7)- 28 - It is apparent that if B or A equal zero, oy will vanish, leaving only the component polarized parallel to the plane of the antenna. ‘These effects are more clearly shown in equation (7c) which may be reduced to equation (7) by a simple transformation, 480 x5 12 44 (70) o- = 2 cos? g - 2 ax? K, XK sin (—+4) sin 2 : ws 2 aK. aK, = <2 x [cos B - sin $ cos A)? + sin? B sin a] Antenna directivity is generally plotted in terms of radiated field or received current, both of which are pro- (9 portional to the square root of the radiation intensity, The relative directivity, designated as D in the following equa- tions, is therefore a function which completely defines the shape of the directional diagram in terms of field strength, When required the assignment of appropriate values to the con- stant A will give a result in units appropriate for transmitting or receiving antennas, but ordinarily only relative directivity is of interest. [atk sin (= (8) D=Acos § |——__+— eee aK aK, x x 1/2 x [loos B - sim B cos A)”+ sin’® sin%]= 29- Since the first and second terms of the final bracket of equation (8) represent respectively the contributions of the two planes of polarization for a free space antenna, the appro- priate reflection coefficients must be applied separately when the antenna is erected over an imperfectly conductive ground plane. nak hk, sin — 1} | sin ——2 Dy = A cos 6} — Senex cos B = sin $ cosA| x — —s ¥ x 2 2 KG tL = 2 Ky cos (yy ~ AUB sin a) (9) Dy = A cos g sing sin 4|x Kj +1 - 2 Ky cos (yy - M8 sin a) Ph-30- When a perfectly conducting ground is assumed (Ky = 1, Vv 7 0% Ky = 1, Wy =m), the resultant directivity may be com- puted by means of equation (9A). For a free space antenna (Ky = Ky = 0) substituting equation (9) in (9A) gives us (9B) which may be derived directly from equation (7). z= 2 2 (9a) D je + DE i Fn mhK, mK, a 1 2 (98) De Fae ain cx ini When @ ground plane of finite resistivity is assumed, the resultant directivity is no longer exactly defined by equation (94) on eccount of the reletive phases of the polar- ization components. However, since the phase and amplitude of the polarization components of a transmitted wave are random, the square root of the sum of their squares represents the most probable value of their resultant. In the majority of practical applications the directivit of the antenna is specified by its horizontal or vertical plene directivity (A = 0, or 6 = 0), and for these two special cases Dy = 0 and only Dy of equation (9) need be considered. Letting B= 0 we obtain equation (11) which is the same as that developed by Bruce, Beck & Lowry” by a different method of attack.-31- * 2 (uy) D=B [ wist¥tes 8 Es 3 Te x [2 sp my 000 (yy = Aa atm at] 2 x fess #4 (1 - cos a sin a| This equation is useful both for the computation of the vertical directivity and for the development of maximized design equations. If a perfectly conductive ground is assumed equation (12) may be developed by maximizing the factors of equation (11), These functions are plotted on Figure 16. {6 = sin™ cos 4 t= 2 sin” A Hs ota The effect of low angle disturbances may be reduced by means of the design modifications shown in Equation (13). A reduction of the side length suppresses transmission at angles below the maximum and aligns the maximum directly on @ preassigned engle A. This method is not universally applicable because the alignment is obtained at the expense of approximately 1,5 db in gain, (12) ‘Note: For an ideal receiving antenna D represents the cur- rent delivered to the terminal load 4, in microamperes when B is set equal to E.d/4x%)- 32 - 20) ‘4 IN DEGREES ©. ‘ 5 ' at 2 “ ING = COsA| so “20 30 $0 70 30 20 INTERIOR ANGLE, IN DEGREES, CORRESPONDING TO MAXIMUM OUTPUT FIG. 16 — FREE SPACE RHOMBIC ANTENNA MAXIMIZED DESIGN; B=0, 2 cos? s-cosa sin tan [TL (-cosa sing)] = ft cos%% cosa HCOSaSe. ‘OPTIMUM '/, PLOTTED AS A FUNCTION OF- 33 - $= sin”) cos A = 0.371 2 ( ( sin” A ( ( ¢ ( = (13) He gaa The antenna height and length are both functions of the wavelength and at the lower frequencies it may be found desirable for economic reasons to modify the height with a compensating increase in length or vice versa, Having deter- mined the height at the highest transmission frequency by means of equation (12), @ compromise height H’ may be assumed and a new length computed by equation (14). (14) eee eee ae ten (288° sin a) 2n sin a tan (4 sin® a) If the height, as determined by equation (12) is retained, a reduction of the side length to 4" may be compen- sated by a change in the apex angle to $'. +m pin t (21 = 0-370, (15) 6 sin™ ( Deiaes 4) In computing the ezimuthal directivity of a horizon- tal rhombic antenna over a ground plene, if A is set equal to zero, the height factor will approximate zero. If Ais set at higher angles than zero, the effects of vertical polarize- tion will become apparent. Since the azimuthal directivity is not a function of the height or ground constants, it may= 34- Ree =o 4 £2 fs Ss oe ie- 35 - 38 3b 8S a Fie ewe racton ry = sn [ 2 sna]30 uo 330 300200280270 © 0-20-30 foe 80-80 200210 240280280270 hen sm even cunves wrt 8 a0 (88) wun onoware oy $ turer © scaue with OBTAIN Fy OF Fy FROM SIN fon nea 73 Frou sin? St oan| shan antod -340 | -330 | -320 -200 | -270 wo | wo | wo | 130 too | 90 200 | -20 | -220 | -230 -200 | -270 8 2 5 ls = : g “4 a> a a 28 3 . o = $26 ASSUMING AW 80% ANTENNA E FOR ANY ANTENNA= A+F#20.LoCioy—L+e WHERE A= GAIN OF ANTENNA OVER A 3 ANTENNA IN DB F =FIELD IN DB ABOVE 1Iv/m = L088 DUE To INEFFICIENCIES OF ANT, 8 TRANS. LINE ? The signal gain of transmitting antennas may likewise be measured by comparison with a half wave dipole at the same height. The power radiated by the dipole”® may be approximately computed from its free space radiation resistance®**55159 py disregarding waves reflected from the ground, as in the method of receiving antenna design explained in the preceding para- graph. Where it is necessary to use other forms of comparison antenna than the horizontal dipoles described above, the signal gain of these structures must be determined by comparison with reference standard antennas such as dipoles or loops@°, Assuming that we have measured or computed the poten- tiel delivered by the comparison antenna per microvolt field, and have measured the signal gain of the rhombic antenna, these data may be used to compute the signal voltage or power available at the receiver input terminals, from the minimum operating field strength. The power applied to the first circuit of the radio receiver must be well above the irreducible minimum thermal~57- DIRECTIVITY GAIN IN DECIBELS. a FIG.31— FREE SPACE DIRECTIVITY GAIN OF A MAXIMUM DESIGN RHOMBIC, p20, azo; ran BE (1-sind)]= 2BLcosze, REFERRED TO AN HYPOTHETICAL OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA. (FREE Pace OINEETWITY GAIN OF A HALF WAVE DIPOLE EQUALS 219 ofciBELs)- 58- 73, 32 ‘Affect of Groupd on Direstivity Gain of Rhonblc Orer Uelt Weve Dipole at Sane Height, Sumple Including Cain and Loss Figures for l= 6) Rhonbic 19 Given, Single Prine Sign Refers to Pree Space ces Dowwle * ae geod Aadistion Resistance, Subscript Letters Refer to Type of Antenna, Directs vity Gain, 08 = Signal Gain, el ae Tet 3 eee 1. Free Space Case, fend Ty jp) edfusted to give equal feide in direction D. Then Tyg, O24 Ty jp, dsusted to give equal rieits tn direction D, The 2 lo ’ y gs R i 2 Sra | PE Bye * Taya They” Fg ma 2F Ground Case, Tyg M4 Tyjp a8 above, The two antonnts heve dention] hoight factors end gf for snail earth angles equal fields in direction D. Then: , therefore, eye Bye My hye * Phyl ODay hye ym, OD Phy Rg Bag, XPS / BY SD yg Ag HINGE: = 16 Motor, = 96 Moter, qa7cr, Ant, Heleht = 17.6 Meter, Then: Brij = Toe BAe, = 6a (Seo Ret. 12) } eG 1 = 39 a hg * Bost eh } on FEES 78.0 (By Mesbentce) Integration). Thon eM s6,0 x 81 = 8,5 + 16.5 & 1/2 ‘See siao seo, Mya ors, ons, : FR = 9.5 a (Monsurod) toa: Gglll w 11,0 ap (taking SVR = 147 ab) m7 Ve Fae ‘The tovel uot loss in the rhombic 18 then 14,8 - 10 = 5.5 ab, Ronbic Reet loss due to ground = 47 4b. Rhonble hect loes in temmizetion restetence is then 2,8 db59 - agitation noise, which is 43.8 db below 1 micromicrowatt for a 5,000 cycle transmission band?®, Allowing for a minimum signal- to-noise ratio of 15 db and assuming that other apparatus and circuit noises have been reduced to a level where their inter- fering effect is negligible, the minimum useful signal power delivered by an antenna is in the neighborhood of 28.8 db below 1 micromicrowatt for a 5,000 cycle receiver band width. The directivity gain of a rhombic antenna operating over @ ground of normal characteristics is rather difficult to compute analytically, although it has been closely approximated by mechanical integration. The directivity gain of a maximum output rhombic in free space is plotted on Figure 31 and the relationship between this gain and the results of measurements on actual antennas is shown on Figure 32, The directivity gain as shown on Figure 31 is referred to an hypothetical non- directional antenna of zero gain. As previously mentioned, in the direction of optimum transmission the horizontal half wave dipole has a gain of 2,15 db in space. The main advantage of using a horizontal dipole for a comparison antenna is the fact that when it is constructed in the same plane as the rhombic, the effect of wave polarization and ground reflections may be disregarded since they are substantially the same in each case. The directivity gain of the rhombic above the horizontal dipole therefore is the inherent space gain of the particular rhombic minus the 2,15 space gain of the horizontal dipole. Summarizing the above discussion, we may compute the directivity gein, G, of a horizontel rhonbic antenna of maximized design relative to a horizontal half wave dipole at the same height, by means of equation (19) below where G, 1s obtained from Figure 31. (19) = Gy) - 2.15= 60 - The signal gain of a horizontal rhombic of maximized design erected over a partially conductive ground plane, rela- tive to a horizontal half wave dipole at the same height, may be roughly approximated by means of equation (20) below. The derivation of this relation is shown on Figure 32, (20) G, = G) - 2.15 - 0.9 - 5.5 = Gp - 6.5 Since the above relations are true only for maximized design antennas as defined by equation (12), they become increas- ingly inaccurate as the operating frequency departs from that for which the optimum design parameters were determined. 12, Multiple Wire and Twin Types Improved operation may be obtained by means of modi- fied types of construction such as multiple wire antennas and twin antennas. Multiple wire antennas such as shown on Figure 43 and described in more detail in Section 15a, were initially sug- gested to minimize impedance variations with frequency, and to seoure a low and uniform 600 ohm antenna terminal impedance to match an open wire transmission line without the necessity of a coupling transducer. Twin antennas consist of two identical rhombic antennas in broadside array. The members of a pair need not be separated more than a few feet between adjacent corners and in fact a common pole is generally used to support the mid~ point of the system, The twins may be connected to the apparatus by means of two independent transmission lines of the same eleo- trical length, which are multipled within the building, thereby permitting the independent use of the antennas in emergencies. It has been reported that three wire single rhombic antennas not only have desirable impedance properties, but also may have higher signal gains and a freedom from precipitation static when used for receiving. Comparative tests under ordinary operating conditions on « three wire rhombic and an adjacent similar single wire rhombic, seem to show signal gains of 1.5 ab-61- at 19 mc. and 0.7 db at 9 mc. in favor of the multiple wire antenna, This apparent improvement is probably due to a lower propagation constant along the antenna conductors, arising from @ lower resistence and more uniformly distributed capacity. Similar direct comparisons between the signal-to- noise ratio obtainable with single and multiple wire rhombic antennas showed that during periods of precipitation static a mean reduction in noise of 9 db was apparently obtained on the multiple wire type. Although precipitation static occurs during only a small percentage of the total operating time, in most localities the small added expense of this type of con- struction may be worth while, wo rhombic transmitting antennas have been fed in parallel to obtain an increase in signal gain of approximately 3 db. Comparative tests between one and a combination of both members of such an identical pair of rhombic antennas for receiving, showed improvements of the order of 2 db in signal- to-noise ratio. 15. Measurement and Significance of Terminal Impedances Optimum performance of the complete system may only be secured when all circuit impedance irregularities have been minimized and the antenna has been properly terminated at one end on the coupling network or transmission line, and at the other end in its resistance termination. The terminal impedances of all elements of the antenna system are usually separately checked over the whole operating frequency range. In general it is convenient to thoroughly check the transmission and impedances of the antenna coupling network in the laboratory. The impedances of the transmission line and the antenna are of course measured after installation, when terminated in impedances which closely simulate the values actually to be used. Com- posite impedance measurements over a wide range of frequency are often made of the coupling unit when working into the properly terminated antenna, and of the complete system, from the apparatus end of the transmission line.-62- Aun 1993¥¥! O1 ANIOd INBWSUNSYSN Wows 1334 NI 39NVLSIO ggg 8 3 3.3 gg 2 2 FREQUENCY INTERVAL #—f IN MEGACYCLES PER SECOND ‘oT Aunyanoawel o4. ANIod ANBMBUNSYaN NOUS 1334 NI JONVISIO F 1G. 33 — LOCATION OF IRREGULARITIES ON LIGHT VELOCITY TRANSMISSION LINES= 63 = A transmission line terminated in its characteristic impedance has a substantially uniform impedance-frequency characteristic over a wide frequency range. If the line is not terminated in its characteristic impedance, or if its constants are irregularly distributed, it will not simulate an infinite line, but reflections will be transmitted back to the sending end and combine with the initial wave to form standing waves. ‘These standing waves will produce maxima end minima in the measured terminal impedance whose amplitudes are a function of the attenuation. Circuit faults, impedance mismatches and line irregularities may be located from impedance-frequency data as follows. The frequency spacing (fp =. f)) of impedance maxima or minima in cycles per second, is related to the velocity of propagation along the line v, and the distance to an impedance irregularity 4, by equation (21) below, where ¢ is the velocity of light; usually taken as 964.3 x 10° ft. per second. (2a) identi tied ae e ° 2(fp - fy) The velocity ratio v/¢e of coaxial lines depends upon the physical design and should be determined by measurements on the line in question. In cases where a composite line is used, allowance must be made for the fact that each of the line elements has its own velocity of propagation. Due to the fact that end effects prevent the line from being entirely open-circuited or short-circuited, the accurate determination of the velocity ratio or of the mean frequency interval, is often difficult, causing errors in the exact location of a fault. Parasitic reflections from small line irregularities such as insulators, line hardware, splices and lumped capacity effects tend to obscure the primary phenomenon in question. The method is sufficiently accurate in most cases= 64- OPOT. swiTcH ANTENNA UNDER MEASUREMENT ADJUSTABLE PENCIL LEAD RESISTANCE [BALANCED HIGH RESISTANCE THERMOCOUPLE OR TWO : VACUUM TUBE VOLTMETERS ' 10,000 onMs +S - BALANCED HAF. OSCILLATOR ' FIG, 34—SuasTITUTION METHOD FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF ANTENNA IMPEDANCES- 65 - to serve as an index of the source of an impedance irregularity such as distinguishing between reflections due to improper antenna termination, incorrect antenna coupling adjustment, transmission line splices, etc. Equation (21) has been plotted on Figure 33 for the rapid location of the cause of impedence irregularities on open wire lines assuming v/o equal to unity. The curve is entered with the mean frequency spacing of impedence maxima, and the distance to the source of the irregularity from the measurenent point is read on the scale of ordinates. A method similar to that shown on Figure 34 is cus~ tomarily used for measuring the impedance of antenna circuits and transmission 1lines!®» 7» “5, rn aadition to the equipment shown on the drawing, an accurately calibrated frequency meter is required. The anti-resonent olroult LC is tuned to give a maximum voltage as measured on the sensitive thermocouple or vacuum tube voltmeter when the antenna is connected in place of R. a variable resistance, such as a pencil lead, is then substituted for the antenna at R and the capacity ¢ is readjust- ed for maximum voltege. The resistor is then varied until the measured voltage is the same as it was for the antenna. The pencil lead resistence is then measured on a direct current bridge and is equal to the resistance of the antenna being measured. The reactance of the antenna may be computed from the frequency and the change in the capacity of C, with due allowance for the sign of the change. In cases where balanced circuits are to be measured, a balance to ground must be preserved in the complete circuit of oscillator, voltage indicator, and tuned circuit. similarly in grounded circuits a proper grounding of the measurement apparatus circuit elements prevents undesirable pickup. For the impedence ranges involved in transmission line and antenna measurements, a high output impedance oscillator 1s required which has sufficient power to produce an ample deflection on the voltage indicator when it is paralleled by the unknown impedance. Gineerian= 66 = 14a, Transmitting antennas, Terminating Impedance Transmitting rhowbics dissipate up to half of the trani mitter power in the terminating impedance and a somewhat more elaborate resistance unit is therefore required than is normally used for terminating receiving antennas (See Sec. 15A). It has been found practicable to build terminations capable of dissipat- ing a few hundred watts by the use of assemblies of carbon rod resistors, designed to minimize the self and mutual impedances of the leads and equipment. One such arrangement of 200 watt diss sipation consists of four 150 ohm carbon rod elements as shown on Figure 44, Higher power is more effectively dissipated by means of a high attenuation transmission line. The termination end of the antenna is connected directly to an oven wire balanced transmission line of the required characteristic impedance built with high resistance conductor to increase the attenu- ation, The electrical length is made sufficient to give an input terminal impedance substantially independent of the far end termination, which may consist of an open circuit, a re- sistance termination, or as is usually the case, a grounded short eireuit. It is current practice to construct these dissipative lines of magnetic material to obtain a higher linear conductor resistance at radio frequencies. No. 10 AWG stainless steel wire has been used for several recent installations, since it has corrosion resisting properties in addition to its high effective electrical resistance. Earlier lines built of un- galvanized or of thinly galvanized iron wire rusted badly, and thicker coats of galvanizing material reduced the high frequency resistance. ‘The actual value of the terminating impedance is generally made the value which gives the most uniform terminal impedance over the operating frequency range of the antenna. Figures 35 and 36 are good examples of the measured terminal67 = impedances of properly terminated antennas. Some typical values of terminating impedance, and the measured antenna impedance with the termination in place are shown on Table IV. 143, Transmitting antennas, antenna-Line Impedance Matching The problem of supplying power to a rhombic transmitting antenna is simplified by the fact that the exposure of the trans- mission line to radio noise sources need not be considered. Transmitting antennas are usually of the multiple wire type of construction, described in Section 15A, of about 600 ohm imped- ance to permit them to be matched to a conventional 600 ohm transmission line connecting the antenna to the station. The use of open wire transmission lines is subject to a negligible loss due to transmission line radiation, It has been shown’® that a properly balanced 2-wire line whose length 1s more than 20 times the wire spacing, radiates about twice the Power that would be radiated by a doublet of a length equal to the wire spacing. Since the radiated power loss is independent of the line length, when longitudinals are suppressed by a proper balance to ground, it does not seriously modify the directive characteristic or power efficiency of practical rhombic antenna systems. For comparison antennas which in general are not a part of the permanent operating plant, and may be modified for use on different frequencies, laboratory type equipment may be used. A horizontal dipole with a balanced impedance in the neighborhood of 73 ohms may be joined to a balanced-to-unbalanced network by means of a short length of twisted pair or closely spaced double conductor of the proper characteristic impedance. Where a permanent wide-frequency range 18 not necessary, simple | impedance transformers“® may be used, such as quarter wave lines! tapped lengths®® 1ine stubs°” and other reactive networks. Where an extended frequency range must be covered, balanced impedances mey be coupled by means of an exponential line”,- 68 - YNNALNY DIGNOHY 40 30NVORaNI — SE “DIS (NODES Wad SITOAOVON NI ADNINOSHS wo gi gt kan (= 4 ola Siem ot way = AWW NI ALIDvaW> SHO NI BDNVASISaE= 69 - The subject of transmission line design has been dis- cussed at length in many published papers?9*#0»21,26,36 aoa theree fore will not be included here. 15A, Receiving antennas, antenna and Termination Impedance Due to the fact that a horizontal rhombic antenna does not have uniform spacing between its conducting sides, it is to be expected even in the most ideal case, that the ter- minal impedance will vary somewhat with frequency, regardless of the value of the terminating impedance. The magnitude of this variation ond also the average impedance over the operating frequency range may be reduced by the use of multiple wire antennas mentioned in the preceding Sec. 12. The attached Figures 35 - 36 show mean impedance variations of 650 to 650 and 620 to 620 ohms respectively for single and three wire antennas terminated in impedances whose values are adjusted to give the most uniform terminal impedance. The multiple wire type of construction represents an effort to make the terminal impedance more uniform by compensating for the increased wire spacing at the side corners by the use of two or three wires which join at the ends, and are spaced as shown on Figure 43. In effect this increases the conductor diameter as the sides of the rhombus separate. A closer inspection of Figure 45 will show that the wires are actually the elements of two cones whose bases coincide. This arrangement is required to make all wire lengths identical. As mentioned in Sec. 143, this type of low impedance antenna has also been largely used for transmitting in conjunction with open wire 600 ohm transmission lines. The rate of conductor taper, or maximum spacing of each three wire conductors at the side comers, is determined empirically by antenna terminal impedance measurements. The variations of terminal impedance discussed above are inherent in the horizontal rhombic antenna type. Other ir- regularities are often caused by non-uniform or lumped capacity, due to massive fittings, insulators, etc. which lump the capacity at the corners, Improved operation is obtained by minimizing the- 70 - size of or omitting all conducting hardware, keeping the wires of the two sides of the antenna from approaching each other too closely, and maintaining a distance of several feet from the poles as shown on Figures 42 and 43, The actual value of a transmitting antenna terminating impedance is determined as explained in Sec, 14A. Receiving antenna terminations dissipate a microscopic quantity of power in performing their intended function, and are only exposed to overload during electrical storms. Stray capacity across the resistors due to the wires approaching each other too closely, and series inductance in the connecting leads, have been found to cause serious impedance irregularities. These difficul- ties are reduced by dividing the total required termination re- sistance into several parts, as shown on Figure 42. Residual stray capacity reactance may be tuned out by a rather critical adjustment of the length of the cross connecting wire. It should be apparent from the above thet the smooth- ness of the antenna impedance-frequency characteristic is a function of the terminating impedance. In many practical cases it bas been found necessary to use empirical design methods before the optimum termination design could be obtained. The values of the terminating resistance, frequency range, and antenna terminal impedance for several commercial radio tele- phone antennas are listed on the attached Table IV. Experience gained from the analysis of the behavior of a lerge number of rhombic antennas of widely different dimensions, brings out the following facts. The terminal impedance-frequency characteristic of a simple single wire rhombus drops from the neighborhood of 850 to 650 ohms over a 5-20 me frequency range, as shown on Fig. 35. The impedance and reactance in the lower part of the frequency range may be reduced by increasing the number of wires, as shown on Fig. 36.-n- ‘dd ONIOWdS ONZ 3NWTd TWINOZILOH ‘Lae ONIDVdS BOIS 3NVTe TWOILNaA SYOLDNGNOD ‘NI SO10—€ S4IGS=H ‘OLEH “LssiE = YNNZINY SIBMOHY 3UIM © JO JONVORENI TwNINaL — Ee ‘O14 GNOD38 ¥3d S3TDAIVOAN NI ADNENDSUd oz 6 4 si ws ets ts oi os joos L I I ss i lose Joon iE w att SWHO NI 30NvuSIS3U Asiovevo,-72- Similarly at the high end of the frequency range, the impedance may be increased by increasing the spacing between the ends of the two wires at the antenna termination. Changes of from 450 to 650 ohms have been made by increasing this distance from 1 to 5 ft, 15B. Receiving Antennas Antenna-Line Impedance Matching Coupling Networks The transmission system joining the antenna with the receiving apparatus is similar in function to the trans- mission line at the transuitting station, with the additional requirenent that it must be well shielded against the usual sources of radio noise. For this reason it has been Bell System practice to use a coaxial cable transmission line'?»#0.#1,6 extending from the radio station building to the top of the antenna coupling network pole. This cable, in earlier instal- lations, was supported on messenger wire, in accordance with standard telephone plant practice. In more recent installa- tions it has been found preferable to bury the cable to a depth of approximately three feet. This reduces the ampli- tude and frequency of temperature changes and partially elimin- ates the mechanical strains and abrasion resulting from ex- pansion. In some cases it is absolutely necessary to supply a bituminous coating over the outer copper tube to avoid the effects of corrosive soils, such as salt or fresh water marsh lands. In cases where a high insurance factor against noise induced in the transmission line is considered unnecessary, or is economically unwarranted, either a two or a four conductor open wire line may be used. On account of the high frequencies used on the line, ordinary transposition schemes are impractical. an unsuitable spacing of transpositions may increase the inter- ference instead of reducing it. If the origin of the inter- ference is located at a distance from the line, the reversals of phase at short line intervals makes a two wire line practical- ly self transposed. A four wire line having the four wiresIN ONITEN0D YNNBANY GNVE avouS 40 D1481U3L9vUVHD ADNENDIU4-LE°O1g GNOO36 U3d S3TIADVOIN NI ADNINDIES z__iz_ ozs tw vie ts 9 4 apie +, 3 T z Coo | re =a rls I EET TI . 8 - 73 - t= Ce HWree 7 anwoor = 19 aMWeoi= 99 soo.0= » 001 = Ow HWz=ty HWele! 4no a3iuoHs= 19 JWWe= 0D- 14 - placed at the four corners of a square and the diagonally opposite wires connected in parallel gives even better protection against induction on account of its geometrical arrangement and its low impedance .>© ‘The terminal impedances to be matched also are a deter- mining factor of the type of transmission line to be used. q Practical two wire lines have an extreme characteristic imped~ ance range of 400-800 ohms depending upon wire size and spacing, although 600 ohms has been found to be the most practical impedence!®, our wire lines with the conductors at the corners of a square, have practical impedances in the neighborhood of 200-300 ohms. ‘The coaxial type of line used in radio hes an impedance in the neighborhood of 72 ohns for minimm transmission loss®°, It is apparent from the above that a 600 ohm double wire line may be used in conjunction with a miltiple wire 600 ohm impedance antenna with no coupling transducer, Similarly a 300 ohm four wire line may be used to connect the radio station with two 600 ohm antennas connected in parallel. Coaxial lines of 72 ohm impedance require a coupling transducer to avoid the reflection losses which would result from connecting them directly to antennas having terminal im- pedances in the neighborhood of 600-800 ohms. This transducer also serves to pass from the balanced-to-ground antenna cir- cuit to the grounded coaxial line. Barly types of coupling networks consisted of tuned circuits coupled by mutual inductance, such as shown on Figure 37. One of the principal disadvantages of this type was that its operating frequency range did not take full advantage of the band width of a rhombic antenna. A more recent design is shown on Figure 38. This unit incorporates a metallic dust core transformer, inductances to tune out the residual antenna capacity reactance, lightning protectors, and circuits to permit direct current maintenance testing of antenna continuity. The trans- former has been designed to have a high-side terminal impedance- 75 - 0457155 RETARDATION. con A200 Disese9 REPEATING COIL FIG.38- 0157000 ANTENNA COUPLING TRANSFORMER WIRING DIAGRAM- 76 - which coincides with the sloping impedance characteristic of a single wire rhombic antenna. The transmission loss of this network is less than 0.5 db over a 4-22 megacyele frequency range. A general analysis of the advantages of coaxial vs. open wire lines for receiving, indicates that coaxial lines give the ultimate protection against noise induction from sources within or adjacent to the station building, but require an antenna coupling transducer between the line and antenna. Open wire lines are less effectively shielded against inter- ference but are cheaper and require no coupling transducer. 18. Maintenance Provisions In maintaining an extended antenna system it is desir- able to have a method for checking the circuit continuity from the station building. This facility may be provided on both , transmitting and receiving entennas by arranging the circuits to give a continuous direct current path around the loop of transmission line, coupling unit, antenna, termination and re- turn, Couparison of the resistance measured in these circuits with data taken imuediately after construction is often of assistance in locating faults. It is current design practice to use No. 6 A.W.G. (162 mil.) 40% Copperweld wire with a 2433 1b. breaking strength, in combination with insulators which are slightly weaker, such as 1900 1b. Isolantite strain insulators. at stations in the vicinity of New York, which is in the so-called neavy load- ing district, sags, tensions and spans are designed to withstand twice the load which would result from the vertical weight of 5 the conductor plus the added weight of a layer of ice 1/2" in radial thickness, combined with a horizontal wind pressure of 8 lbs. per sq. ft. on the projected area of the ice covered , conductor, at a minimum temperature of o° ¥°640, qnis design loading has been considered a reasonable compromise at the New Jersey radio stations, and no provision has been made for sleet melting on the antenna proper.-77- The collection of ice ani sleet on open wire trans- mission lines to the transmitting antennas is not a serious mechanical hazard but modifies the line propagation constant and characteristic impedance to such an extent that its re- moval is desirable. For this purpose some of the transmitting | entennas have been supplied with sleet melting equipment con- sisting of a variable voltage 200 volt 150 amp. d-c motor generator and a switch for short circuiting the antenna termina- tion, The power dissipated as heat is divided between the an- i tenna and transmission line by using a 165-mil copper transmis- | sion line to feed a 162 mil 40% conductivity Copperweld three wire antenna. Care must be taken to avoid damage to the wire materials by the application of too much heat. | 17, Lightning Protection | Damage from electrical storms may be minimized by the usual expedients employed on exposed communication and transmission lines. At receiving locations, where a coaxial line connects the antenna to the apparatus, spark gaps or carbon protector blocks are installed between each side of the antenna output and ground as shown on Figure 38. On all except direct hits this protection hes been found sufficient to prevent appreciable damage to the coupling unit or station apparatus. If an open-wire line is to be used instead of the coaxial, an additional set of protectors will be required where the line enters the station building. Transmitting stations are protected by horn gaps | to ground across the termination and across the open-wire line et the point where it enters the building as shown on Fig. 45. Additional protection is furnished by grounding the short- | circuited far end of the dissipative terminating line. Pole damage has been reduced by the use of section- alized grounded conductors on the poles. The top of these conductors may be terminated in an elevated rod, or it mayGALY, PIPE STRAPS, Gro. cLamp—— ‘SUPPORTING: BLOCK f | ‘i 2 3/4" caw, cw—< 5 STAPLES SPACED ‘APPROX. 1'-6" z ‘APART 38 | + -78- SOLID ROD. Y2'r0 ¢" O18. aPpnox amen t_| SePanation T—-A BEND Loors Away FROM melanie r | POLE SLIGHTLY foe Galv. sreEL OR COPPER WIRE STAPLE END oF. t wire To POLE = | “tf no, noo ———+{] FIG.39 LIGHTNING ROD ARRANGEMENT | Leortom oF voor MUST EXTEND AT LEAST 1 INCH BELOW STAPLE FOR RHOMBIC ANTENNA POLES-79- be looped over the pole top. Available data indicate no dif- ference in the protection afforded by these methods. The grounded conductor is divided into ten foot sections by two inch gaps as shown on Figure 39. Due to the necessity of preventing the lightning pro- tective apparatus from interfering with the transmission pro- perties of the system, special precautions must be taken to avoid the introduction of lumped capacity irregularities, such as massive horn gaps or high capacity receiving antenna pro- tectors. By minimizing the physical size of these elements, installing them in the most desirable circuit location, and giving attention to the length end arrangement of the connect- ing leads, it has been found possible to reduce any tendency to cause impedance irregularities. On account of the impossibility of securing complete ‘ protection with any practical means, it has been found expedient to maintain a stock of especially vulnerable parts such as in- sulators, wire, coupling transformers and protectors. 18. Construction The construction details of two types of recently constructed horizontal rhombic antennas are shown on the at- tached Figures 42-43. The mechanical requirements are similar to those commonly applied to the design of overhead wire lines and will be reviewed very briefly”6»4°, In general it has been found desirable to limit the maximum working tension to 50% of the ultimate strength of the material. ‘The wire tension in pounds may be computed in terms of the span length 3 and the deflection a, expressed in feet; and the loading w in pounds per foot, by means of equa- tion (22). sew (22) ta Aangineesiny Library‘981 cere HLONIUIS ONDINE SUIM 3eva GMOS OTaMUIdGOD"ONOD Yor “HLONSMIS HOIHD "MY GON NO SNOISNIL GNY SOVS TYNI4 —OP'DId 41334 NI HLONST NvdS: or ‘S3HONI NI OS: joz jooz = 80 - S3HONI NI OWS: looe 3409 ‘NOIGN3. oor 4908, NOIGNaL. Joos loos Ee ee NOISNa en gle 92) 2 Sgr No looe E looe loos ru zh 3 Ae ao.N. ant. Joo: Joou loz looet SONNOd NI NOISNBLSO7EEr2 HIONULS ONDiaua 3UIM JUVE MOS 73MHZ4d0D “NOD Lor HLONSUAS HOIH “OMY BON YOd SNOISNZL ONY SVS “TWNId —IP°O1d 41334 NI HLONS7 Nvas: 905, os. 0% ose oe osz__ 022, 4334 NI ows Hoo: “1 oz i : oor 409 ovs, -81- 40021 OVS, 41334 NI os ‘ONIM_ON, ‘SoNnod NI NOISNAL al ONIN “@19 "391 NI 2/i “400 OVS ‘GNIM G1e "39! 'Ni2/1 "4,0 “NOISNSL- 8 - Point to point transoceanic radio telephone antennas built in New Jersey have been designed to withstand heavy loading as above specified. In more southerly localities lighter loading designs are being replaced by the heavy type of construction to resist the effects of tropical storms. In cases where the wire tension may be reduced in winter and increased in summer by moans of turnbuckles, it is possible to use smaller sags in the season when no sleet is expected. Copperweld line design data plottea on Figures 40-41 show the allowable sag and tension for the required grade of construction in the heavy loading district. ‘hese data give the final sag to be used after initially loading the line to the maximum allowable tension. Nicked, kinked or temperature weakened wire must of course be avoided. In localities where heavy loading construction is used to withstand wind storms and sleet is rare, tensions considerably higher than those shown on Figures 40-41 are sometimes used with reasonable safety. Strain insulators of 1800 1b. breaking strength are used to support single wire spans, and 6000 1b. breaking strength insulators carry the resultant load of three wire spans. These insulator strengths fall midway between the assumed wire safe loading and the maximum allowable wire strength of 2435 lbs. The general subject of line and antenna construction in- cludes such matters as pole setting, guying, pole attachment and open wire construction, These items are discussed in readily available handbooks,*°*#° ana in books on overhead wire line construction”,- B+ TABLE I NOMENCLATURE 4 = Length of one side of rhombus, meters, @ = One half of the interior side angle of the rhombus. Eg) used interchangeably to designate the ) vertical angle between the ground plane and an 4) incident wave, degrees. f= frequency in cycles. 8 = horizontal angle between a direction under consideration and the longer diagonal of the rhombus, degrees. H = height of rhombus above the ground, meters. E= RMS. Resultant field strength, microvolts per meter. E,= R.M.S. Directly transmitted field strength. K = amplitude change during reflection from the ground (tor Porfootly conducting earth with horizontal polariza- tion, K = 1 € = dielectric constant of the ground, E.S.U. x) Subscripts referring to vertical or horizontal polarization, ¥ = phase advance at reflection + x radians. X "wave length, meters. 9 = conductivity of the ground, .3.U. P= Received power, micromicrowatts. Ig" Transmitting antenna current, amperes. Ra" Radiation resistance, ohms. 2," Characteristic impedance, or antenna terminal impedance, ohms. R= Load resistance, ohms. y " Phase difference between direct and reflected wave + « radians, Kye Radiation function. ®= Radiation intensity, watts per sq. meter at one meter. D = Directivity factor. Kye 1 - cosA sin (p + B) K= 1 - cosA sin (p ~ 8) A and B = Dimensional constantsle 3, 4. 5. 6. ve 8. on 10. ne 12. 13, 14, 1b. 16. i. Type or Location of Ground Sea Water Fresh Water Wet Ground Dry Ground Mid West U.S, Texas South West U.S. New England Ocean near N, N. 3. Lakes Lake Michigan Holmdel, N.J. Netcong, N.J. Japan Philippines Dry Soil Moist Soil - 4 - TABLE IZ TYPICAL GROUND CONSTANTS Dielectric Conductivity Constant E,S.U. 80 9 x 1020 80 «9 x 10” 10 4,5 x 107 4 «9 x 108 «9 x 10° 2.7 x 108 3.6 x 10” 1.8 x 107 ae 3.9 x 1020 6x10" 2,2 x 10% 5-25 1-2 x 108 s-10 1-3 x 107 1s 1.8 x 107 ae 2.7 x 107 5-4 1 x 10° 30-40 1-2 x 108 Authorit; Madrid Conference L, A. Wooten C.B, Feldman Smith - Rose ‘ee eH- 8 - TABLE III MEASURED SIGNAL GAINS EXPERIMENTAL AND OPERATING RHOMBIC ANTENNAS Transmitting Antennas Measured ‘Dimensions f Gain Location With 2 hoo mc _db_ Referred to Dixon, Calif. Manila, P.I. 269' 80" 66° 7.61 12 (d/2 Horizontal 10.84 15.8 (Dipole at (height of (antenna lawrenceville, England slg" 95" 75° 9.4 8.0 (/2 Vertical No. (with midpoint 15.4 9.0 (1.25. above (ground Lewrenceville, Bermuda 27e' 80" 64° 6.8 8.0 " Ned. 10.7 13.0 " Receiving Antennas | Holmdel, N. J. England 315" 58" 70° 16.2511 (4/2 Horizontal (Long time average) (Dipole 19 (h/2 vertical (et Ground Netcong, N. J. England 572" 60" (71-77) 9.0 10.7 (4/2 vertical (Variable) (at Ground 14.4 12.5 " Note: The above data are representative of the average signal gains observed during normelly existing combinations of fixed antenna directivity with variable transmission path angles and polarization conditions. They show the relationship between each rhombic and its individual reference antenna, but are not mutually comparable.- 86 - TABLE IV ‘TERMINAL AND TERMINATION IMPEDANCE MEASURED ON TYPICAL SINGLE WIRE FHOMBIC ANTENNAS. Antennas at Netcong, N.J. Antenna Impedance for stated Frequency Antenna Termination Range Termination Max, Min, Antenna —_, Dimension T.Oe ohms ohms Lima 4-300 ft. 10-22 850 600 515 440 3700 miles o=65°, he54! B.A. 4-500 ft. 10.1-21.2 803 620 541 470 5300 miles 65°, b=55' Rio 4-500 ft. 10,0-21.2 887 600 837 480 4900 Miles @=65°, b=57" European 4=570 ft. 4,.9-20,0 680 760 592 460 No. 1 gr75®, b=54t 3500 Miles European 4=570 ft. 4,1-19.9 70 790 622 490 No. 2 om75°, n=56! European 4570 ft, 4,0+20.0 708 890 648 470 No. 3 or75°, b=58! Italian 4-315 ft. 10-20 800 - +s 4300 Miles @=70°, b=60" Antennas at Hialeah, Flas Columbia 4=145,8 ft, —:10,.2-14.5 900 680 606 540 1100 Miles 955°, b=62 1300" 1500 " j Venezuela 4=155.5 ft. 9,05-12,55 900 605 546 490 1500 Miles g=55°, he64 Central 4=145.9 ft. 9.25-15,10 900 720 680 640 American "55°, he64 1000 Miles Panama 44143,9 ft, —-12,55-16.5 900 740 680 620 1200 Miles 55°, b=64 ; Santo 4-131 ft. 10-15 950 - oe Domingo 568°, h=62! 800 Miles- 87 - ‘TABLE V LOADING IN POUNDS PER FOOT. SOLID COPPER OR COPPSRWELD WIRE. Load sultant Resultant Weight of Resultant ANG Due to Light ‘Medium Conductor plus —_ Heavy Number Wire Only Loading Loading _1/2 inch ice _Loading #6 +08 18 249 249 292 8 +05 4 245 44 -87 LOADING CLASSIFICATIONS Loading District Maximum Assumed Loading Heavy 1/2 inch ice, 8 1b. wind at O*F. Medium ja mB lb, 1SSR, Light No ice, 12 1b. wind at 30°F.- 88 - TABLE V1, SIRS fn tonne of = Rattans uox minx ams uz wax oa (450 0495055 100 1,00 004147 one ©1480 06640 665,00 Bon O,ss050 soo 2 PeL ne 1 eek 237 Tahoe ete 1 ess ss |B Bas ors 2 Seo oe 2 moe ls 2 Ss mon 8 Smee 3 Sse oe 5 soos ose 3 4 mes 4 OED 4 e908 a0 4 4908 275 ‘ sao 5 aw ou 3 sen 6 3 ase 178 5 S Wo — 0 ,s4asa ve 5 mw oar 8 teen 3 2 oss 7 are 09 2 Io 366 2 364 eer ? 8 o,ss083 Se7 886 8 3 Tess 760 6 Soe ato 8 3 OES 88 3S Ba are 3 isa ais 9 baal eo ° oo 0,90ass 437 0460 0494107 O79 1,10 OetOLB Bs «1460 O,EearS sso a0 "roa ass oys00u2 690 T0685 7s a abe on? 1 2 160 113 2 ns oe 2 osee a1 2 toss 680 2 5 psn S Sis ou 5 case 477 5 ieee 207 5 4 6s ess 4 su Pe6 & oyrs7o4 655 < Oane Ger ‘ 5 ae tos eat 5 ssr0.777 5 ous 068 8 & Greene 8 0, sanes 455, 8 Sosa Pat 8 cool 445 é 2 Sia cx 9 Noe ane 7 696 62 2 oysaess 29 * 8 oom aaa se 8 e335 aus oO onge 250 2 9 Sas 8 Bal 06 9 eo 108 S876) 665 ° 0,20 0499584 665 0,70 0492081 098 «2420 Oy7IS59 S24 «1,70 O,Bass aee 80 a ase 1a 2 o,a1807 srs 17323 636 1 ras ous 1 2 tesms gaan aoe 2 Gms ser 2 ms ot 2 5 ao 662 3 S82 O05 3 682s 106 3 jonas 5 a mpl =e Sa & Gere cs 3 S800 Sea ‘ 15 o,s09e soe S_0ys0008 160 5 snp m0 s caar nes 5 6 ON iss 6 ear 309 8 se0e m6 8 Seon 285 6 2 m9 at 2 Sor ine 2 S208 982 2 so79 sie 2 8 Goes Se ca 8 dake See 8 eGee se 6 SG ae 9 0,00018 136 8 teas 286 9 880 18 ° 0480 0,90508 756 0480 Oyas6e9 512 1,80 0y74LI9 BLO 1,80. 0,SALOP Cas 2,90 Feros 1 ae 120 To 3a8e S16 1 36% S22 1 2 Seco 2 See Las 2 Mer se 2 Sean roe 2 3 imeenr 5 0,00007 304 3 So ors 3 Bal 366 5 oyeress 901 2 iste 136 2 Loo oat 7 & Glo gob aes Ose & thes cor Stee 545 é ce) 9 sae 3 o7e9 Bas 9 esr Sst 5 odo 0y97ase $0 0480 0,07086 523 4,40 0,70889 S66 2,900, 40008 260 2440 oN Tea Ter 2 ofoorss 655 2° "G007 99 Sere ort a 2 meee 8B ave as? 2 0,69825 366 2 ease ons 2 5 oyseou6 60 S00 6s 3 Gzsa cet 5 S806 568 5 4 eo eee 4 ojassi0 486 @ Bost ore 4 bom 939 ‘ 5599 008 5 ease 960 57650 960 5 6 Soa 8 Gor 176 8 7208 668 é 7 3e0 Fo6 2 reo 989 2 6770 O78 2 3 bos 99, 3 thos B46 8 6855 250 é 9 O46 100 9 Gass 1m 3 $900 169 4- 89 - TABLE vi. (CONTINUED) SLE tatoo x tate sa maz maz dao Ooamou one 3,00 Oporon 009,60 Gloom ste Gyn origmao oot Gg0”— alr oe Se ee AE OS RM ORR GTS HE Sete Ser 2g Se boii bg bo ouput gO Se i 32 Pome i sie 2 Ss : Ee $ em DRE of Sof SBS tS 2 ema oa 2 memes mos mesa swan $M of Bee oS RE Ot OB $ 83 $m oF see fF SG $ 8S : So } Sf Oe 2 8H $m of BS of eS eS es 20 Osea ome 3p ovainks stb 60 ovis S40 vor ons to tts oe qoute ae THE tae oe ORE RS aoe at fe ae Poe 2 Mb RB Pn 1 23 $ mie oo: Gea of Sof Rts ; Bo 2 of See of Rf BR : Se o mua = cwomson = sean tae Some fo Rs | POG RE $ as : Se $ MR of Sf RS SS ; 2a 2 me ead eet SE 2 Bs ! $B 8 US GBI E GSES + a ! fro soon ome 8:0) O0UmA se y7D MD Es ODL TD ata eg Ree A OU Ow Te pom oe toe fae ce cee ca gle i Bee : ie oo} Ree 3 Sef Be i BS i GBS ERE foamed footer i Boe ¢ mem =: sons ars ar tes eue me cece tues a mete eee & onnat | $ Hem o$ Shoe foe fee ot toms 63 SRR OS dS tts | $ BSS 8 SRS af Re 3 Be | 200 e850 Ore ATs 5,00 Om AS45618 ED to se | { iss “POE Re Bee oe 2S} BBR Ob Me CP en 1 BS 5 feos 0s Seat fee fo mat et Sete eee mt aee se ecw eae alas 2 8m Somes = 8 ammo we tt fee fogmem § SU Soames $f SS : me Some of eS SOMES SR $0 Bae i Se i &m i BS 2 gS + Oe $omaoe $B SRE GRE > St 200 sam om 344 10mm 9,00 ots ant aaY SDD. 80 ons | [en ome Moe 2 gee a | i Baee 2 age kata |g Een 1 One ee | fo Rea 5 Gis Soames |S [ 2S | $ RS 2 Se POMS Of i BR | © toe sme mes 8 wwe man as 5 eae toa RRR OE ERs $ gs $e of me of Be of BE $ £2 ie 1: BR 1: BS Ff Re i 32 3 Bef R$ SBS + RBS~ 90 - TABLE vi.(conTINUED) : S105 sn some of x mations in saz sng sin 00 5y20 0,10808 006 6,00 0,04856 925 6,00 0,05008 058 7,00 0,00088 025 1 1 er amt 1 eo 186 1 ase 300 1 "am 20 2 2 bee ame 2 Sm ss 2 50 278 2s coe 3 5360 sat 5 ise ow 5 5 bee 540 ‘ «Bis eee 4 ojcste6 679 oats bor < meen 5 5 ose a6 5 is a0 5 004025 546 5 ame é o,nn008 47 6 ase 406 8 Tee se 8 op a0 : 2 nas 890 7 5 SL > S05 os 7 o,s00ie 668 8 3 B88 mee 8 Bear eres] 8 too 182 ° 8 0 958 8 ise ae 3 Bas 09 5 ibe er 50 560 -BTB 613610 002906 ar1 8480 0.04750 324 yaar 170 1 2 is a7 1 geo 8 Feces tS ae 2 2 o,r0864 272 2 Gee 506 2 ove ase 2 ee Ser 5 3 "794 00 3 wn is 5 oceias 786 3 bon see ‘ i Ge 4 3ae oso ae 4 See oat 5 5 wee 3 19 mB 5 ssa 3 seas 6 8 Sis © 001996 706 5 bee 3s 6 760 : ere] 2 eso 582 2 666 me 2 aoe 04 ° 30,0090 dee 8 Gee POM 375 506 8 em als ° 3 oe Sat 3 803 230 8 Ste ses 3 $55 555 20 70 GEL 150620 0RS40 Lee 670 006042 EOE 740. 0,110 166 a 1 499 866 2 aan ae 2 ge 459 1 °° oon 700 a 2 Ss 600 2 Op iss 2 moar 2 is a8 5 3 ie oer 5 0,00n8s 294 3 aes 5 mee ‘ <0 604 4 es aor 4 Samer {0 meen 0,00838 636 3 550 a8 3 eer sen 2 se ow ere 388 6 S030 6 Ter as S Geen 7 7 so par 5 Home 2 fio ee 2 wen 8 8 San 300 @ O80 rat 8 o,oro2® 908 a Ba B68 ° 8 396 95 3 o,c0t0e Sat 9 tas ore 3 585 081 20 60 ol saz 6,90 0,c0286 8e7 6,80 790 ses ear 1” Bea 408 10,0784 785 1 7424 905 1 1705 264 2 ase bee 2 ene ore a teen 2 2 rea 5 bso 74 3 Boe ors 3 fae 5 3 heise a dae 2 Sans rarer) : 4 868 ore 519 068 Sus ass 5 0.01082 «17 5 sms ess 6 0,107 2a 8 oor ser 6 aoe Se1 5 & bee ces 9 ONS as 2 ojossao S51 3 Se ise ? 7 012010 168 8 596 708 8 Gre oes 8 bis 102 8 3 oss Sat 9 ow 3 504786 9 be as 5 oi ise 40 0j14810 453 5,808 ON 40. AONB OM 6,90 wo ua 708 TO gs ona ‘1 ise 923 3 Obes ono 2 Tbs eso 2 020 608 2 O00 908 2 ojceize 425 2 2 bere 5 0,18874 300 5 0,cease 664 3 "296 08s 5 3 Ber ato cre 305 eee ner 4 25 06 ‘ 4 meas 5 sr wo 2 aes 720 5 . sansa Sao ea 5 Soe er ‘ 5 Sree 2 tan ase 2 so eu > 7 > tbo 8 306% 80,0408 er a a 8 acre 8 012979 nt 3 nee 28 3 oes 999 5 8 te ae-91- TABLE vi. (continueD) SESS gerne ot x Ratiane ane ainx pred aos ans x eg 72) Ontos coe y00 onimee oOo 0) 0,0078 Om 80. 007 ome SOS ee SE or { She ee ie one i Sos: Bt aon : beets i Sent 3 fess 3 oan i 3 Beit 5 ovale are i. Gite of Em rae er as Soe 2 erm 8 ata 5 8 ou score i fas § Mis i © oot Bia $e 5 fee $I be ; 5 ee ols + Hele oo moa 8 anaes 3 ois recy 9 ‘Tie Gok 9 1b 254 9 9 su 816 . 8 020 | 1480 ojtmss 788 6,10 O,L1HTS HB «8,80 SCL BLO ONESSOS STS 60m wk One io PD OME 2 Bohs NOSE Soe Sse a ome 2 eens 2 Moss: ise 2 ojos to 5 fem 3 oat 5 boca 03 ime ite 3 ie i mm of sek i ieee 2 Gatto i abe 5 mom 5136 a a er er i | © temo 8 bes ar & comes a NRE Sh is Se | $ fee 5 Si fer Sm teas + Hose Wy tm 8 om moet 8 tone 3 ion $ fis Seis Soo teem § Sah aoe 3 fo 770 otmss 984 0,00 onerE 386 8,79 gan 8648 0,00ke TH6 70. -0,0080 656 Ons Sis br Some AL OR le 3 te i arm sce 2 tea 2 ia 2 sma i : wan om 3 Bese 3 Ome 5 -0,csmn tr i oa mo i Bret o ovoumo cat i OS ose 5 ass on 2 tere 8 ara ees saa | : Seas se ioe | 8 mae i Hoss } 7 dae 3 $ ons es 7a or + Se 3 dst es 28S seg te eed 3 Stas 3 aoa Be Somes 8 Se $date moj se er er a Te oat ne foe {Seo AD ORS ar Teter 2 josu = ; Wo of BE 3 Som 3 hemo ie i Sete 5 ae at 3 tio a | i oe Be SHES S oyeons to a Bas | seme om suse | 5 ae © sae on | i oma & som 6 farses boat | + feae 8 S ogens sot Sou ie $3 3 tesa we 2 °"Ses 8 ara 2 Sons $ teas at coe 3mm $Me 5 gue 90 onaeee oe? enim 1576.50 daa_—«840Oytensssea_——6,90 0,0 rd | SS Se an ads Soto A Oe Be 3 ete ae 2 fee ce ms 2 ie be Som 2 BS 3 Hoe ons #57 3 Sess 5 ooo ort 3 mise i Gos om ar Ba fH i mes | 2 soe 0 axe Sim 8a oe 4 -2yone mas | i Sime 7 oe tion ES a i ie aoe | + ake eis + owueet oc Farr ger + mies | 3 Glas Sus one 8 mas 3 ioe | 3 Son oie Suh f tae 5 RSs | t Engineering Library= 92 + TABLE vi(conrinveD) S25 in tems of & Santee $s saz sing E 20,0 208m «15,0 5232 O86 F 1 see ale 2 5088 Sua 2 soe a7 2 has 48 3s 280 5S tase oo

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