BLPM DCM - Unit IV

UNIT IV
PERMANENT MAGNET
BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR
T he conventional DC motors are highly efficient and their characteristics make them
suitable for use as servomotors. But the only drawback is that they need a commutator
and brushes which are subjected to wear and requires maintenance. In a conventional
DC motor, commutation is undertaken by brushes and commutator but in brushlesses DC
motor, it is done by using semiconductor devices such as transistors. The commutation refers
to the process which coverts the input direct current to an alternating current and properly
distributes it to each winding in the armature.
4.1 CONSTRUCTION
• The construction of modern brushless DC motor is very similar to the AC motor. It

consists of two important main parts (ie) stator and rotor.
• The stator which is the stationary parts has got stator frame which encloses the internal
parts of the motor and protects it and it is made up of cast iron (or) steel.
• Beneath the stator frame, stator poles are fixed which are of projective type which may
be laminated or solid piece and it is mostly made of silicon steel material.
• The stator windings are placed on the stator poles .They may be copper windings and
may be single (or) Double layer winding.
• The stator windings are excited by the DC supply through the controllable switches.
• The rotor construction is very simple (ie) it has permanent magnets of one (or) two
number with their poles, which may be projecting pole type.
• The rotor doesn’t carry any winding, brushes (or) commutator segments. The
maintenance is less and inertia is low.
4.2 Permanent Magent Brushless DC motor
• The rotor positions are sensed by position sensors such as Hall elements (or) optical
encoders which are fixed on the shaft of the motor.
• The constructional details are shown in the figure 4.1
4.1.1 Basic Principle of operation of PMBLDC Motor
• The basic principle of operation of motor can be easily understand by considering simple
three phase unipolar motor as shown in the figure 4.2
• It uses optical sensors (photo transistors) as position detectors. Three photo transistors
PT1, PT2, and PT3 are placed on the end plates at 120° interval and they are exposed to
light in sequence through a revolving shutter coupled to the motor shaft.
• As shown in the figure 4.2, the south pole of the rotor now faces the salient pole P2 of
the stator, and the phototransistor PT1 detects the light and turns transistor Tr1 ON.
• In this state, the south pole which is created by the salient pole P1 by the electrical
current flowing through the winding w1 is attracting the north pole of the rotor to move it
in the direction of the arrow (CCW).
Stator Frame
Stator Pole
P1 P3
N Stator Winding
Permanent Magnet Rotor
Optical Disc with Shutter
S
P2
Fig 4.1
Special Electrical Machines 4.3
Shutter
PT1
P1 P3
N
PT3
PT2 S
P2
IB
EB
Tr1 Tr2 Tr3
Fig 4.2
• When the south pole comes to the position to face the pole P1 the shutter which is
coupled to rotor shaft will shade PT1 and PT2 will be exposed to the light and current
will flow through the transistor Tr2.
• When a current flows through the winding W2 and creates a south pole on pole P2, then
the north pole of the rotor will revolve in the direction of the arrow and face the pole P2.
At this moment, the shutter shades PT2 and PT3 is exposed to light.
• Thus the P2 is de-energised and P3 is energized. By repeating such a switching action in
the sequence the permanent magnet rotor revolves continuously.
• In order to reverse the direction of rotation of the motor, we can’t change the supply
terminal because most of the semiconductor devices are unidirectional switches.
• Therefore some circuit is necessary when the motor is to be driven in either direction. So
we go for circuit connections change between the phototransistors and the transistors as
given below.
For CCW rotation

PT1 → TR1
PT2 → TR2
PT3 → TR3
For CW rotation
PT1 → TR3
PT2 → TR2
PT3 → TR1
The switching sequence for CCW & CW is given below.
CCW CW
PT1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
PT2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
PT3 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
TR1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0
TR2 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
TR3 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
The above switching sequences between the phototransistors and the transistors can be
implemented by using integrated logic gate circuits. The rotation of stator magnetic field with
respect to the excitation of the winding and the respective photo transistor waveforms are
shown in the figure 4.3 for CCW rotational direction.
PT1 I1
120 240 360 120 240 360
PT2 I2
120 240 120 240
PT3 I3
240 360 240 360
P1 P3
P2
Time
Fig 4.3
4.1.2 Three Phases Bipolar driven Motor

• When a three phase brushless motor is driven by a three phase bridge circuit, the
efficiency which is the ratio of the mechanical output power to the electrical input power
is the highest, since in this drive, an alternating current flows through each winding as in
an AC motor.
• This drive is referred to as “Bipolar Drive”. Here bipolar means that a winding is
alternatively energised to become south and north poles.
• Here also we use the optical method for detecting the rotor position, using six
phototransistors placed on the end plate at equal intervals.
• Since a shutter is coupled to the shaft, these photo elements are exposed to light in
proper sequence. The problem is the relation between the ON/OFF state of the
transistors and the phototransistors.
• The simplest relation is setting the logic sequencer in such a way that when a
phototransistor is exposed to light then the corresponding transistor is switch ON.
1
LOGIC SEQUENCER
2
3
4
5
6
PT
TR1 TR3 TR5
TR2 TR4 TR6
PT6
PT3 W
PT1
PT2
PT4
PT5
Revolving V U
Shutter
Figure 4.4
• Consider that initially PT1, PT4 & PT5 are exposed to the light and electrical current
flows through TR1, TR4 & TR5.
• The terminals U and W have the battery potential and terminal V has zero potential. In
this condition, current will flow from terminal U to V and another current from W to V
as shown in the figure 4.5.
V U
Fig 4.5
• The resultant magnetic field will be at the centre. The rotor is placed in such a position
that the field flux will have a 90° angle with respect to the stator’s magnetic field as
shown in the figure 4.6.
Fig 4.6
• In this condition a clockwise torque will be produced on the rotor and it revolves by 30°,
then PT5 is tuned off and PT6 is ON which makes the stator’s magnetic pole revolve 60°
clockwise.
• Thus when the rotor’s south pole gets nearer to the stator’s south pole, it repeals (or)
goes away further to create a continuous clockwise rotation. The ON/OFF sequence and
the rotation of the transistor are shown in the figure 4.7.
ON-OFF 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sequence
TR1 1 1 1 0 0 0
TR2 0 0 0 1 1 1
TR3 0 0 1 1 1 0
TR4 1 1 0 0 0 1
TR5 1 0 0 0 1 1
TR6 0 1 1 1 0 0
E O O O
D E O E E E E O
Fig 4.7
• The rotational direction may be reversed by arranging the logic sequencer in such a way
that when a photo-detector marked with a certain number is exposed to light, the
transistor of the same number is turned OFF and the photo-detector not exposed to light,
the transistor of the same number is turned ON.
• Therefore, in this position, TR2, TR3 and TR6 are ON and the battery voltage appears at
V while U and W has zero electric potential.
• Then the magnetic field in the stator is reversed and rotor’s torque is counter clockwise.
Then the motor rotates about 30 degree and then TR2 turn OFF and TR1 in ON.
• At this point the field revolves by 60 degree as shown in the figure 4.8. So that the rotor
starts rotating continuously in CCW direction
ON-OFF 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sequence
TR1 0 1 1 1 0 0
TR2 1 0 0 0 1 1
TR3 1 1 0 0 0 1
TR4 0 0 1 1 1 0
TR5 0 0 0 1 1 1
TR6 1 1 1 0 0 0
O O O E
E O E EO E O E
Fig4.8
4.1.3 Comparison of Conventional and Brushless DC Motor:
Description Conventional Motor Brushless Motor

Mechanical structure Field magnets on the stator Field magnets on the rotor
Distinctive features Quick response and Long lasting, easy
excellent controllability maintenance
Winding connection Ring (or) ∆ connection ∆ (or) Υ connected three
phase winding (or) Two
phase winding
Commutation methods Mechanical contact Electronic switching using
between brushes and transistors
commutator
Detecting method of rotor’s Automatically detected by Hall elements optical
position brushes encoders etc.,
Reversing method By reversal of terminal Rearranging the logic
voltage sequences
Advantages
1. Brushes maintenance is no longer required and many problems associated with
brushes are eliminated
2. Radio-frequency interference and the sparking associated with the brushes are
eliminated.
3. The conduction of heat through the frame is improved.
4. Increase in the electric loading is possible by providing greater specific torque.
5. The efficiency is likely to be higher than that of DC motor of equal size.
6. Motor length is reduced.
7. The maximum speed of brushless motor is limited by the retention of the magnets
against centrifugal force.
8. Better efficiency, power factor and greater output power.
Disadvantages
1. The need for shaft position sensing

2. Increased complexity in the electronic controller.
3. It is difficult to operate the motor in Field weakening mode providing a constant
power capability at high speed.
4. In very large motors, PM excitation does not make sense because the magnet weight
becomes excessive.
5. Design of logical control circuit is somewhat complex and costlier.
Characteristic features of PMBLDC Motor
1. Rectangular distribution of Magnetic flux in the air gap.

2. Rectangular current waveforms.
3. Concentrated stator windings.
4.2 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS ON OPEN CIRCUIT
The figure 4.9 shows the cross section of a two pole brushless DC motor having high
energy rare - earth magnets on the rotor. The demagnetization curve of the magnet is shown in
figure 4.10 The axial length of stator and rotor is same. First, we will consider the open circuit
case, ie with no stator current.
r1
Figure 4.9
Load line
Br
Operating Bm
Point Magnetic Flux
Density B (T)
Demagnetization
curve
- µoHc - µoHm 0
-µoH (T)
Figure 4.10
Whenever magnetic circuits are used to analysis a magnetic field, the first task is to
identify the main flux paths and assign reluctance (or) permeances to them. Figure (3) shown
the equivalent magnetic circuit (ie) only half of the equivalent circuit is shown because the
lower half is the mirror image of the upper half about the horizontal axis which is an equi-
potential. In the analysis the steel core of the stator and the rotor shaft are assumed to be
infinitely permeable. Each magnet is represented by a Norton equivalent circuit consisting of a
flux generator in parallel with an internal leakage permeance as shown in Figure 4.11
φg/2 φg/2
Stator Yoke φg Stator Yoke
Rg
φm
Pmo Pr1
Fm φr
Magnet
Rotor Shaft
Fig 4.11
The generated flux φr is given as

φr = Br.Am
The internal leakage permeance is given as
µoµrec Am
Pmo =
lm
Where Am → Pole area of the magnet
lm → Magnet length in the direction of Magnetisation
Br → Permanent flux density
µrec → Relative recoil permeability (ie) slope /µo
Let us assume outer pole area and inter-pole area as an average value then
2  l 
Am = π  r1 − g − m  × l
3  2
Most of the Magnet flux crosses the airgap via the airgap reluctance Rg given as
g′
. Rg =
µ 0 Ag
Where g ′ → equivalent air gap length including slotting
g ′ = Kc x g
Assume Kc=1.05
The air gap Ag is the area through which the flux passes as it crosses the gap. and it is given as
2  g  
Ag =  π  r1 −  + 2g  ( l + 2g )
3  2  
The remaining permeance in the magnetic circuit is the rotor leakage Permeance Pr1 which
represents the paths of magnet flux components that fail to cross the airgap. The rotor leakage
permeance is difficult to estimate because the flux paths are not obvious. The rotor leakage
permeance is quite small, typically 5-20% of the magnet internal permeance and it can be
added to it.
Then
Pm = Pmo+Pr1 = Pmo(1 + þr1)
where þr1 is the normalised rotor leakage permeance = Pr1/Pmo
Equating the MMF across the magnet to the MMF across the airgap.
φr − φ g
Fm = = φ g Rg
Pm
Φr Φ g
− = Φ g Rg
Pm Pm
Φr Φg
= + Φ g Rg
Pm Pm
Φr 1
= ( + Rg )Φ g
Pm Pm
Φr 1 + R g Pm
= ( )Φ g
Pm Pm
Φr
Φ g = ( )
1 + Pm R g
Divide the above expression by Ag
Φ Φr 1
g
= ( ). (1)
Ag 1 + Pm R g Ag
The flux concentration factor Cφ is ratio of magnet pole area to air gap area given as
Am
Cφ =
Ag
Am
Ag =
Cφ
The Airgap flux density can be written as
Φ
Bg = g
Ag
Put (1) in the above equation and we get
Φr 1
Bg = ( ).
1 + Pm R g Ag
Put the expression for Ag in the above equation and we get
Φr C
Bg = ( ). φ
1 + Pm R g Am
Cφ Φr
Bg = × Br Br =
(1+ P × R )
m g
Where
Am
Similarly we can get for the magnet flux density Bm which can be written as
 1 + Pr1 R g 
Bm =   Br
 1 + Pm R g 
The magnetizing force Hm in the magnet using demagnetization characteristics is given as
Br − Bm A
−Hm =
µo µrec m
The negative sign signifies a demagnetizing force and indicates that the magnet operates in the
second quadrant of the B-H curve.
The line drawn from the origin through the operating point is called the “Load line” and the
absolute value of its slope, normalized to µo is called the “Permeance Coefficient” (PC) and
written as
1 + Pr1 Rg 
PC = µrec  
 Pmo Rg 
If figure (2) is drawn with µoHm along the x-axis instead of Hm then the units of both axes
are same (Tesla) and the PC is the actual slope of the load line. The PC is ratio of magnet
length to effective airgap length and if Cφ is approximately unity and Pr1 is approximately
zero.
In motors with weak flux concentration factor the magnet should operate on open circuit at a
high permeance coefficient to maximize the airgap flux density and the torque per ampere and
to provide adequate margin against demagnetization by armature reaction.
The airgap flux density on open circuit is plotted is Figure 4.12
B(T) 120
0.543 T
270
0 30 90 180 360 θ
Fig 4.12
In practice ,because of fringing, the distribution is not perfectly rectangular and there are
circumferential as well as radial components of B at the edges of the magnets. There will be
appreciable ripple superimposed on the wave form because of slotting of the stator bore.
4.3 TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF BLDC MOTOR
The torque speed characteristics of the ideal brushless motor can be derived from the
following equations. If the commutation is perfect and the current waveforms are exactly
rectangular and if the converter is supplied from an ideal direct voltage source V, then at any
instant the following equation can be written for the DC terminal voltage.
V = E + RI
Where R is the sum of two phase resistance in series and E is the sum of two phase Emf’s in
series. This equation is exactly the same as that of the commutator motor.
The voltage drops across two converter switches in series are omitted, but they correspond
exactly to the two brush voltage drops in series in the commutator motor.
The torque speed equation is written as
 T
ω = ωo 1 − 
 To 
V
Where the no load speed is w = rad/sec
kφ
o
and the stall torque is given by To = K φ I o
This is the torque with the motor stalled (ie) at zero speed.
V
The stalling current is given by Io =
R
This characteristic is shown in Figure 4.13

T
T0
Intermittent
Continuous Continuous Rated Torque

Stall Torque
Chopping Angle Control

Control
0
ω0 ω
Fig 4.13
If the phase resistance is small, as it should be an efficient design, then characteristic is similar
to that of a DC shunt Motor.
The speed is essentially controlled by the voltage V, and may be varied by varying the supply
voltage. The motor then draws just enough current to drive the torque at this speed. As the
load torque is increased, the speed drops and the drop is directly proportional to the phase
resistance and the torque.
The voltage is usually controlled by chopping or PWM. This gives rise to a family of the
torque-speed curve as shown. Note the boundaries of continuous and intermittent operation.
The continuous limit is usually determined by heat transfer and temperature rise. The
intermittent limit may be determined by the maximum rating of semiconductor Devices in the
controller (or) by temperature rise.
In practice the torque speed curve deviates from the ideal form because of the effects of
inductance and other parasitic influences. The curve also shows the possibility of extending
the speed range by advancing the phase (or) the dwell of the conduction period relative to the
rotor position (ie) Angle control.
4.4 TORQUE AND EMF EQUATION OF BLDC MOTOR

The basic Torque & Emf equations of the BLDC motor are quite simple and resemble those of
the DC commutator Motor.
A simple concept machine is shown in figure 4.14 Note that the two pole magnet has a pole
arc of 1800 instead of 1200 analyzed in the previous section.
300
a1
a2
S N
θ0
A2
A1
Fig 4.14
The airgap flux density waveform is ideally a square wave as shown 4.15a. In practice,
fringing causes to be somewhat rounded. The co-ordinate axes have been chosen so that the
centre of a north pole of the magnet is aligned with x-axis (ie) at θ = 0. The stator has 12 slots
and three phase winding. Thus there are two slots per pole per phase. Each phase winding
consists of two adjacent full pitch coils of N1 turns each, whose axes are displaced from one
another by 30 degree.
The winding is a single layer winding. This winding is equivalent with only one coil per pole
per phase having a fractional pitch of 5/6. This is more practical winding than the one
analyzed because it has less bulky end windings and is generally easier to assemble and its
copper losses are lower.
Consider the flux linkage ψ1 of coil a1A1 as the rotor rotates. This is shown in the figure 4.14
Note that θ now represents the movements of the rotor from the reference position in the
figure 4.14 The flux linkage varies linearly with rotor position because the airgap flux density
is constant over each pole pitch of the rotor. Maximum positive flux linkage occurs at 00 and
maximum negative flux linkage at 1800. By integrating the flux density around the airgap, the
maximum flux linkage of the coil can be found as
π
Ψ1max = N1 ∫ B(θ ) r1 l dθ
0
= N1Bg π r1 l
The variation of flux linkage with θ as the rotor rotates from 00 to 1800 is given by
 θ 
ψ 1 (θ ) = 1 −
 ψ 1max
 π 
 2
The emf induced in coil a1A1 is given by
dψ 1 dψ 1 d θ dψ 1
e1 = − = − × = −ω Volts
dt dθ dt dθ
which gives
e1 = 2N1Bg l r1 ω (volts)
Where 2N1 = Number of turns per Coil-1 = Nph
Therefore e1 = N ph B g l r1 ω volts
Similarly e 2 = N ph B g l r1 ω Volts
The sum of the EMFs eph = e1 +e2 = 2 Nph Bg l r1 ω volts

B(θ)
a) 180
0 360 θ
ψmax 30
b) ψ(θ)
c) ea1
30
d) ea2
θ
150
ea = ea1 + ea2
e)
θ
120
f) ib ic ia
-ic -ia -ib -ic
Fig 4.15
This represents the magnitude of the square wave Emf ea1 shown in the figure4.15c The
Emf induced in the second coil of phase A is identical, but rotated in phase by 300. If the two
coils are connected in series, the total phase voltage is sum of the two separate coil voltages
and this is shown in figure4.15e The basic effect of distributing the winding into two coils is
to produce a stepped Emf waveform. In practice, fringing causes its corners to be rounded.
The wave form then has the “trapezoidal” shape, ie., characteristics of the brushless DC
Motor. With 1800 magnet arcs and two slots per pole per phase, the flat top of this waveform
is ideally 1500 wide but in practice the fringing field reduces this to smaller value (ie) 1200.
The magnitude of the flat topped phase emf is given by
eph = e1 +e2 = 2 Nph Bg l r1 ω volts
where Nph = 2N1 because two coils are assumed to be in series.

In a machine with P pole pairs, the equation remains valid provided Nph is the number of
turns is series per phase and ω is in mechanical radians per second.
In the figure 4.15f shows an ideal rectangular waveform of phase current, in which the current
pulses are 1200 electrical degree wide and of magnitude I. The positive direction of current is
motoring current. The conduction periods of the three phases are symmetrically phased so as
to produce a three phase set of balanced 1200 square waves.
If the phase windings are star connected as shown, then at any time there are just two phases
and two transistors conducting.
During any 1200 interval of phase current, the instantaneous power being converted from
electrical to Mechanical is
P = ω Te = 2 e I
The number 2 in this equation arises from the fact that two phases are conducting.
Te = 4Nph Bg l r1 I (Nm)
The above equation is valid for any number of pole pairs. The similarity between the brushless
motor and the commutator motor can now be seen. Writing E = 2 e to represent the
combined Emf of two phases in series, the Emf and torque equations can be written in the
form
E = K φ ω and T = K φ I
Where K = 4 Nph and φ = Bg r1 π l
Where K is the armature constant and φ is the flux. In practice, of course, none of the ideal
conditions can be perfectly realized. The main result of this is to introduce ripple torque but
the basic relationships of Emf proportional to speed and torque proportional to current remain
unchanged.
1 3 5
4 6 2
A B C
4.5 Controller for BLDC Motor
• The general structure of a controller for a brushless PM DC Motor is shown in Figure

4.16 This schematic diagram shows the functional blocks required to control the drive in
chopping control range (ie) commutation angle is fixed.
• The rotor shaft position is sensed by a Hall effect sensor a slotted optical disk (or) some
other transducers. These signals are decoded by combinational logic to provide the firing
signal for 120 degree conduction on each of the three phases.
• The commutation logic has six outputs which control the upper and lower phase legs of
the transistors. The basic forward control loop is a voltage control, implemented by a
monostable clocked at a fixed reference frequency, which is typically a few kHz.
• The duty-cycle (or) off time is controlled by an analogue voltage reference that
represents the desired speed.
• The PWM is applied only to the lower phase legs of the transistors and this reduces the
current ripple and also avoid the need for wide bandwidth in the level shifting circuit
that feeds the upper leg transistors.
• The use of AND Gates as a simple way of combining the commutation and chopping
signals to the lower transistors.
• From the control point of view the brushless motor is similar to the dc commutators
motor, as the simple torque & voltage equations are similar.
• It is possible to implement current & speed feed back in the same way as in the dc
motor. It may be necessary in either (or) both loops to improve stability and transient
response. Therefore wide range of speed control and torque control using relatively
simple techniques that are familiar with commutator motors.
• The instantaneous current in the brushless PM motor is regulated in each phase by a
hysteresis type regular which maintain the current with in the adjustable limits.
• This is called “Current mode” control and several algorithms are possible in each phase
and their bandwidth must obviously be wider than that of the sensing resistor as shown.
• The speed feedback from a Tacho-generator TG, can also be derived from the shaft
position sensor by a frequency to voltage converter. This technique only works at high
speed.
• Many of the functions of the circuit can be performed digitally and it is increasingly
common to have a serial communication interface that permits the system to be
computer controlled.
• In high performance systems, the special purpose decoding circuit are used.
• So it is possible to fine tune the firing angles and the PWM control as a function of
speed and load to improve various aspects of performance such as efficiency, dynamic
performance and speed range.
Figure4.16 Structure of controller for PM BLDC Motor drive

4.6 COMMUTATION PROCESS
The function of a brush in a DC motor is replaced with two switches (or) transistors. This is
shown in the below figure4.17
A A A
Fig4.17
Consider the commutator segment A which is in any of the three states.

i. Touching the positive brush
ii. Touching the negative brush
iii. Touch neither
Again we have to give importance to the action of the coil inductance in the connected
DC motor. In the figure 4.18 shown below, the switch S1 is closed and the current is supplied
to the coil. In the figure4.19 the current is apparently cutoff when S1 is opened, but because of
inductance ,high voltage across the airgap is produced in the switch and therefore spark occurs
and the current continues to flow through the airgap for a short time. In the figure 4.20 shown
below indicated that the spark can occur when the brushes separate from the commutator
segment A and move to the next segment. If the sparks are weak then it will not produce
serious damage to the commutator segment (or) brush else this spark will damage them in the
repeated operation.
Direction of commutator
movement
A A A B
spark
S1 Spark
S2
Fig 4.18 Fig 4.19 Fig 4.20
A smaller inductance will reduce sparking. That is, the number of turns of the coil
connected to one commutator segment should be small for sparkless commutation. In
conventional motors, the windings are separated into many coils, and in some motors, there
are more coils than the commutator segments.
The figure shown above is a commutator circuit which uses two transistors. When
Tr1=S1 is ON and a current is being supplied from the power supply through this transistor to
the coil1. When Tr1 turn OFF the current will flow through diode D2 for a transient period
until it falls to zero. If this diode is not provided, the current will decrease all at once. Hence a
 di 
high voltage which is L   will be produced in the coil and will be applied across the
 dt 
collector and emitter of Tr1 and will damage the transistor. Thus, in a brushless DC motor the
electromagnetic energy stored in the coil can return to the power supply through this diode.
Therefore, there is no spark. We see that diode D2 is needed to protect Tr1 from being
damaged and D1 protects Tr2=S2.
4.7 Detection of rotor position and the use of Hall elements:

A brushless DC motor uses some means of detecting the pole / position on its rotor. The
position sensors used nowadays are:
1. Hall elements
2. Light emitting diodes and phototransistors.
3. Inductor sensitive to inductance variation.
4.7.1 Hall elements:
When an electrical current Ic flows downwards in a semiconductor material which is

placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the material surface, an electromotive force VH is
created in the material in the direction perpendicular to both current Ic and magnetic Induction
B. Since the electromagnetic force acts on charged particles (electrons (or) holes) according to
Fleming’s Left Hand rule, the charged particles are biased to the left side of the semiconductor
material and the polarity of VH depends upon whether it is p–type (or) n–type. The magnitude
of the electromotive force VH which is called “Hall Voltage” is given by the equation
1
VH = B IC R H
d
Where
RH is the Hall constant (m3c-1)
IC is the electrical current(A)
B is the flux density (T)
d is the thickness of the material (m)
Ic
IH
_
VH +
Fig 4.21
The Hall effect is strong in some specific metal compounds and semiconductos.
Semiconductor devices which are made for use in detecting magnetic fields are called Hall
elements. In modern brushless motors, n-type InSb (Indium – Antimony) is extensively used,
as well as GaAs (Gallium – Arsenide).
4.7.2 Principle of position detection using Hall elements:
An equivalent circuit for a Hall element expressed as a four terminal network as shown
figure 4.22. When a current Ic which is called the control current or bias current, flows from
terminal 3 to 4 in the Hall element exposed to a magnetic field which is perpendicular to the
element plane, a voltage VH is generated across the terminal 1 and 2 as explained before.
When terminal 4 is taken as the reference point, the potentials at terminals 1 and 2 are
VH/2 and -VH/2 respectively where R1 = R2 and R3 = R4 assumed. Moreover the polarity
reverses as the flux direction reverses.
Ic
3
d
R3
1 2
R1 R2
R4
4
B
VH1 VH2
_
VH +
Fig 4.22
Thus when a Hall element is placed near a permanent magnet rotor, the Hall element
can accurately detect the pole position and the flux density providing output voltage VH1 and
VH2.
4.73 Practical methods of position detection:
The simplest brushless DC motor using one Hall element placed is shown in figure
4.23 & 4.24 The output signal from the Hall element operate the two transition Tr1 and Tr2 to
control the electrical currents in stator windings W1 and W2.
W1 W2
ic
+ _
Tr1 + Tr2
_
iB
Fig 4.23
S
N
W2
B
W1
Figure 4.24
i. The Hall element detects the north pole of the rotor magnet and W2 is energized to
produce the south pole which drives the rotor in the CCW direction
ii. Since no magnetic field is applied to the Hall element in this positional relation, both
transistors are in the OFF state, and no currents flow in W1 and W2. The rotor
continues to revolve due to inertia.
iii. The Hall element detects the south pole of the rotor and winding W1 is energized to
create the south pole which attracts the north pole of the rotor to continue the CCW
motion.
The state of the rotor as it revolves is shown below.
S N
S N
N S
ω1 ω2
(a) (b) (c)
4.7.4 Elimination of Dead point in two phase motors

As we have seen before, the two phase motor uses one Hall element to detect the rotor
position. This type of motor has the following two draw backs.
i. There are two dead points at which the hall elements does not experience the
magnetic flux, and as a result no current flows in the windings to produce a torque.
Hence, when the motor carries a frictional load, there is a possibility that it will
stop at a dead point and be unable to start again. When the frictional load is small
the rotor may be able to pass through the dead points due to inertia.
The figure shown below gives the relationship between torque and rotational angle.
Torque
(CCW)
Dead point Dead point
θ
Torque
(CW)
ii. Since the back Emf is small at the low torque positions, a large current will flow
and increase the conduction loss. Hence the motor efficiency which is the ratio of
the output mechanical power to the input electrical power is not high.
As far as the elimination of the dead points, there are two major methods.
i. First one uses a polyphase structure (ie) three phase bipolar driven scheme.
ii. Second one , space harmonic magnetic field.
The principle of operation of Three Phase Bipolar driven BLDC motor is already seen using
photo-transistor. These photo-transistors are replaced by Hall element.
4.7.5 Space Harmonic Type:

Consider the motor shown in the figure 4.25 which is an improved type of the plain
two phase two pole motor. An additional four pole magnet is coupled to the rotor and stator
also has a four pole magnet in a positional relationship as shown in the figure4.25. Figure 4.26
shows the relationship between the torque and revolving angle of this motor. The curve A in
the ordinary two pole two phase motor has two dead points. Curve B is the space harmonic
torque curve created by the newly installed permanent magnets.
The two pole torque is always counter clockwise because of the commutation by the
Hall elements. The four pole torque varies alternatively in both directions (ie) CW and CCW.
Since the overall torque, which is shown by curve C, is the sum of both torques, it does not
have any dead points.
This type of motor in which two additional magnets are set up has not been used in practical
application. The methods of exploiting this effect are as follows.
i. The method which has auxiliary salient poles in its stator and an auxiliary magnet
in the rotor, the magnet having twice as many magnetic poles as the main magnet.
ii. The method which uses a second harmonic magnetization in the rotor, the winding
pitch being moved from 1800 on the stator.
iii. The method which uses a non uniform airgap to create a second harmonic torque.
N
S S S S
N
S
N
Figure 4.25
Curve B
Curve C Curve A
(CCW)
↑
Torque
θ
↓
(CW)
Dead point Dead point
Fig 4.26
PROBLEM
1. A brushless DC. motor has the cross section r1 = 30 mm, lm = 80mm, g = 0.8 mm
and axial length l = 35mm. slotting is rejected and a single full – pitch stator coil
with 30 turns. The cross magnet has Br = 0.35T, Prec = 1 and H0 = 278 KA/m. The
current in the stator cell is zero.
i. Calculate Bg in the average at the centre of the magnet arc ie on the direct
axis.
ii. Determine the m.m.f across the magnet and the internal magnetizing force
Hm.
iii. Calculate the flux linkage of the coil.
iv. Determine the peak value of e.m.f induced in stator coil if the rotor rotates at
4000 r.p.m.
April / May 2003
Given data
r1 = 30 mm, lm = 8 mm,
g = 0.8 mm, l = 35 mm,
N = 30, Br = 0.35T,
µrec = 1, Hc = 278KA/m.
To find
i. Bg in the airgap
ii. MMF across the magnet and internal magnet force
iii. Magnetizing force Hm
iv. Flux linkage in the coil (stator)
v. Peak value of e.m.f induced.
Solution
C φ Br
Bg =
1 + Pm R g
Kg
Rg = c
µ0Ag
 3 ( 2 )
A g =  2 π r1 − 3 + Zg  ( l + 2g )

=  2 π ( 30 − 0.4 ) + 1.6  ( 35 + 1.6 )
 3 
Rg = 23275 mm2
Kg 1.05 × 0.8 ×10 −3
Rg = o =
µ o A g 4π× 10−7 × 0.2327 × 10−6
R g = 2.87 ×105
µ o µ rec A m
Pmo =
lm
2 
π  r1 − g − m  l
l
Am =
3  2
2
= π [30 − 0.8 − 4] × 35
3
A m = 1847mm 2
µ o µ rec A m
Pmo =
lm
4π×10−7 × 1× 1847 × 10−6
=
8 ×10−3
A m = 2.9 × 10−7
Pm = Pmo [1 + Pr1 ]
Am 1847
Cφ = = = 0.7935
Ag 23275
= 2.9 × 10−7 [ +0.1]
Pm = 3.19 × 10−7
Cφ Br
Bφ =
1 + Pm R g
0.7935 × 0.35
=
1 + ( 3.19 ×10 −7 × 2.89 ×10−7 )
Bg = 0.248 T
Flux crossing the airgap φr = 0.35 x 1847 x 102 = 0.646 x 103.
b. MMF across the magnet

φ − φg
Fm = r
Pm
φr 0.646
φg = =
1 + Pm R g 1 + 3.19 ×10 −7 × 2.85 ×105
φg = 0.5918
0.646 − 0.5918
Fm =
3.19 ×10−7
Fm = 165.9 AT
B r − Bm
C. −H m =
µ 0µ rec
Pr1 = Pm − Pmo
= 3.19 ×10 −7 − 2.9 × 10−7
Pr1 = 0.29 ×10−7
1 + Pr1R g
Bm = × Br
1 + Pm R g
1 + ( 0.29 ×10−7 × 2.8785 )
= × 0.35
1 + ( 3.19 × 10−7 × 2.87 × 105 )
Bm = 0.323
0.35 − 0.323
−H m =
4π× 10−7 × 1
Hm = 20.7 kA/m
d. Induced emf E = 2Bg l r Nph ω

4000
= 2 × 0.248 × 35 × 3030 × ×10 −6 × 2π
60
E = 6.5445 volts
2. A PM brushless DC motor has a torque constant of 0.12 Nm/A referred to the DC

supply.
a. Estimate its no load speed in rpm when connected to a 48 V DC supply.
b. If the armature resistance is 0.15Ω/phase and the total voltage drop in the
controller transistor is 12 V. Determine the stall current and stall torque.
c. The DC current is 8.2 amps when the motor is star connected and has two
phases on at any instant with a total of 2V dropped across the two conducting
transistor in series; this voltage drop can be assumed constant. The friction
torque has been separately measured as 0.046 Nm at this speed. If the supply
voltage is 48 V dc. Calculate the efficiency of the complete drive and the
separate power loss components due to
i. Voltage drop in the transistor
ii. Winding resistance
iii. Friction and
iv. Iron loss
If the iron loss is modeled by means of a resistor connected in series parallel with
each phase of the motor determine the value of this resistance.
Given data
Torque constant, Kφ = 0.12 N-m
Supply voltage V = 48 volts
Armature resistance/ phase, Ra = 0.15 ohm
Voltage drop in the controller transistor Vdrop = 2 volts
Mechanical power to the load = 3000 rpm
DC supply current = 8.2 amps
Friction torque = 0.046 N-m
To find
a. No load speed , no in rpm
b. Stall torque To and stall current Io.
c. Efficiency of the3complete drive
i. Power loss due to voltage drop in transistor
ii. Power loss due to winding resistance
iii. Power loss due to friction
iv. Total iron loss
Solution
V
a. No Load speed, ωo =
Kφ
48
= = 400 rad
0.12 sec
400 × 60
no = = 3820 rpm
2π
no = 3820 rpm
b. During this operation two transistor will be connected in series

R = 0.15 + 0.15 = 0.3
V 48 − 2
Stall current, Io = = = 153.3 amps
R 0.3
Io = 153.3 amps
[48-2 = subtract the voltage drop from supply voltage]
Stall torque , To = KφIo
= 0.12 x 153.3
To = 18.396 Nm
Mechanical output
c. Efficiency of the complete drive = × 100
Electrical input
330
η= × 100 [Q V = 48V, I 8.2 A]
( 48 × 8.2 )
η = 83.84 %
i. Power loss due to voltage drop in the transistor = Voltage drop x current
= 2 x 8.2
= 16.4 watts
ii. Due to winding resistance = I2R
= 8.22 x 0.15
= 20.2 watts
2πNT
iii. Power loss due to friction P=
60
2π× 3400 × 0.046
= [Friction Torque T = 0.046 Nm given ]
60
iv. Iron loss = Electrical input – [power loss due to [transistor + winding resistance
+ friction + mean output]
= 4.8 x 1.2 – [16.4 + 20.2 + 330]
= 393.6 – 383.6
Iron loss Pi = 10.6 watts
v. The value of resistance Pi = I2R = 10.6
10.6
R= = 0.157 omhs
8.22
3. A permanent magnet DC commutator motor has a no load speed of 6000 rpm when
connected to a 120 V supply. The armature resistance is 2.5 Ω and rotational and
iron losses may be neglected. Determine the speed when the supply voltage is 60V
and the torque is 0.5 Nm.
Given data
No load supply no = 6000 rpm

Supply voltage = 120 volts
Armature Resistance = 2.5 ohm
To Find
i. Speed when the supply voltage = 60 Volts and torque 0.5 Nm
Solution
Stall current Io = V
Ra
120
= = 48 amps
2.5
Stall torque, To = Kφ Io
V
But, Kφ =
ωo
120  2πN o 
= = 0.1909 ωo = 60 
6000  
2π×
60
Torque constant Kφ = 0.1909
To = 0.1909 x 48
To = 9.167 Nm
The speed at V = 120 volts
T = 0.5 Nm
 T
ω = ωo 1 − 
 To 
 T
N = n o 1 − 
 To 
 0.5 
N = 6000 1 − [no = 6000 and T = 0.5 Nm given]
 9.167 
N = 5672 rpm
At 60 V and 0.5 Nm
V1 = K φ ω1
120 = K φ × 5672 _____ (1)
V2 = K φ ω2 _____ (2)
From equation 1 and 2 we write
60
N2 = × 5672
120
N2 = 2863 rpm
4. A permanent magnet DC commutator motor has a stall torque of 1 NM with a stall

current of 5 A. Estimate it’s no load speed in rpm when fed from a 28 V DC voltage
supply.
Given data
Stall torque To = 1 Nm
Stall current Io = 5 amps
DC supply voltage V = 28 V
To find
No load speed (no) in rpm
Solution
V = Kφωo To = KφIo
28 = Kφωo 1 = Kφ x 5
28
ωo = Kφ=0.2 Nm/A
0.2
ωo = 140 rad/sec
2πn o
= 140
60
140 × 60
no =
2π
no = 1336.9 rpm
5. In problem 4 during an overload the motor temperature becomes excessive and the
magnet lose 12 percent of their permanent flux density. If the armature resistance
is 0.8 Ω. Determine the speed at which the motor will run when the load torque is
0.3 Nm. Assume a total brush voltage drop of 2 V and a supply voltage of 28 V DC.
Ignore friction and other losses
Nov/Dec 2005
Given Data
Reduction of permanent flux density = 12 % = 0.12

Torque constant Kφ` = 0.12 x 0.88
New torque constant Kφ` = 0.176
Load Torque T = 0.3 Nm
Total brush voltage drop Vdrop = 2 volts
To find : Determine the motor speed in rpm

Solution:
V− Vdrop 28− 2
ωo' = = = 147.7 rad/sec
Kφ '
0.176
 T
ω = ω'o 1 − '  _____ (1)
 To 
To' = ( Kφ ' ) Io'

 28 − 2   ' V − Vdop 
= 0.176 ×   Io = 
 0.8   I 
To' = 5.726 Nm
 0.3 
(1) ⇒ ω = 147.7 1 −
 5.726 
ω = 140 rad/sec
2πn
=140
60
140 × 60
n=
2π
N = 1337 rpm
lm
r1
Brushless DC motor cross section

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UNIT IV

• The construction of modern brushless DC motor is very similar to the AC motor. It

4.1.1 Basic Principle of operation of PMBLDC Motor

For CCW rotation

The switching sequence for CCW & CW is given below.

120 240 360 120 240 360

120 240 120 240

4.1.2 Three Phases Bipolar driven Motor

TR1 TR3 TR5

TR2 TR4 TR6

4.1.3 Comparison of Conventional and Brushless DC Motor:

Description Conventional Motor Brushless Motor

1. The need for shaft position sensing

Characteristic features of PMBLDC Motor

1. Rectangular distribution of Magnetic flux in the air gap.

4.2 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS ON OPEN CIRCUIT

Stator Yoke φg Stator Yoke

The generated flux φr is given as

lm → Magnet length in the direction of Magnetisation

Br → Permanent flux density

µrec → Relative recoil permeability (ie) slope /µo

where þr1 is the normalised rotor leakage permeance = Pr1/Pmo

Divide the above expression by Ag

The Airgap flux density can be written as

Put (1) in the above equation and we get

Put the expression for Ag in the above equation and we get

The magnetizing force Hm in the magnet using demagnetization characteristics is given as

4.3 TORQUE-SPEED CHARACTERISTICS OF BLDC MOTOR

and the stall torque is given by To = K φ I o

This characteristic is shown in Figure 4.13

Continuous Continuous Rated Torque

Chopping Angle Control

4.4 TORQUE AND EMF EQUATION OF BLDC MOTOR

The emf induced in coil a1A1 is given by

Where 2N1 = Number of turns per Coil-1 = Nph

The sum of the EMFs eph = e1 +e2 = 2 Nph Bg l r1 ω volts

-ic -ia -ib -ic

eph = e1 +e2 = 2 Nph Bg l r1 ω volts

where Nph = 2N1 because two coils are assumed to be in series.

Te = 4Nph Bg l r1 I (Nm)

Where K = 4 Nph and φ = Bg r1 π l

4.5 Controller for BLDC Motor

• The general structure of a controller for a brushless PM DC Motor is shown in Figure

Figure4.16 Structure of controller for PM BLDC Motor drive

Consider the commutator segment A which is in any of the three states.

Fig 4.18 Fig 4.19 Fig 4.20

4.7 Detection of rotor position and the use of Hall elements:

4.7.1 Hall elements:

When an electrical current Ic flows downwards in a semiconductor material which is

4.7.2 Principle of position detection using Hall elements:

The state of the rotor as it revolves is shown below.

(a) (b) (c)

4.7.4 Elimination of Dead point in two phase motors

4.7.5 Space Harmonic Type:

Flux crossing the airgap φr = 0.35 x 1847 x 102 = 0.646 x 103.

b. MMF across the magnet

d. Induced emf E = 2Bg l r Nph ω

2. A PM brushless DC motor has a torque constant of 0.12 Nm/A referred to the DC

b. During this operation two transistor will be connected in series

No load supply no = 6000 rpm

i. Speed when the supply voltage = 60 Volts and torque 0.5 Nm

Torque constant Kφ = 0.1909