Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

1 Department of Biomedical Engineering,KLECET,Belgaum

Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

ABSTRACT
Diabetic-related eye disease is a major cause of preventable blindness in the world. It is a complication of diabetes which can also affect various parts of the body. When the small blood vessels have a high level of glucose in the retina, the vision will be blurred and can cause blindness eventually. This is known as diabetic retinopathy. Regular screening is essential in order detect the early stages of diabetic retinopathy for timely treatment to prevent or delay further deterioration. This project detects the presences of abnormalities in the retina such as the structure of blood vessels, microaneurysms, exudates and texture properties using image processing techniques. These features are input into artificial neural network for automatic detection and can quickly process a large number of fundus images obtained from mass screening to help reduce the cost and increase productivity and efficiency for ophthalmologists.

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Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................................. I CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................1 1.1 BACKGROUND OF PROJECT...................................................................................................................................1 1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DIABETIC RETINOPATHY...........................................................................................3 1.2.1 NON-PROLIFERATIVE DIABETIC RETINOPATHY........................................................................................3 1.2.2 PROLIFERATIVE DIABETIC RETINOPATHY..................................................................................................5 CHAPTER 2. MATERIALS AND METHOD...................................................................6 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 PROJECT OBJECT....................................................................................................................................................6 OVERALL OBJECT...................................................................................................................................................6 PROJECT APPROACH...............................................................................................................................................7 SKILLS REQUIRED....................................................................................................................................................8 SOFTWARE SPECIFICATION...................................................................................................................................8

CHAPTER 3. MATLAB FUNCTIONS...........................................................................9 3.1 IMAGE ANALYSIS AND ENHANCEMENT...............................................................................................................9 3.2 MORPHOLOGICAL OPERATIONS........................................................................................................................11 CHAPTER 4. FEATURES EXTRACTION....................................................................12 4.1 OVERALL BLOCK DIAGRAM..............................................................................................................................12 4.2 BLOOD VESSELS DETECTION.............................................................................................................................13 4.2.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................................13 4.2.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE - DETECTION OF BLOOD VESSELS...............................................................14 4.2.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE - BORDER FORMATION................................................................................17 4.2.3.1 BORDER FORMATION METHOD 1.......................................................................................17 4.2.3.2 BORDER FORMATION METHOD 2.......................................................................................18 4.2.4 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE - MASK CREATION FOR OPTICAL DISK....................................................19 4.2.5 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE - AND LOGIC................................................................................................20 4.2.6 RESULTS........................................................................................................................................................21 4.2.7 ANOVA TEST RESULTS............................................................................................................................21 4.2.8 DISCUSSION...................................................................................................................................................22 4.3 EXUDATES DETECTION.......................................................................................................................................23 4.3.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................................23 4.3.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE - DETECTION OF EXUDATES.......................................................................24 4.3.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE - AND LOGIC................................................................................................27 4.3.4 RESULTS.............................................................................................................................................................28 4.3.5 ANOVA TEST RESULTS............................................................................................................................28 4.3.6 DISCUSSION...................................................................................................................................................29 4.4 MICROANEURYSMS DETECTION........................................................................................................................30 4.4.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................................30 4.4.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE - DETECTION OF MICROANEURYSMS........................................................31 4.4.3 RESULTS.............................................................................................................................................................34 4.4.4 ANOVA TEST RESULTS............................................................................................................................34 4.4.5 DISCUSSION...................................................................................................................................................35 4.5 TEXTURE IDENTIFICATION..................................................................................................................................36 4.5.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................................36 4.5.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE - ENTROPY FUNCTION..................................................................................37 4.5.3 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE - HOMOGENEITY...........................................................................................38 4.5.4 ANOVA TEST RESULTS............................................................................................................................39 4.6 SUMMARY OF FEATURES EXTRACTION...................................................................................................40 4.7 OVERALL ANOVA TEST RESULTS.........................................................................................................41

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Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

CHAPTER 5. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK......................................................................................42 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................................42 TRAINING OF ANN........................................................................................................................43 FEATURES DATA FOR ANN...........................................................................................................45 TRAINING DATA FOR ANN............................................................................................................46 TEST DATA FOR ANN....................................................................................................................48 SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY...........................................................................................................................49 DISCUSSION...........................................................................................................................................................50

CHAPTER 6. GRAPHIC USER INTERFACE................................................................51 6.1 INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................................51 6.2 DESIGN AND APPLICATION OF GUI................................................................................................52 CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................53 CHAPTER 8. RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................54 REFERENCE LIST.....................................................................................................55 APPENDICES...........................................................................................................56 A1. A2. A3. A4. A5. A6. A7. A8. MATLAB CODE FOR DETECTING BLOOD VESSELS........................................................................................57 MATLAB CODE FOR DETECTING EXUDATES..................................................................................................60 MATLAB CODE FOR DETECTING MICROANEURYSMS..................................................................................63 MATLAB CODE FOR TEXTURE ANALYSIS - ENTROPY.................................................................................66 MATLAB CODE FOR TEXTURE ANALYSIS - HOMOGENEITY.......................................................................67 MATLAB CODE FOR TRAINING ANN............................................................................................68 MATLAB CODE FOR TESTING ANN..............................................................................................69 MATLAB CODE FOR GUI..............................................................................................................70

LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................73

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

1.1 Normal Vision.........................................................................................1 1.2 Vision of a person with diabetic retinopathy............................................1 1.3 Example of a fundus camera....................................................................2 1.4 Cross sectional view of the human eye....................................................3 1.5 Fundus Image..........................................................................................4 1.6 Retinal fundus images of different stages of diabetic retinopathy............5 3.1 Original image.........................................................................................9 3.2 Contours of the image after edge detection..............................................9 3.3 Image before (Left) and after applying image segmentation (Right)...10 3.4 Results of morphological operations........................................................11 4.1 Block Diagram of Overall System...........................................................12 4.2.1 Block Diagram for Blood Vessels Detection........................................13 4.2.2 Original fundus image..........................................................................14 4.2.3 Inversed image after histogram equalization........................................14 4.2.4 Image after Morphological opening results..........................................14 4.2.5 Image after optical disk removed.........................................................14 4.2.6 Binary image after Image segmentation...............................................15 4.2.7 Blood vessels after removal of noise................................................15 4.2.8 Image after histogram equalization......................................................15 4.2.9 Blood vessels after image segmentation and removal of noise.........15 4.2.10 Mask at the optical disk area..............................................................16 4.2.11 Combined image after removing noise..........................................16 4.2.12 Image of Blood vessels......................................................................16

4 Department of Biomedical Engineering,KLECET,Belgaum

Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure Figure 4.2.13 Block Diagram for Border Formation - Method 1.............................17 Figure 4.2.14 Block Diagram for Border Formation - Method 2.............................18 Figure 4.2.15 Example of Circular border obtained using either method.................18 Figure 4.2.16 Comparing blood vessels images obtained........................................20 Figure 4.2.17 Blood vessels image after apply AND logic......................................20 Figure 4.2.18 Fundus image (Left) with its blood vessels image (Right).................21 Figure 4.3.1 Block Diagram for Exudates Detection................................................23 Figure 4.3.2 Original fundus image..........................................................................24 Figure 4.3.3 Intensity adjusted grayscale image.......................................................24 Figure 4.3.4 Image after Morphological closing......................................................24 Figure 4.3.5 Image after column filter......................................................................24 Figure 4.3.6 Mask for the Optical Disk....................................................................25 Figure 4.3.7 Image with Optical Disk removed........................................................25 Figure 4.3.8 Regions of exudates.............................................................................25 Figure 4.3.9 Image after Morphological closing......................................................25 Figure 4.3.10 Image with Dark features (represented as white)...............................26 Figure 4.3.11 Exudates after performing AND logic............................................26 Figure 4.3.12 Expanded exudates regions after Morphological closing...................27 Figure 4.3.13 Dark features represented as white....................................................27 Figure 4.3.14 Fundus image (Left) with its exudates image (Right)........................28 Figure 4.4.1 Block Diagram for Microaneurysms Detection....................................30 Figure 4.4.2 Original fundus image..........................................................................31 Figure 4.4.3 Intensity adjusted grayscale image.....................................................................................31 Figure 4.4.4 Image after histogram equalization...........................................................31 Figure 4.4.5 Image of edges..........................................................................................31 Figure 4.4.6 Image after function imfill.....................................................................32 Figure 4.4.7 Image after removing the larger area.........................................................32 Figure 4.4.8 Image after applying histogram equalization twice...................................32 Figure 4.4.9 Image after image segmentation................................................................32 Figure 4.4.10 Blood Vessels after removing small area of noise..................................33 Figure 4.4.11 Microaneurysms.....................................................................................33 Figure 4.4.12 Fundus image (Left) with its microaneurysms image (Right)................34 Figure 4.5.1 Block Diagram for Texture Identification.................................................36 Figure 5.1 A neuron.......................................................................................................42 Figure 5.2 Four-layer feed-forward neural network classifier........................................43 Figure 5.3 Part of the training data.................................................................................46 Figure 5.4 Convergence of the training performance status line with goal line.............47 Figure 5.5 Part of the test data........................................................................................48 Figure 5.6 Test results....................................................................................................48 Figure 6.1 GUIDE Interface...........................................................................................51 Figure 6.2 Program Interface..........................................................................................52

2012

LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................................................75

Table 2.1 Skills and methods to complete project..........................................................8 Table 4.2.1 ANOVA test result for Blood Vessels........................................................21 Table 4.3.1 ANOVA test result for Exudates.................................................................28 Table 4.4.1 ANOVA test result for Microaneurysms....................................................34
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Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure Table 4.5.1 ANOVA test result for Entropy..................................................................39 Table 4.5.2 ANOVA test result for Homogeneity.........................................................39 Table 4.6.1 Overall images of Features Extraction........................................................40 Table 4.7.1 Overall ANOVA test results.......................................................................41 Table 5.3.1 Representation of different stages...............................................................45 Table 5.3.2 Breakdown of data by Classes....................................................................49 Table 5.3.3 Sensitivity, specificity, predictive accuracy of the Classifier.....................49

2012

6 Department of Biomedical Engineering,KLECET,Belgaum

Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter gives a background of diabetic retinopathy and the classification of the images for different stages.

1.1 Background of project

Diabetic retinopathy is a complication of diabetes and is a major cause of blindness in developed countries. It is estimated to account for 12% of all the new cases of blindness in United States annually [1]. In Singapore, retinal disease accounts for more than half of the newly registered blindness with diabetic retinopathy as one of the main contributors [2]. It is estimated that about 10% of the population over the age of 40 are affected with diabetes and about 20% of this group will develop some form of diabetic complications in the eye. With the number rising every year, Singapore is one of the countries with the highest rate of diabetes in the world [3].

Figure 1.1 Normal Vision

Figure 1.2 Vision of a person with diabetic retinopathy

As a diabetic tends to have a lot of other health complications, going blind can have his problems multiplied. He will have problems in moving around and even in taking his medications. The patients might not notice a loss of vision until it became too severe, hence early diagnosis and timely treatment is vital to delay or prevent even blindness. visual impair and

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Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

Currently, regular screenings are conducted and retinal images are obtained fundus camera. However, a large amount of images are obtained from these diagnosis [4]. Hence, automatic detection is desired as it can help to

using

screenings improve

and it requires trained ophthalmologists to spend a lot of time for manual analysis and productivity and be more cost effective.

Figure 1.3 Example of a fundus camera

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Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

1.2

Classification of diabetic retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy occurs when the blood vessels of the retina in the

posterior part of the eye are damaged. Damages due to small vessels would be known as microvascular disease while damages due to the arteries would be macrovascular disease.

Figure 1.4 Cross sectional view of the human eye

Generally, diabetic retinopathy is classified into two main stages, namely nonproliferative diabetes retinopathy (PDR). (NPDR) and proliferative diabetes retinopathy

1.2.1 Non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy

In NPDR, depending on the presence and extent of the features such as hard exudates, microaneurysms or cotton wools spots due to leakage of fluid and blood from the blood vessels, can be classified to mild, moderate or severe stages as followings: 1. Mild NPDR: This is the earliest stage of retinopathy and vision is usually normal except in some cases. However, deterioration of the blood vessels in
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Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

the retina has already started. Blood vessels erupt when there is not enough oxygen in the blood because of high levels of glucose. Small swellings known as Micro-aneurysms or flame-shaped hemorrhages start to develop in the fundus quadrants. 2. Moderate NPDR: As the disease progresses, some of the blood vessels that irrigate the retina become blocked. It is more than mild but less than severe stage. There will be micro-aneurysms or hemorrhages of greater severity in one to three quadrants and leakage might occur, resulting cotton wool spots and exudates etc to be present in the retina. 3. Severe NPDR: As more blood vessels are blocked, those areas in the retina will be deprived of blood supply. Signals will then be sent to the body for the growth of new vessels in order to compensate for the lack of nourishment. The disease would be considered severe NPDR stage when any of the following criteria are met: Severe (more than 20) hemorrhages and micro-aneurysms in all four quadrants of the fundus Definite venous beading in at least two quadrants Severe damage to the small blood vessels in at least one quadrant but no signs of any proliferative diabetic retinopathy.

ical Disk Capillaries

1.2.2 Proliferative diabetic retinopathy

PDR is the advanced stage whereby signals are sent by the retina to the body
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Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

for the lack of blood supply and this triggered the growth of new blood vessels. These blood vessels can grow along the retina and the surface of the jelly-like substance (vitreous gel) which fills the centre of the eye. Although they are fragile and abnormal, they do not cause symptoms or vision loss. It is only when their thin and weak walls leak blood, severe visual loss or even irreversible blindness would occur [5].

Normal Mild NPDR Moderate NPDR Severe NPDR PDR Figure 1.6 Retinal fundus images of different stages of diabetic retinopathy [6]

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Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

CHAPTER 2. MATERIALSAND METHOD

This chapter gives an overview of the project which outlines the objective and approach of the project.

2.1 Project Object

The objective of this project is to develop a computer-based approach to detect the different diabetic retinopathy stages using fundus images. A simple and user friendly interface is also necessary as the user might not be proficient in programming code.

2.2 Overall Object

The overall objective of this project is to create an automated program to quickly process a large number of fundus images from mass screening of diabetic retinopathy accurately. Diabetic retinopathy in non-proliferative diabetes retinopathy or proliferative diabetes retinopathy stages can lead to visual impairment or even blindness. Hence, this system could assist ophthalmologists to improve their productivity, efficiency as well as cost effective, in detecting the different stages of diabetic retinopathy and identify patients for early treatment to prevent or delay visual loss.

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Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

2.3 Project Approach

This project uses the classification system of Normal, Mild and Higher stages to classify the NPDR and PDR as mentioned in section 1.2. The first approach to this project is a background study of fundus images to determine the features to extract and use. The fundus images are also analyzed to recognize their similarity and differences. Familiarizing with Matlab Image Processing Toolbox is also important prior to the commencing of features extraction. After getting the values of the features from the images, Artificial Neural Network (ANN) would be studied and applied for automatic detection. The results would be tested for accuracy and troubleshooting or fine-tuning of the codes might be required. Lastly, a Graphical User Interface (GUI) to access the automated program would be developed and all the findings and results would be recorded and documented.

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Automatic Exudates Detection From Diabetic Retinopathy, Retinal Image Using Fuzzy C-Means &Morphological structure

2012

2.4 Skills required

The table below shows the skills and methods essential for the completion of this project.

Skills

Sources / Methods
Published journals Related articles from internet References and research papers from libraries eg UniSim Project Supervisor Targets setting Comparison of data Project management Understand Matlab software Image Processing Toolbox Artificial Neural Network Graphics User Interface Report writing skills

Getting ideas and information

Assessing and evaluating project progress

Implementation of project

Presentation

Oral presentation skills Organizing and collate data and diagrams for poster designing

Table 2.1 Skills and methods to complete project

2.5 Software Specification

The software required is MATLAB program equipped with Image Processing Toolbox and Neural Network Toolbox as well as Microsoft Office for data storage and word processing.

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CHAPTER 3. MATLAB FUNCTIONS

This chapter outlines the Matlab functions image processing. Matlab has many set of tools available for various operations. The main toolbox used for this project is Image Processing Toolbox. It consists of a wide range of image processing functions to analysis, enhance or perform morphological operations on the images. (namely Image analysis and

enhancement and Morphological operations) that are used intensively in this project for

3.1 Image analysis and enhancement

Image analysis or enhancement is used with the intention of simplifying or adjusting the representation of the image for ease of understanding. It is also known as segmentation. Image segmentation is used to locate the objects or boundaries in the image. In edge detection function, the contours of the objects are extracted from the image. Canny method is used for this project as it is better compared to the other similar functions by having two different thresholds to detect the edges [7]. Matlab

Figure 3.1 Original image

Figure 3.2 Contours of the image after edge detection

Image segmentation is also the process of selecting of pixels that are similar in certain characteristics such as intensity. The selection criterion is referred as the threshold value and the function for example im2bw uses this value to convert the image pixels.

Figure 3.3 Image before (Left) and after applying image segmentation (Right)

3.2 Morphological Operations

Morphological operations are a set of image processing operations that analyzes the shapes within the image. It applies a structuring element to the image and output the image of the same size. The output value of each pixel is determined by the neighboring pixels with its corresponding pixel of input image. The size and shape of the structuring element affects the number of pixels being added or removed from the object in the image [7]. The most basic morphological operations used are dilation and erosion .

Erosion removes pixels on the object boundaries in the image by changing it to the background pixel. This shrinks the object and breaks up a single object. Dilation, on the other hand, adds pixels to the object boundaries by changing the background pixel surrounding it. This enlarges the object and multiple objects could merge together as one. Opening or closing is a single function with the combination of dilation and erosion. In opening, the image would undergo erosion followed by dilation. This removes the small object pixels before enlarging the remaining while in closing, the image would undergo dilation followed by erosion. This removes the small background pixels before enlarging the remaining. In this way, the contours of the object smoothen and small object gaps fused. These functions help to handle noise in the image or adjust it to enclose a certain desired object [8].

Original Image

Erosion

Dilation

Opening

Closing

Figure 3.4 Results of morphological operations

CHAPTER 4. FEATURES EXTRACTION

This chapter outlines how different features of the fundus images namely Blood vessels, Exudates, microaneurysms and texture properties are extracted using image processing techniques. The values obtained are essential as they represent the image and are necessary in order to classify the images accurately.

4.1 Overall Block Diagram

The Figure 4.1 below shows the overall block diagram of the whole program. The fundus images are converted to either green component or grayscale for features extraction of texture analysis. The normalized features values are then fed into Artificial Neural Network for classification to Normal, Mild or Higher classes.

Figure 4.1 Block Diagram of Overall System

4.2 Blood Vessels Detection

4.2.1 Introduction
Blood vessels are extracted in this project for the identification of diabetic retinopathy. The contrast of the fundus image tends to be bright in the centre and diminish at the side, hence preprocessing is essential to minimize this effect and have a more uniform image. After which, the green channel of the image is applied with morphological image processing to remove the optical disk. Image segmentation is then performed to adjust the contrast intensity and small pixels considered to be noise are removed. Another green channel image is processed with image segmentation and combined with the mask layer. These two images are compared and the differences are removed. The obtained image would represent the blood vessels of the original image.

Figure 4.2.1 Block Diagram for Blood Vessels Detection

4.2.2 Experimental procedure - Detection of blood vessels

This section discusses in greater detail of the extraction of the blood vessels. The fundus image is first preprocessed to standardize its size to applied. 576x720. The intensity of the green channel is then inversed before adaptive histogram equalization is

Figure 4.2.2 Original fundus image

Figure 4.2.3 Inversed image after histogram equalization

The optical disk is a black patch in the image as shown at

Figure 4.2.3 .

Morphological opening which consisted of erode followed by dilate is applied. Erode function protects the small blood vessels by reducing their sizes while dilate function blows up the larger remaining details which are intended to be removed. The optical disk is then removed by subtracting Figure 4.2.3 with Figure 4.2.4.

Figure 4.2.4 Image after Morphological opening

Figure 4.2.5 Image after optical disk removed

The image ( Figure 4.2.5 ) is then converted to a binary image using the function im2bw. The pixels of the input image are converted to binary 1 (white) for values greater than the selected threshold and to binary 0 (black) if otherwise. The converted binary image (Figure 4.2.6) at this point is still noisy and function bwareaopen is applied remove the small area of pixels considered to be noise.

Figure 4.2.6 Binary image after Image segmentation

Figure 4.2.7 Blood vessels after removal of noise

The green component image (Figure 4.2.2) is also applied with adaptive histogram equalization thrice and image segmentation to select the blood vessels area. Small pixels which are considered as noise are also removed.

Figure 4.2.8 Image after histogram equalization

Figure 4.2.9 Blood vessels after image segmentation and removal of noise

Some blood vessels are lost at the optical disk region after applying image segmentation. Hence, a mask is created to retain those blood vessels located when AND logic is applied. The creation of the mask is further discussed at section 4.2.4. The image (Figure 4.2.9) is combined with the mask and compared with the earlier blood vessel image ( Figure 4.2.7 ) using AND logic. The similar pixels are output as binary 1(white) and represent the blood vessels. This is further discussed at section 4.2.5.

Figure 4.2.10 Mask at the optical disk area

Figure 4.2.11 Combined image after removing noise

The final blood vessels image (Figure 4.2.12) is obtained after the removal of the circular border. The creation of the border is further discussed the following 4.2.3. section

Figure 4.2.12 Image of Blood vessels

4.2.3 Experimental procedure - Border Formation

There are two methods in detecting the circular border of the image. Both methods are essential as each method could not work for a few of the images due to their intensity contrast. Deploying both methods allows the detection of all the images. Border formation is to clean off the noisy edges and is also used during Exudates and Microaneurysms detection.

4.2.3.1 Border Formation Method 1

Grayscale image instead of the green channel is used as it is more efficient in border detection. The first method uses canny method to detect the edges before enclosing the circular region with a top and bottom bar. Function imfill is then applied to fill the region. The circular border is obtained after subtracting the dilated image with the eroded image.

Figure 4.2.13 Block Diagram for Border Formation - Method 1

4.2.3.2 Border Formation Method 2

Method 2 is activated when a noisy image is obtained instead of a circular border. This method inverses the intensity of the image first before image segmentation is applied with the function im2bw. The circular region is filled as a result and the circular border is obtained after subtracting the dilated image with the eroded image.

Figure 4.2.14 Block Diagram for Border Formation - Method 2

Figure 4.2.15 Example of Circular border obtained using either method

4.2.4 Experimental procedure - Mask Creation for Optical Disk

As the optical disk is made up of a group of bright spots, it is not suitable to use loops and locate the largest value. This would only point to one spot and most likely to be on the side of the optical disk. The mask required to cover the optical disk would be inefficient as it would be much larger and covers more details. Mask creation is used in the detection of blood vessels, exudates and microaneurysms. Matlab Code:
max_GB_column = max(Grayscale_brighten_9); %max value for each 720 columns max_GB_single = max(max_GB_column); %max value of the columns [row,column] = find(Grayscale_brighten_9 == max_GB_single); %get the row & column of the image that match the largest value median_row = floor(median(row)); %find 50th percentile and round off median_column = floor(median(column));

Grayscale image instead of the green channel is used as it is more efficient in the detection. The above lines would first find the max value for each of the 720 columns of the image before locating the largest value. The coordinates (row and column) of all brightest point(s) are then determined and the median is taken if there is more than one point. Matlab Code:
radius = 90; %size of the mask [x,y]= meshgrid(1:720, 1:576); %row size 576, column size 720 (576x720) mask = sqrt((x-median_column).^2+(y-median_row).^2)<= radius; %drawing mask

After locating the optical disk, a mask needs to be created. A simple square mask created using loops would be easy but this would result in error when the optical disk is close to the border of the image. The above lines are used instead to generate the circular mask. The function meshgrid is to generate X and Y matrices while the next line that creates the mask is the equation for drawing circle. H and K are the column) and R as the Radius. R 2 = (x 2 +(y 2 h) k) coordinates (row and

4.2.5 Experimental procedure - AND logic

Two methods of detecting the blood vessels are used. Both methods would generally detect different locations of the images like exudates as blood vessels; hence by computing their similarity, the non blood vessels area could be filtered.

Figure 4.2.16 Comparing blood vessels images obtained

AND logic is applied to mark out the similar pixels of the two images. The output pixel is registered as binary 1 (white) when the both images pixels are binary 1 (white). The obtained image would be a clearer blood vessels image.

Figure 4.2.17 Blood vessels image after apply AND logic

4.2.6 Results
The area of the blood vessels is obtained by using two loops to count the number of pixels with binary 1 (white) in the final blood vessel image.

Figure 4.2.18 Fundus image (Left) with its blood vessels image (Right)

4.2.7 ANOVA Test Results

The values of all the subjects are input into ANalysis Of VAriance to test the hypotheses between the groups. Feature Mean Blood Vessels Area Std dev Higher 43412 11044 Mild 39097 9374 Normal 36161 6987 P-value 0.0081

Table 4.2.1 ANOVA test result for Blood Vessels Total subjects - 98 Std dev - Standard deviation P-value - The probability of the result.

4.2.8 Discussion
Masking at the optical disk is essential for AND logic as some of blood vessels there are lost after applying adaptive histogram equalization and image segmentation. It is noted that some of the images have noise within the mask area and detect as blood vessels but it is still trivial to affect the overall value. The higher stage of the diabetic retinopathy is known to have more blood vessels due to damages and growth and the overall obtained result matched it. However, the large standard deviation value might affect the output result of the ANN.

4.3 Exudates Detection

4.3.1 Introduction
Exudates appeared as bright yellow-white deposits on the retina due to the leakage of blood from abnormal vessels. Their shape and size will vary with the different retinopathy stages. The grayscale image is first preprocessed for uniformity before the morphological image processing is applied to remove the blood vessels and identify the exudates region. The exudates are detected after removing the border, optical disk and non-exudates area.

Figure 4.3.1 Block Diagram for Exudates Detection

4.3.2 Experimental procedure - Detection of Exudates

This section discusses in greater detail of the extraction of the exudates. The fundus image is first preprocessed to standardize its size to 576x720 and the intensity of the grayscale image is then adjusted.

Figure 4.3.2 Original fundus image

Figure 4.3.3 Intensity adjusted grayscale image

Morphological closing which consisted of dilate followed by erode is applied to removed the blood vessels. The dilate function expands the exudates area while erode function removes the blood vessels. The image (Figure 4.3.4) is then converted to double-precision value for function colfilt to mark the exudates region before converted back to uint8 as shown in (Figure 4.3.5). This image is converted back to binary using the function im2bw with a threshold value to filter out the exudates.

Figure 4.3.4 Image after Morphological

Figure 4.3.5 Image after column filter

The location of the optical disk is detected by the brightest point(s) on the creation of the mask is discussed in section 4.2.4.

grayscale

image. It is usually the maximum value and a circular mask is then created to cover it. The

Figure 4.3.6 Mask for the Optical Disk

Figure 4.3.7 Image with Optical Disk removed

The regions of the exudates are obtained after the removal of the circular while erode function is to expand their sizes.

border.

Morphological closing is then applied to the image. The dilate function is to fill the exudates

Figure 4.3.8 Regions of exudates

Figure 4.3.9 Image after Morphological closing

Non-exudates (dark features) are extracted from the grayscale image using function im2bw and are represented as binary 1 (white) after intensity inversion. AND logic (to be further discussed in the section 4.3.3) is then applied to the images (Figure 4.3.9 and Figure 4.3.10) to detect the exudates (Figure 4.3.11).

Figure 4.3.10 Image with Dark features (represented as white)

Figure 4.3.11 Exudates after performing AND logic

4.3.3 Experimental procedure - AND logic

AND logic is used to remove noise for the detection of exudates. Regions with exudates are marked out after applying column filter but this includes non-exudates such as hemorrhages and has to be removed as noise.

Figure 4.3.12 Expanded exudates regions after Morphological closing

Figure 4.3.13 Dark features represented as white

By removing the non-exudates from the detected regions, the exudates can be determined. Image segmentation is applied to the grayscale image to extract the bright spots for comparison. These areas (bright features) are represented by binary 0 (black) while the non-exudates (dark features) are represented as binary 1 (white) as shown in Figure 4.3.13. By applying AND logic to Figure 4.3.12 and Figure 4.3.13, the non-exudates regions are set to set to binary 0 (black) and removed when the pixels for both images are binary 1 (white). As a result, the exudates area is obtained.

4.3.4 Results
The area of the exudates is obtained by using two loops to count the number of pixels with binary 1 (white) in the final exudates image.

Figure 4.3.14 Fundus image (Left) with its exudates image (Right)

4.3.5 ANOVA Test Results

The values of all the subjects are input into ANalysis Of VAriance to test the hypotheses between the groups. Feature Mean Exudates Area Std dev Table 4.3.1 ANOVA test result for Exudates Total subjects - 98 Std dev - Standard deviation P-value - The probability of the result. 919.68 714.98 58.25 108.09 6.09 11.88 < 0.0001 Higher Mild Normal P-value

4.3.6 Discussion
The higher stage of the diabetic retinopathy would have more exudates due to damages or leakages of the blood vessels and the overall obtained result matched it. The mask detection of the optical disk could take the exudates coordinates instead when they are much brighter or close together and forms a larger area than the optical disk. Some of the images had exudates area masked as a result; however it is trivial to affect the overall value as those images generally had a large area of exudates.

4.4 Microaneurysms Detection

4.4.1 Introduction
Microaneurysms appeared as small dark round dots (~15 to 60microns in diameter) on the fundus images. They are small bulges developed from the weak blood vessels and are the earliest clinical sign of diabetic retinopathy [9]. Hence, it is essential to detect them during the mild stage. The number of microaneurysms would increase with the stage of the retinopathy. The grayscale image is used to detect the circular border and optical disk mask. The green channel of the image first finds the edges using canny method before removing the circular border to fill the enclosed small area. The larger areas are then removed and applied with AND logic to remove the exudates. The blood vessels and optical disk are then removed to obtain the microaneurysms.

Figure 4.4.1 Block Diagram for Microaneurysms Detection

4.4.2 Experimental procedure - Detection of Microaneurysms

This section discusses in greater detail of the extraction of the microaneurysms. The fundus image is first preprocessed to standardize its size to 576x720 and the of the grayscale image is then adjusted. intensity

Figure 4.4.2 Original fundus image

Figure 4.4.3 Intensity adjusted grayscale image

The images contrast is stretched by applying adaptive histogram equalization before using edge detection (canny method) to detect the outlines of the image (Figure 4.4.5).

Figure 4.4.4 Image after histogram equalization

Figure 4.4.5 Image of edges

The circular border is then removed before applying the function imfill to fill up the enclosed area (Figure 4.4.6). The holes (microaneurysms and noise) image is obtained by subtracting away the edges image and removing the larger area using function bwareaopen. However, the image would still contain noise like blood exudates. vessels and

Figure 4.4.6 Image after function imfill

Figure 4.4.7 Image after removing the larger area

As the exudates are bright spots on the image, the image ( Figure 4.4.3 ) is applied with adaptive histogram equalization twice and image segmentation to bring out the exudates ( Figure 4.4.9 ). These bright features are compared with (Figure 4.47) using AND logic to remove the exudates.

Figure 4.4.8 Image after applying histogram equalization twice

Figure 4.4.9 Image after image segmentation

Blood vessels are extracted after the image (

Figure 4.4.3 ) is applied with

adaptive histogram equalization twice and image segmentation of another threshold value. A clearer image of blood vessels (Figure 4.4.10) is acquired after removing the small area of noise. This image is compared using AND logic with the result from the previous AND logic to remove the blood vessels. The final microaneurysms image is obtained after removing the small noise and optical disk area.

Figure 4.4.10 Blood Vessels after removing small area of noise

Figure 4.4.11 Microaneurysms

4.4.3 Results
The area of the microaneurysms is obtained by using two loops to count the number of pixels with binary 1 (white) in the final microaneurysms image.

Figure 4.4.12 Fundus image (Left) with its microaneurysms image (Right)

4.4.4 ANOVA Test Results

The values of all the subjects are input into ANalysis Of VAriance to test the hypotheses between the groups. Feature Mean Microaneurysms Area Std dev Table 4.4.1 ANOVA test result for Microaneurysms Total subjects - 98 Std dev - Standard deviation P-value - The probability of the result. 314.56 174.40 72.31 70.52 15.03 20.69 < 0.0001 Higher Mild Normal P-value

4.4.5 Discussion
Blood vessels and exudates would sometimes occur from edge detection using canny method. As they are considered noise, they need to be removed at the output. Exudates can be easily removed as they are bright spots on the original image. However, it would be harder to differentiate tiny blood vessels and microaneurysms as they are of the same color intensity in the image.

4.5 Texture Identification

4.5.1 Introduction
Texture analysis is the description of regions of an image by their variations in the pixel intensities or gray level such as its context of coarseness, smoothness or regularity. The basic types of computation are structural, statistical and spectral. Structural is the arrangement of texture elements while spectral is the analysis based in spatial frequency domain. Statistical is based on the intensity relationship of the pixels in statistical features like co-occurrence matrix. Co-occurrence matrix captures the spatial distribution of gray level and obtains features such energy, contrast, homogeneity and correlation. [7] Two texture properties of the image are being measured. Entropy is measured after applying histogram equalization to the green component of the image while homogeneity is by using Gray-Level Co-occurrence Matrix on the grayscale image.

Figure 4.5.1 Block Diagram for Texture Identification

4.5.2 Experimental procedure - Entropy function

Entropy is the statistical measure of the randomness of the grayscale images texture. It is a texture analysis function in the MATLAB Image Processing Toolbox. Matlab Code:
Green_his_X1 = adapthisteq(GreenC); Green_his_X2 = adapthisteq(Green_his_X1); E_GreenC_X2 = entropy(Green_his_X2);

The green component of the image is applied with adaptive histogram equalization twice to enhance its contrast and texture. The function entropy is then used on the image which returns a scalar value. This represents the entropy of the image. intensity for

4.5.3 Experimental procedure - Homogeneity

Grey Level Co-occurrence Matrix values in an image. Matlab Code:
glcm = graycomatrix (Grayscale); homo_struct = graycoprops (glcm, {'homogeneity'});

(GLCM) is the computation of the

frequency of each pixel pair occurring for different combinations of pixel brightness

The function graycomatrix is used to create the GLCM of the grayscale image. It calculates how often the pixel with value i of the gray level occurs horizontally adjacent to another pixel with value j. Each element (i,j) in the GLCM represents frequent of occurrence. The function graycoprops normalizes the GLCM so that the sum of its elements is equal to 1. It calculates the statistics as specified in the property (homogeneity in this case). Homogeneity is the measurement of the closeness of the distribution of elements in the GLCM to the GLCM diagonal and returns a value between 0 and 1. The homogeneity formula is as follows: p(i, j) 1+ i j

i, j

4.5.4 ANOVA Test Results

The values of all the subjects are input into ANalysis Of VAriance to test the hypotheses between the groups. Feature Mean Entropy Std dev Higher 7.6768 0.1135 Mild 7.5917 0.1151 Normal 7.6254 0.1487 P-value 0.026

Table 4.5.1 ANOVA test result for Entropy

Feature Mean Homogeneity Std dev

Higher 0.97144 0.00570

Mild 0.97490 0.00587

Normal 0.97760 0.00607

P-value 0.0002

Table 4.5.2 ANOVA test result for Homogeneity

Total subjects - 98 Std dev - Standard deviation P-value - The probability of the result.

4.6 Summary of Features Extraction

Feature Higher Stage Mild Stage Normal

Image

Blood Vessels

Exudates

Microaneurysms

Table 4.6.1 Overall images of Features Extraction

4.7 Overall ANOVA Test Results

Feature Mean Blood Vessels Area Std dev Mean Exudates Area Std dev Mean Microaneurysms Area Std dev Mean Entropy Std dev Mean Homogeneity Std dev 7.6768 0.1135 0.97144 0.00570 7.5917 0.1151 0.97490 0.00587 7.6254 0.1487 0.97760 0.00607 0.026 Higher 43412 11044 919.68 714.98 Mild 39097 9374 58.25 108.09 Normal 36161 6987 6.09 11.88 P-value 0.0081

< 0.0001

314.56 174.40

72.31 70.52

15.03 20.69

< 0.0001

0.0002

Table 4.7.1 Overall ANOVA test results

Total subjects - 98 Std dev - Standard deviation P-value - The probability of the result.

CHAPTER 5. ARTIFICIALNEURAL NETWORK

This chapter outlines about how the data from the features extractions are being fed into the Artificial Neural Network (ANN) for training and how the test is conducted. The result of the test data and the accuracy of the classifier are also being discussed.

5.1 Introduction
ANN is a system based on the biological neural system. The biological neurons receive signals through synapses located on the dendrites or membrane of the neuron and the neuron is activated when the received signals surpass a threshold. The neuron then emits a signal through the axon to another synapse or activates other neurons.

Dendrites

Soma Nucleus Axon

Synapses
Figure 5.1 A neuron

ANN, in engineering can be used for pattern classifiers or nonlinear adaptive filters. Through training, ANN is able learn from experience and be used for fairly accurate classification of data into different classes. The classification is based on the knowledge gained from training and is stored in the form of interconnecting weights which are in its hidden layers. It is always desired to have a large set of uniformly spread training data. [10,11]

5.2 Training of ANN

The ANN used for this project is a feed-forward back propagation network and uses supervised learning to train the neural network. Supervised learning is by providing the ANN with input data and matches them with output results. Its weights would adjust according to its learning rules as it undergoes training before being tested for accuracy. The ANN used for classification in this project as shown in the figure below.

Figure 5.2 Four-layer feed-forward neural network classifier The input layer is made up of nodes to accept the 5 data values while the subsequent layers process the values using activation function. There are 10 neurons for each hidden layer and the trained network would output binary numbers which represent the 3 different stages.

10

The outputs of the hidden layer are assessed by

s = f (w
10 o h

h j

h ji o

si

) while
h

i=1

the outputs of the output layer are assessed by bk =

f ( wkj

s j k ), where wji , w kj are the connection weights between layers and respectively.

j= 1 jh

, ko are the bias terms

The error vectors for hidden layer are calculated by

h

e = b 1 dk k k k( )( b b
h 10

while the error vectors for output layer are by e j = s j the desired output [12].

( 1 s j ) wkj k e
k=1

, where dk is

The weight updating for output and hidden layers are given as wkj(new) = wkj
ji ji h

+sj and
j

ek k
h j

o k h

(new) = +e
k k

w (new) = w +s e
i

(new) = j+e

5.3 Features Data for ANN

The data obtained from the images are divided into two portions. 70% of the data is used for training purposes while the remaining 30% is used for testing. All the data are normalized to the range between 0 and 1 to have a uniformly spread and also to balance each weight of the neuron in the ANN. The different classes for output or training data are represented as binary numbers as shown in the table below. Classes Normal Mild Stage Higher Stage Binary Representation 00 01 10

Table 5.3.1 Representation of different stages

5.4 Training data for ANN

The data as shown below is a portion of the 70% data being fed into the ANN for training. The goal of the training is 0.001 which means the allowed error is to be less than 0.1%. targeted

Figure 5.3 Part of the training data

The successful training of the ANN is as shown in the figure below.

101 Performance is 0.000999659, Goal is 0.001

100

10-1

10-2

10-3

10-4

20

40

60

80 100 181 Epochs

120

140

160

180

Figure 5.4 Convergence of the training performance status line with goal line

5.5 Test data for ANN

The data as shown below is a portion of the 30% data being used to test the accuracy of the ANN. The testing data would only contain input data values as the output stages are to be determined by ANN.

Figure 5.5 Part of the test data

The figure as shown below is the output result of the test data.
y= Columns 1 through 10 0.9987 0.9984 0.9990 0.9941 0.9932 0.8937 0.9931 0.9974 0.9134 0.9990 0.0163 -0.0174 -0.0062 -0.0041 -0.0149 1.0000 -0.0099 0.0035 1.0000 -0.0312 Columns 11 through 20 -0.0496 0.0030 0.0028 0.0029 0.2676 0.9883 -0.0054 0.9774 0.0013 0.0029 1.0000 -0.9992 -0.9999 0.9347 1.0000 0.8227 -0.9998 1.0000 1.0000 0.9347 Columns 21 through 30 0.0013 0.9771 0.0023 1.0000 0.0007 -0.0183 0.0036 0.0016 0.0013 -0.0219 -0.0031 0.9970 0.0554 -1.0000 -0.0057 1.0000 1.0000 0.9953 Figure 5.6 Test results 0.0016 1.0000

5.6 Sensitivity and specificity

The table as shown below is the breakdown of the classes used for training, testing and their accuracy. No of data for training 22 22 24 98 Average No of data for testing 10 10 10 30 60 Accuracy (%) 20 80 80

Class Normal Mild Higher Total

Table 5.3.2 Breakdown of data by Classes The table as shown below is the breakdown of the accuracy of the classifier. Sensitivity refers to the probability of a positive test among the subjects with the condition while Specificity refers to the probability of a negative test among the condition. The equations are as follows TP TP and Specificity = TP+FN TP+FN subjects without the

Sensitivity =

TN

TP

FP

FN

Sensitivity Specificity (%) (%)

Positive Predictive Accuracy (%)

16

80

20

66.7

Table 5.3.3 Sensitivity, specificity, predictive accuracy of the Classifier TN - True Negatives, TP - True Positives FN - False Negatives, FP - False Positives

5.7 Discussion
The classifier has a fairly accurate classification for mild and higher class but not for the normal. This would lead to high false alarm for the normal class. The low accurate might be due to the values of the test data being too close to the other classes. More training data would be ideal to improve the classifier.

CHAPTER 6. GRAPHIC USER INTERFACE

This chapter gives an account of Graphic User Interface (GUI), how is it being designed and how is it being applied in this project.

6.1 Introduction
GUI is a graphical interface to allow simple and user friendly access to the program. There is a set of tools provided for in Matlab to simplify designing and building of GUIs. The typical stages of creating a GUI are namely designing, layout, programming the M-file and saving/ running. Through the GUIDE Layout Editor, the layout can be quickly designed by dragging components like for example push button, toggle button, sliders and radio buttons into the layout area. It can also be used to display images or plots. The GUIDE would then automatically generate an M-file which initializes and manage its operations. Programming codes can be added to the function events to carry out the intended functions [13].

Figure 6.1 GUIDE Interface

6.2 Design and application of GUI

The GUI used for automated identification of diabetic retinopathy stages comprises of the followings: 1) Image data input 2) Analyze image button 3) Image display 4) Feature extraction values and classification result. The original fundus image will be displayed when the image number is selected. After the analyze button is clicked, the GUI would perform features extraction for blood vessels, microaneurysms, exudates and texture. The feature images would then be displayed at the image output and its values at the various textbox. The values would also be normalized before being fed into the ANN for classification. One of the 3 classes, namely Normal, Mild or Higher would be displayed at the textbox to indicate the stage of the subject is at. The intention of using GUI as an automated detection program is to allow and easy access for doctors or nurses to perform quick analysis and without the need of programming skills. simple observation

Figure 6.2 Program Interface

CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS
Biomedical image processing requires an integrated knowledge in mathematics, statistics, programming and biology. Based on the results of the classifier, this project has a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 20%. It is able to achieve a fairly accurate classification for mild and higher stages but not for normal class resulting in a possible high false alarm. This might be improved by fine tuning the threshold values used on the images and more images could be used to improve the overall system. For this project, I had learnt various techniques of image processing and was able to extract the features, namely blood vessels, exudates, microaneurysms and ANN by back propagation to perform classification and was also able to to perform classification on the images automatically. texture properties (homogeneity and entropy) from the fundus images. I was able to train an design a GUI

CHAPTER 8. RECOMMENDATIONS
From this project, there are areas that can be improved to raise the overall accuracy or enhance the system. The followings are some of the recommendations to achieve this: Further fine-tune the threshold values used for image processing Explore other features that could be added for classification Integrate into fundus camera as an add-on features

REFERENCE LIST
1. Vision problems in the U.S: a report on blindness and vision impairment in adults age 40 and older, Schaumberg, IL: Prevent Blindness America, 1994;12-3 http://www.preventblindness.org/vpus/2008_update/VPUS_vision_impairment_blindness_2008.pdf Registration of New Blindness in Singapore for 1985-1995, Lim K. H., Singapore Medical Journal, Vol.40, No.2, Feb. 1999 http://www.sma.org.sg/smj/3903/articles/3903a3.html Diabetes & the Eye: Dont go blind, Prof Arthur Lim NEW LIFE, March-May 2006 Issue, Society for MENs HEALTH Singapore Article An Effective Approach to Detect Lesions in Color Retinal Images Huan Wang, Wynne Hsu, Kheng Guan Goh, Mong Li Lee School of Computing, National University of Singapore International Clinical Diabetic Retinopathy Disease Severity Scale International Council of Ophthalmology, October 2002 Automated Identification of Different Stages of Diabetic Retinopathy using digital fundus images, Jagadish Nayak, P Subbanna Bhat, Rajendra Acharya U, Lim Choo Min, Manjunath Gupta Journal of Medical Systems, USA (accepted on 12th October 2007) Image Processing Toolbox, Function Reference http://www.mathworks.com/products/image/functionlist.html Special Imaging Techniques: Morphological Image Processing, chapter 25 California Technical Publishing http://www.dspguide.com/ch25/4.htm RETINOPATHY, Chapter 33, Jay M. Stewart, MD and Daniel M. Schwartz, MD, March 3, 2003 http://www.endotext.org/diabetes/diabetes26/diabetesframe26.htm Neural Networks, Artificial Neural Networks http://www.learnartificialneuralnetworks.com Artificial Neural Networks for Beginners, Carlos Gershenson (Submitted on 20 Aug 2003) http://homepages.vub.ac.be/~cgershen/cogs/doc/FCS-ANN-tutorial.htm Classification of heart rate data using artificial neural network and fuzzy equivalence relation U. Rajendra Acharya, P. Subbanna Bhat, S. S. Iyengar, Ashok Rao and Sumeet Dua Pattern Recognition, Volume 36, Issue 1, January 2003, Pages 61-68 Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) Matlab, http://www.mathworks.com

2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12.

13.

Others
Introduction to Digital Image Processing with MATLAB, Alasdair McAndrew ISBN-10: 0534400116, Course Technology Image Classification Based on Textural Features using Artificial Neural Network (ANN) Prof S K Shah, V Gandhi www.ieindia.org/publish/et/0104/jan04et5.pdf Texture Analysis, Leow Wee Kheng http://www.comp.nus.edu.sg/~cs4243/lecture/texture.pdf

APPENDICES
No. A1. Description Matlab Code for detecting Blood Vessels Files
function_BV.m

A2.

Matlab Code for detecting Exudates

function_EX.m

A3.

Matlab Code for detecting Microaneurysms

function_MIC.m

A4.

Matlab Code for Texture Analysis - Entropy

function_TEXTURE.m

A5.

Matlab Code for Texture Analysis - Homogeneity

function_HOMO.m

A6.

Matlab Code for Training ANN

Training.m

A7.

Matlab Code for Testing ANN

Testann.m

A8.

Matlab Code for GUI

Gui_fm.m