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INTRODUCTIO N
Man is an ambitious creator. He has conquered the world of science and has reached to this 21
ST
He has cared much for automation and product quality which is directly co related to electronics. In this fact developing society, electronic has come to stay as the most important branch of Engineering. Electronic devices are being used in almost all the industries for quality control and automation. They have become a fast replacement of present workers army which is engaged in processing and assembling of the factory. Great strides taken in the industrial applications of electronics during recent years have demonstrated that this versatile tool can be of great importance in increasing production. Efficiency and control. The rapid growth of electronic technology appears as a formidable challenge to the beginners. The purpose of this introduction is the presentation of elementary knowledge of modern electronics. The branch of engineering which deals with current conduction through a vacuum or gas or semiconductor and study of flow of electrons through these is known as Electronics.
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PURPOSE PROJECT
OF
An engineer discover new ideas and identifies opportunities in various sectors of national economy. He explores the possibilities of starting adventures infield of agriculture, trade, industry, transport and communication etc. An engineering project is a combination of numerous activities on the part of entrepreneurs, organisers, designers, workers and etc. project is a reflection of hard but harmonious labour on the part of above agencies. The engineer is the key element in any project work and it is not possible to attain success for every engineer. An engineer should posses certain qualities and characteristics to achieve success in project or task undertaken. The characteristics which contribute to engineers success in his. Technical competence, better judgement, intelligence, leadership, self confidence, attitude of creativeness, honesty and emotional stability. The engineering project is a perfect co-detail of the practical aspects of humanity and economics. The project provokes an engineer to deal problem from a standpoint of view of the society. The engineer ultimate aim is to do and dedicate himself for the society.
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INTRODUCTION PROJECT
OF
THE
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INTRODUCTION MOTOR
OF
INDUCTION
With the almost universal adoption of a.c. system of distribution of electric energy for light and power, the field of application of a.c motors has widened considerably during recent years. As a result, motor manufacturers have tries, over the last few decades, to perfect various types of a.c. motors suitable for all classes of industrial drives and for both single & three phase a.c. supply. This has given rise to bewildering multiplicity of types whose proper classification often offers considerable difficulty. Different a.c. motors may however, be classified and divided into various groups from the following different points of view:
1. ION
AS REGARDS THEIR PRINCIPLE OF OPERAT A) Synchronous motors i) plain and ii) superB) Asynchronous motors a) Induction motors i) Squirrel cage {single, double} ii) Slip-ring (external resistance) b) Commutator motors
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Advantages : 1. It has very simple and extremely rugged, almost unbreakable construction (especially squirrel-cage type). 2. Its cost is low and it is very reliable. 3. It has sufficiently high efficiency. In normal running condition. No brushes are needed, hence frictional losses are reduced. It starting arrangement is simple especially for squirrel-cage type motor.
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b) Rotor i) Squirrel-cage rotor : Motors employing this type of rotor are known as squirrel-cage induction motors ii) Phase wound or wound rotor :- Motors employing this type of rotor are variously known as phase-wound motors or wound motors or as slip-ring motors.
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THE CIRCUIT
As the circuit being described is required to be used with a DOL starter, the internal diagram of the same is given in Fig. 1. The three phases (R. Y, and B) entering the starter are passed via fuses Fl, F2. and F3. The current rating of the fuses would depend on contactor and motor current ratings. The three phases from the DOL starter are extended to the automatic starter circuit of Fig. 2 via points marked R ', Y', and B'. The other points which are to be extended to Fig. 2 are marked C through F. All the points marked identically in Figs I and 2 are to he connected together. Functions of switches and relays . To understand the
circuit operation, it is essential to know the effect of switches S1 through S6 and contacts of relays RLI and RL2 in on and off conditions. These are discussed below. When switches S1 and S2 are off, only manual operation of the DOL starter, without protections offered by the circuit of Fig. 2, is possible. The C and D points are shorted (via switch S1 in off position) whereas E and F points remain open. in this state, relay contacts have no effect on the DOL starter operation. The motor can be switched on by momentary operation of start switch s6. Please note that red ( R ) phase is always connected to one side of the EM (electromagnetic) coil of contactor. The blue ( B ) phase
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CHARACT ERISTICS ; 1. It has wide supply voltage range from Iv. To I 5v. 2. Integrated circuit 4060 had high noise immunity s 0.45 VDO. 3. Its lower power Transistor Logic is F an out of two driving 741. or one driving 74LS. 4. Maximum speed of operation is 8 MHz. Tip. At = 10 volts. 5. It is used Schmitt trigger clock input.
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C to 150 o C
RECOMMENDED OPERATING CONDITION : Its supply voltage VDD is +3 volts to + 15 volts and input voltage Vin is volts to VB D. Its operating temperature range ( T 1 o C to + 85 o C. 0
1
) is
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It has low triasing current nearly about 25 mA and input offset current
3 mV.
6. Its input common mode voltage range includes ground. 7. Its differential input voltage range to power supply voltage. 8. At 4 MA current its output low saturation voltage is 250 mV. 9. Its output voltage is compatible with TTl, DTL, ECL and CMOS logic system. ADVANTAGES :1. It is a high precision comparator. 2. If eliminates need power supply. 3. It reduces Vos drift over temperature. 4. It is compatible with all forms of logic. 5. Power drain is suitable for battery operation.
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+ 18 volts 60 mw
3. Operating Temperature Range - 0 deg. Ceg. To 70 deg. Ceg. 4. NE - 555 5. Storage Temperature Range - 65 deg. Ceg. To 150 deg. Ceg. 6. Lead Temperature- + 300 deg. Ceg. ( Soldering 60 sec. ) The external connections facilities for free tuning and self triggering mode for operation are shown. The three equal register R for the deference level of upper comparator at 2/3 vcc. There reference levels are required to control.
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STUDY COMPONENTS
other components such as a) Capacitor b) Transistors c) Resistors d) Diodes Lets discuss these components one by one is short. a CAPACITOR ) :
OF
It is a system of electrical conductors and insulators the principle characteristic of which is capacitance. The simplest form consists of two parallel metal plates separated by layer of air or some other insulating material that is, dielectrode such as ceramic, mica etc. such a parallel plate capacitor is given by :Where E = Permitivity of farad meter A = Area of the plate D = Distance of separation between plates Hence, we can said that capacitor is the property of a system which enables it to store Electrical Charge when a potential The capacitor C of
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c) RESISTORS :A resister is an electrical component which when made part of an electrical ckt is intended to introduce a definite amount of d.c. resistance in very compact form. In many application the amount of ckt.
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Light Emitting Diodes [ LED ] LEDs are now a day being used in almost all instruments. In last decade upto electronics technology has developed very rapidly and a number of new Opto-electronic product have come in the market of various types, sizes & colours of LEDs have been developed to unit all requirements. LEDs is infect a diode which emits light when it is reversed biased, it does not conducts and hence does not emit light. When the diode is in forward biased, electrons are moved from N-side conduction band to the P-side valance band. In making this transitions the electrons cross the energy gap 'E.g.' that separates the two bands and hence they radiate energy. In ordinary rectifier diode this energy is given off as heat but in Light emitting diode it radiate as light. When LEDs are to used in the ckt. Where the operating voltage are much more than the forward voltage v.f. (2F ), then first
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Voltage
The LM 78 XX series of three terminal regulator is available with several fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One of these is local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problem associated with single point regulation. The voltage available allow these regulators to be used in logic systems instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators these devices can be used with external components to obtained adjustable voltages and current. The LM78XX series is available in an aluminium TO-3 package which will allow over 1.0 A load current if adequate heat sinking
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RELAYS :The name relay is given too board class electromechanical switches in which contacts are opened and/or closed by various in the conditions of one electric circuit and thereby affect the operation of other devices in the same or other electric ( usually control or signalling) circuits. The term "relay " does not over devices, such as magnetic starters, contractors, and the like, intended to switch power circuits.
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changed to x2 ( the subscript 0 stand for operate ). Any further increase in x will not affect the value of y. As the value of x falls stands for release, the value of y again decreases stepwise. The principal parameters of relays follows : a)The operate value of a relay is the minimum value of a physical quantity that will allow the operated load or retrac tile force of the relay to un operate, or release, it. Thus release is the opposite of operate. b) The release value of a relay is the maximum value of a physical quantity that will allow the operated load or retrac tile force of the relay to unoperate, or release, it. Thus release is the opposite of operate. c) The power consumption of a relay is the amount of power taken by the relay in a given duty.
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According to power of control signal, electric relay sub-divided into : i) Low power ( less than 1 W ) ii) Medium-power (from l to W ) iii) Hifh-power ( 10 W ) Finally according to pick-up time into quick : i) Quick-response.
ii) Normal iii) Delay. iv) Time relays. Now we will discuss the various types of relays in details. A NATURAL RELAY : ELECTROMAGNETIC The principle of operation of a relay consists in the fact that when the control current is fed to the -winding of the electric magnet its core gets magnetised and attracts the armature. The movement of the armature closes ( or opens ) the contract of the controllable electric circuit.
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The relays used for signal multiplication and separation of electric circuits operating in a common scheme, or as amplifier s of relay action. These relays can be utilised for direct current of any polarity and for alternating current. Electromagnetic relays are designed with a hinged or pull in armature. TRANSFORMER :A transformer is a static ( or stationary ) piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the voltage ion a circuit but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux. In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as shown in fig. The two coils posses high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the-laminated core, most of which is linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually induced e.m.f. (according to faradays laws of Electro-
Magnetic Induction e = Mdl/dt. ) if the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred from the first coil to the second
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The simple elements of a transformer consist of two coils having mutual inductance and a laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and the steel core. Other necessary parts are : some suitable container for the assembled core and windings, a suitable medium for insulating the core its windings from its container : suitable bushings ( either of porcelain, oil-filled or capacitor - type ) for insulating and bringing out the terminals of windings from the tank. In all types of transformers, the core is constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with the minimum of air gap included. The steel used is of high silicon content, some times heat treated to produce a high permeability and low
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FABRICATION UNIT
An etched or printed circuit consists of a thin layer of copper foil. The final is shaped by etching the copper in a chemical. The copper foil acts as a wire, or conductor in the ckt. Components parts like resistors, transistors and capacitors are soldered to the conductive foil to complete the electrical path and circuit. Production of PCBs . The transfer of the conductor pattern -which on the film master on the copper clad laminate is done by two methods. They are 1. 2. Photo Printing Screen printing But in our circuit we have used screen printing method so we study only about this.
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SCREEN PRINTING METHOD :PCB production by photographic printing method is expensive though accurate. The screen process uses a resist ink applied throughout a stencil or mask to the surface of the blank circuit board. The stencil is produced and attached to the fine mesh, metal, polyester, nylon or silk screen. The resist ink is kept forced through openings in the stencil on to the surface of the blank board. This process produces a positive of the cleb on the copper foil. When dry, the board is ready for etching. In our project instead of stencil we used positive of artwork.
Etching Process The etching solution is prepared in non metallic plate. For preparing etching solution take one part of ferrite chlorides in power form with two parts of water heat the solution upto 40
o
C to 50
starts forming, add a small quantity of HCL for fast etching action the quantity of solution required should be just enough to immerse the PCB. Give some base to the PCB so that it does not touches the bottom of the container. Always keep the printed circuit side on the upper side. For fast action of etching stir the solution without disturbing PCB. By this process the copper other than the areas
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occurs, the motor will continue to run on remaining two phases, drawing heavy load current. This would result in overheating of windings and its eventual burning in a short time if it is not disconnected. The single-phase cut-out circuit employed here is very simple and it has the capability to sense all three phases , including low voltage condition of phase B . Sensing of under-voltage and overvoltage condition of R and Y phases is already taking place, as described earlier. Phase failure of R and/or V phase (s) results in no supply to the circuit and relays RBI and RL2 will he in de-energised state and the motor is, therefore. Switched off. In Y-B single phase detector part of the circuit, the diode D12 in Y phase path rectifies the voltage before potential divider network, comprising resistors R16 and R17, reduces the voltage with respect to phase B. Capacitor C7 smooth the voltage across resistor R17. If this voltage is greater than 27V, zener D11 as well as the diode inside opto-coupler IC4 will conduct. As a result, base of transistor T2 is pulled to ground and it is cut off. This causes the compactor output to he applied to pin 2 of timer NE 555 without any change (modification). But in case the B-phase voltage is very low, or if it is missing altogether, transistor T2 will he biased to saturation condition, discharging capacitor C4 via resistor R5. As a result, pin 2 of timer 555 would
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During normal conditions, the out-put of timer NE555 will initially go high for 12 seconds on resumption of power or when normal state is reached. The capacitor C.6 will he charged through resistor R11. However, the base of transistor T5 will he held to ground potential by diode D6, which is forward biased due to the condition of transistor T3. As a result, relay RL2 will he in off state due to non-conduction of transistor T5. When NE555 IC changes its out-put state from high to low after 12 seconds, diode D6 will he reverse-biased due lo the positive voltage at anode of diode D6. Capacitor C6 will get discharged via resistor R 11 and transistor T5 will come to conduction stale due to the positive voltage at its base. As a result, relay RL2 will get energised. The discharge action of capacitor C6 continues for about two seconds (which is sufficient to bring the electromagnetic relay of DOL starter to on
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LED indicators . LED1, when on indicates that switch S1is on and R -Y phase supplies and 9V output from the regulator ICI are available. LED2, when on, indicates that relay RL1 has energised. LED3 is on when switch S3 is on and 9V supply from IC1 for timer is available. An actual-size, single-sided PCR for the circuit of Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 3 . The component layout/or the PCB is given in F ig 4. All switches, relays, and transformers are to he mounted externally. As the B-Y phase detector circuit contains high voltages, it is recommended to cut out the phase detector part up lo opto-coupler from the PCB and install the same externally. Only the output leads from the opto-coupler may be soldered on to the- points provided on the PCB.
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PARTS LIST
Semiconductors : IC 1 - 7809 fixed regulator + 5 volts IC 2 - I.M393 Voltage compactor IC 3 - NE555 timer IC 4 - CD4060 14-stage ripple counter oscillator IC 5 - MC2TE opto-coupler T2,T3 - BC 547 npn transistor T4,T5,T6 - 2N2222 switching transistor D 1-D3,D5-D10, D12-D16 - 1N4007 rectifier diode D4 - 4.2V, 0.5W zener
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Resistors : all 1 4W, + 5% metal carbon film, unless stated otherwise R 1, R5, R8-R10, R 12 R15, R18, R21 - 1 kilo-ohm R2, R 22 - 22-kilo-ohm R3, R 7, R19, R20, R25 - 10-kilo-ohm R4 - 47-kilo-ohm R6 - 220-kilo-ohm R11, R 14 - 4.7-kilo-ohm R15 - 470-kilo-ohm R16, R17 - 47-kilo-ohm 1 W R22 - 22 kilo-ohm R23 - 1-mega-ohm R24 - 100 kilo-ohm R26 - 22-kilo-ohm 1W VR1, VR2 - 4.7-kilo-ohm potmeter
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Miscellaneous R1,1,RL.2 - 0V,150ohm SPSP relay S1,S2,S3 - Slide switches DPDT X1,X2 - 250V primary to 6V-0-6V, 200 mA see transformer Battery PP9V S4 - Rotary switch single-pole 7-throws DOL starter -
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REFERENCE
ii)
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