Questions

Thorndike Knowledge is constructed as a network of associative bonds between situations and responses.

What is the nature of knowledge?

How do people acquire knowledge? How does it grow?

Key Similarities Memory and knowledge are broken down into small chunks of an isolated stimulus and response. The repetition Situations consist of specific When encountering a stimulus, a of outcomes after a things or ideas and responses person develops and relies on a response increases the are specific to those things or collection of responses known as likelihood that the ideas. a repertoire. person will continue to respond in the same Responses can be categorized into way. Knowledge is operant classes, which means constructed by this that although there may be series of stimulus, different stimuli, those stimuli response, outcome. produce the same response. If knowledge is a construct that Response repertoires are created The law of exercise as consists of situations that are through conditioning that uses well as conditioning paired with specific responses, pre or post behavior stimuli to operate on the same then knowledge grows by induce specific responses. The principle that a stimulus strengthening those bonds. four different kinds of stimuli will produce the same used in conditioning are: response repeatedly if The law of exercise suggests discriminative, reinforcers, the outcome is pleasing that bonds are strengthened punishers, and neutral. and if the series is through co-occurrence (law of repeated. use) and do not get -Discriminitive: happen prior to a strengthened when the link is response and evoke that response/ Both theories indicate not repeated (law of disuse). -Reinforcers: come after a that positive response and increase the reinforcements rather The law of effect suggests that frequency of that response. than punishments are when a situation or outcome is -Punishers: come after a response most likely to produce pleasing, the possibility of and decrease the frequency of that the desired outcome strengthening the bond is more response. consistently. likely than if it is an undesirable -Neutral: does not evoke or have situation or outcome. an effect on frequency of a behavior.

Skinner Knowledge is a non-entity, it cannot exist on its own, people simply respond to environmental stimuli.

Key Differences Thorndike: knowledge is created by repeated reinforcement of a particular outcome for a particular response to a particular stimulus. Skinner: Knowledge is based on outside stimuli; however, unlike with Thorndikes theory, the person generates a series of responses for a particular outcome. Thorndike: knowledge can be generated through the recurrence of pleasing outcomes; however, knowledge is not necessarily thrust upon a person like with conditioning. Skinner: knowledge must be actively constructed and attended to through conditioning. Conditioning is a specific process designed for the purpose of eliciting a particular behavior.

What does it mean to be self-regulated?

The construction of knowledge as well as peoples actions are not self-regulated, rather the creation of knowledge (the strengthening of bonds between situations and responses) is influenced by outside forces.

How are memories stored and retrieved?

Skinner: Outside forces are deliberate and Both also indicate that intended to create a people are more likely to specific outcome. produce a specific behavior when they receive positive reinforcement rather than negative. There is a physical link in the The brain responds to stimuli. These theories are not While both deal with brain that connects situations Connections are formed and necessarily memory rewards and and responses through reinforced according to the theories but rather punishments that create memories. Responses are reactions/rewards/punishment one learning theories, links in the brain stored in memory and particular receives after responding to designed to answer between a stimulus and situations induce recall of those stimuli in a particular way. questions about how producing a specific responses. people learn and what outcome, Skinners Patterns of responses are processes best contribute theory suggests that When the law of use is in effect developed through these to that learning. someone is deliberately and sets of situations and connections. producing a behavior in responses are repeated, the someone else by association between them grows actively rewarding or stronger, enabling a person to punishing their recall them correctly faster and responses. more reliably over time.

The theory suggests that behavioral responses are established by outside forces, particularly through a system of conditioning that either reinforces or punishes responses to specific stimuli.

Both theories indicate that knowledge comes from outside a person rather than from the self. The self responds to environmental stimuli.

Thorndike: outside sources are likely random and a result of the environment.

The law of readiness suggests that connections between situations and responses cannot develop unless there is neutral substrate in the brain. Is the theory compatible with what we know about the brain? When a response to a situation creates a desirable outcome, the connection between that situation and response is strengthened. When a response to a situation creates an undesirable outcome, the connection is not strengthened. This theory suggests that students have the best shot at learning information if it is information they know nothing about and have no prior feelings about. A teacher can then create a direct link between a piece of information or a skill and the correct use of or response to that information or skill. It also suggests that rote memorization through repeated practice would be effective for learning since co-occurrence of that information would strengthen the link between the information and the answer or response. It further suggests that in order

This theory is not necessarily about the construct of a brain, but rather, it is about the ways that behavioral conditioning takes place through rewards and punishments.

Connections in the brain between a stimulus and response are strengthened through repetition, causing increased likelihood of the production of desired outcomes.

Thorndike: creating bonds between stimuli and responses is best done prior to a person having an established response already in place for that stimuli.

What are the instructional implications of this theory?

Skinner: neutral substrate does not necessarily need to exist. Skinner was confident that retraining is possible. Skinner believed in using rewards Both theories indicate Thorndike: While more so than punishments. In a that a substantial amount rewards or punishment Skinnerian classroom, a teacher of a teachers time spent play a role in the might use a point system that in the classroom would creation of strong bonds rewards positive behaviors and be used to reinforce between a stimulus and correct answers or hard work with (either through rewards a response, this theory points that help students to or punishment) suggests that while the achieve a common goal like a behaviors. outcomes are important, pizza party. what is more important The theories also is the repetition of the This type of rewards system suggest that these process. might help to reinforce simple techniques would best behaviors, particularly for young serve the purpose of rote Skinner: The outcome, students who are learning how to memorization or for rather than the process, behave appropriately in the tasks in which quick is emphasized. classroom setting. However, recall of data or constant rewards could have processes are necessary negative effects. to complete other tasks. Another implication of this theory These are teacheris that if people learn in this way, centered processes and then teachers should either classrooms since so

to increase the level or number of correct responses to a question or the correct learning of information, a teacher should provide praise or reward (desirable outcome) for students who create the correct link between a question and an answer.

reinforce or punish every behavior and every assignment in order to produce consistent desired outcomes.

much emphasis is placed on environmental stimuli rather than the thinking a student does during an activity.

Question 4 Questions Piaget Knowledge is indicated in a persons ability to break down objects, scenarios, people, etc into different and appropriate schemes. Schemes are used as a way to organize and classify objects, scenarios, people etc. Creating schemes enables a person to transfer skills or knowledge across objects. -Assimilation: taking in something new (application across multiple scenarios/objects) -Accommodating: making something fit (performing an activity and altering the behavior/adding exceptions) -Equilibration: the resolving of the cognitive dissonance when things are not quite right -Interiorization of actions actions become predictable based on experience person is able to make assessments Different stages of learning/growth sensori motor through abstract thought. Schema Theory People create schemes into which they fit all scenarios and experiences. These schemes can be broad or narrow and enable a person to adapt to new environments and scenarios by identifying similarities with past experiences and transferring that knowledge or skill set into the new environment. Key Similarities Knowledge is based on schemes people have an experience, there is an outcome, they evaluate that outcome, generalize from that outcome, and apply that knowledge to new experiences. Key Differences Piaget: schemes are created through experience; however, the appropriateness of those schemes is based on an expected progression of development. Schema: more freedom to develop schema that are unlike anyone elses. Learning takes place in three basic stages: people have an experience and evaluate it. People generalize from that experience. People apply that generalized knowledge to a new experience Piaget: When creating schemes, people must come to the same kinds of conclusions in order to progress through the expected stages. While this idea does not necessarily mean people will have the same thoughts and ideas, it means that they must be capable of the same kinds of skills at the same ages. Schema: People can create any schema that they want. One persons schema might not be the same as another.

What is the nature of knowledge?

How do people acquire knowledge? How does it grow?

People gain knowledge by taking information about past experiences and applying that info to new and similar experiences. The ability to transfer this knowledge is routed in a persons ability to create appropriate schema that make valid connections between two experiences. -Initial Formation: People have an experience and establish abstract ideas about it and its recurrence. -Once formed: people select elements of past experiences and interpret new experiences using what they already know (gist). -Changing schemata: People develop increasingly complex schema.

What does it mean to be self-regulated?

Equilibration is when dissonance is resolved. When equilibration occurs it is not a conscious process, but rather a person is making accommodations based on what they are taking in about the environment. Memories are constructed through a process of assimilation and accommodation in which a person experiences something new, tests that new experience in another scenario, discovers if the results of his or her actions are the same, and accommodates behavior based on new discoveries.

A persons tastes or preferences will influence the schema that they create.

NA

Piaget: experiences are influenced from outside sources/stimuli and are largely unconscious. Schema: experiences are influenced by personal taste and worldview.

Memories are encoded according to the schema a person develops and are stored in the brain. When a person retrieves a memory they are reconstructing their knowledge by creating links between that information and a new experience. Over time, memories fade because the details become less accurate.

Memory storage and retrieval are linear. Memories are malleable.

Piaget: This theory suggests that there are limits to what a person can know. People are expected to achieve specific developmental stages around similar ages. Schema: there are endless possibilities to what a person can know. The schemes developed are always changing as they become layered and increasingly complex by virtue of a persons new experiences and a persons ever changing tastes.

How are memories stored and retrieved?

There are four stages of thought - Sensori-motor - Preoperations - Concrete operations - Formal operations People progress through these stages more or less according to the expected age norms of these stages. These norms are epitomized through the epistemic subject (the standard progression model)

Brain development makes progression through the stages possible. Is the theory compatible with what we know about the brain?

It is now believed that there are specific areas in the frontal lobe that are designed for schema formation.

The brain is designed for Piaget: The brain the purpose of storing grows over time. and retrieving knowledge through the Schema: The brain has creation of memories. designated areas designed for creating schema.

What are the instructional implications of this theory?

This theory suggests that although there are approximate ages at which a person is expected to achieve specific developmental stages, there is also a fair amount of discovery learning taking place as people go through the constant process of assimilation and accommodation. This idea indicates that, particularly at the ages of expected development (18 months, 5 years, 10 years, and 11 years) and throughout that time period, discovery learning in a student centered classroom would be beneficial to students of all learning abilities. Enabling discovery learning through a wide variety of guided exploratory activities

This theory suggests that there are endless possibilities in terms of the schema students can develop. This theory also lends itself to a student centered, discovery learning classroom. As a teacher, I would create activities that encouraged higher order thinking by asking students to seek out solutions to complex problems by evaluating past experiences and applying that knowledge to the present circumstance.

Both seem appropriate for use in a student centered, discovery learning classroom. Although students need the kind of rote memorization that Thorndike and Skinner addressed with their theories, Piagets theory and schema theory suggest that students need a variety of activities and a host of This theory indicates that students opportunities to reflect need to be given a wide variety of on those activities and experiences in the classroom and past experiences when need to be asked to draw on addressing new tasks. personal experiences and the experiences of others when discussing material in class.

Piaget: Discovery learning is aimed at achievement of specific stages of development. Schema: Discovery learning is aimed at developing a unique self that tackles problems according to schema that make sense to that person and are based on his or her individual experiences.

would allow students to try new things, establish outcomes, and test those outcomes in new situations.

Question 6 Scenario: Students are completing an activity in which they work with a partner to build the tallest structure that they can with 40 straws, a piece of duct tape, and a small cardboard base. In a classroom of 9 students, one student is left partner-less. Before students know what the assignment is, I ask for one volunteer. One student reluctantly raises her hand. I select her and tell her that she does not get to have a partner. Student is not pleased and the other students expressions indicate relief. Students complete task. Lone student works quietly and diligently. Lone students structure is the best/most successful in the class. During reflection, I praise student for persevering and her ability to work through a problem by herself. I note how she did not complain and instead put her mind to the task at hand. Throughout the next weeks, I reference lone students perseverance in reference to the characters we are reading about. Lone student raises hand more frequently, does not complain about any assignments, and takes on a leadership role in the classroom. Other students complain less in class. Skinnerian Analysis: Sd I tell student she must work alone Response Student works diligently without complaint Stimulus I praise student repeatedly at intervals, including during initial reflection Outcome Student raises hand more frequently and takes on leadership role. Others follow

The discriminative stimuli was my direction that the student must work alone Students likely repertoire of responses included giving up, complaining, and her actual response. After her actual response, I provided a positive reinforcer through public praise. I introduced praise (positive) and it increased the behavior (reinforcement) This stimulus prompted an expected outcome student raises hand more frequently, others complain less. The praise was given at a variable interval, which was based on when situations came up in class or the book where references to students accomplishments were relatable.

Other Outcomes: Negative Reinforcement (something removed, behavior increases) If I wanted to increase the behavior (individual problem solving skills with no complaints), I could also have taken away praise from other students. By juxtaposing other students undesirable behavior with this students desirable behavior, I would encourage this student to increase the amount of the desirable behavior. I could also, after group reflection, resume the activity. I could allow the other students to continue working with their structures and force this one student to start over. In order to increase the desirable behavior, I might have to offer some kind of praise prior to resuming the exercise. Positive Punishment (something introduced, behavior decreases) Depending on her personality, my praise could have caused a decrease in behavior if she felt singled out in a negative way. Sometimes students just want to blend in. When the rest of the class does not do as well, they may turn against that student and position her as a know-it-all or teachers pet. In this case, her desirable behavior may have decreased. Negative Punishment (something removed, behavior decreases) If I did not offer praise to this student, resumed the activity, and made her start over when the others did not have to, it could cause her to feel overwhelmed or frustrated, thereby decreasing her desirable behavior.