ST 9122 EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES

AND INSTRUMENTATION

FORCES AND STRAIN MEASUREMENT

Choice of Experimental stress analysis methods, Errors in
measurements Strain gauge, principle, types, performance and
uses. Photo elasticity - principle and applications - Hydraulic jacks
and pressure gauges Electronic load cells Proving Rings
Calibration of Testing Machines Long-term monitoring vibrating
wiresensors Fibre optic sensors.

UNIT I
Choice of Experimental stress analysis methods
Stress
This is a measure of the internal resistance in a
material to an externally applied load. For
direct compressive or tensile loading the
stress is designated o and is defined as:

stress =
load W
area A
o
Types of stress
Compressive
stress
Compressive load
Tensile load
Compressive load
Tensile load
Tensile
Stress
Errors in measurements

Some terminology
True value standard or reference of
known value or a theoretical value

Accuracy closeness to the true value

Precision reproducibility or agreement
with each other for multiple trials
PGCC CHM 103 Sinex
Types of Errors
Determinate (or Systematic)
Sometimes called bias due to error in one
direction- high or low
Known cause
Operator
Calibration of glassware, sensor, or instrument
When determined can be corrected
May be of a constant or proportional nature
PGCC CHM 103 Sinex
Types of Errors continued
Indeterminate (or Random)
Cannot be determined (no control over)
Random nature causes both high and low
values which will average out
Multiple trials help to minimize
PGCC CHM 103 Sinex
PGCC CHM 103 Sinex
sampling
preparation
analysis
Representative
sample
homogeneous
vs.
heterogeneous
Loss

Contamination
(unwanted addition)
Measurement
of Analyte

Calibration of
Instrument or
Standard
solutions
How about sampling a
chocolate chip cookie?
How do you assess the total error?
One way to assess total error is to
treat a reference standard as a sample.

The reference standard would be
carried through the entire process to
see how close the results are to the
reference value.
PGCC CHM 103 Sinex
Expressing accuracy and precision
Mean (average)
Percent error
Range
Deviation
Standard deviation
Percent coefficient of variation
precision
accuracy
Strain gauge, principle, types,
performance and uses

What is Strain?
Strain is the amount of deformation of a body due to an applied
force. More specifically, strain (e) is defined as the fractional change
in length.

, c is strain
What is Strain Gauge?
A strain gauge, a device whose electrical resistance varies in
proportion to the amount of strain in the device. The most widely
used gauge is the bonded metallic strain gauge.


How to Select Strain Gauge?
Use Vishay Strain Gauge as Example
1. Grid length (250 = 0.250 inch)
2. Grid pattern and tab geometry (uniaxial, biaxial, three-element rosette, shear pattern)
3. Type of grid alloy and backing (strain gauge series EA, Constantan grid, polyimide backing)
4. Option features: protection, termination (L = pre-attached Leads, E= Encapsulated with
exposed tabs.)
5. Strain gauge resistance (350=350 ohms)
6. Self temperature compensation (STC # = 06 for steel substrate)
Gauge selection
http://www.vishay.com/brands/measurements_group/strain_gages/
mm.htm
Note : The S-T-C number is the approximate thermal expansion coefficient in
ppm/ deg F of
the structural material on which the strain gage will display minimum
thermal output.
How to Measure from Strain Gauge?
Wheatstone bridge with strain gauge
R3
When Vo is zero, R1*R3=R2*R4
When the strain gauge is strained,
R3=R3+AR
Vo=
o = MC / I
E = Ao / Ac, where
C = t/2, C is the distance to
the neutral axis.
M is the bending moment = PL
I is the moment inertia for a
cross section, I= b(t^3)/2
G = gauge factor,
(AR/R)/(AL/L)
The gauge factor for various
alloys,
A = 2.05, K = 2.1, D = 3.2, P = 2.0
(Vishay strain gauge)
( )( )
1
2 3 1 4
s
R R
V
R R R R
A
+ +
( )( )
2 3 2 4
0
1 3 s
R R R R
V
R R G V
c
+ +
=
How to Install Strain Gauge?
Objective
Have strain gauge to produce the same amount of strain as the substrate.

Procedure
Align the grid direction with the uniaxial
Solder wires to termination which provides stress relief.
Apply adhesive to substrate and attach strain gauge with clamps and rubber pressure pads.
Cure the adhesive at room temperature or elevated temperature.
What happens to our plastic substrate when cure at elevated temperature?
Tape or secure wires to avoid stress from heavy instrument.
Substrate
Wires
Termination
Strain gauge
Adhesive
ECE 480, Prof. A. Mason
Fiber-optic Temperature Sensor
Sensor operation
small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal undoped GaAs attached to
ends of two optical fibers
light energy absorbed by the GaAs crystal depends on temperature
percentage of received vs. transmitted energy is a function of
temperature
Can be made small enough for biological implantation
GaAs semiconductor temperature probe