Chapter 9

Carbon Chemistry

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Until 1828, chemists divided compounds into compounds that chemist could produce and compounds that only organisms could produce. The compounds produced by organisms were called organic compounds.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

An organic compound contains carbon and hydrogen, often combined with other elements. Organic compounds make up more than 90 % of all known compounds.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Carbon has four valence electrons and can form four single covalent bonds a double bond and two single bonds a triple bond and a single bond

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Forms of Carbon

Carbon exists in several different forms with different properties. Forms include diamond, graphite, and fullerenes each with a different arrangement of bonded carbon atoms.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Forms of Elemental Carbon

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Forms of Elemental Carbon

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Forms of Elemental Carbon

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Diamond

Diamond is an example of a network solid. In a network solid, all the atoms are linked by covalent bonds. A network solid is sometimes described as a single molecule.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Covalent bonds connect each carbon atom in diamond to four other carbon atoms. Diamond is harder than all other natural substances.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Graphite

Graphite is extremely soft and slippery because the carbon atoms are arranged in widely spaced layers. The bonds between graphite layers are weak, which allows them to slide easily past one another. Pencil lead is a mixture of graphite and clay.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Fullerenes

Fullerenes are large hollow spheres or cages of carbon. On the surface of the cage, the atoms form alternating hexagons and pentagons.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Saturated Hydrocarbons

A hydrocarbon is an organic compound that contains only hydrogen and carbon. In a saturated hydrocarbon, all the bonds are single bonds.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

A saturated hydrocarbon contains the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom. Saturated hydrocarbons are also called alkanes.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Factors that determine the properties of a hydrocarbon are the number of carbon atoms and how those atoms are arranged. Arrangements include straight chain, branched chain, and ring.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Types of Alkanes

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Straight Chains

A molecular formula shows the type and number of atoms in a molecule of the compound. A structural formula shows how those atoms are arranged.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

The number of carbon atoms in a straight-chain alkane affects the state of the alkane at room temperature. Methane and propane are gases Pentane and octane are liquids. The more carbon atoms, the higher the boiling point is.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Branched Chains

Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas are isomers. Differences in structure affect some properties of isomers. Butane boils at 0.5oC, but isobutane boils at 11.7oC.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Rings

The carbon atoms in cyclobutane are linked in a four-carbon ring.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons

A hydrocarbon that contains one or more double or triple bonds is an unsaturated hydrocarbon. They are classified by bond type and the arrangement of their carbon atoms.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

There are three types of unsaturated hydrocarbons alkenes alkynes aromatic hydrocarbons

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Alkenes

There is a double bond between the two carbon atoms in ethene. Hydrocarbons that have one or more carbon-carbon double bonds are alkenes.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Alkynes

Ethyne(C2H2), also known as acetylene, is an alkyne. Alkynes are straight- or branchedchain hydrocarbons that have one or more triple bonds. Alkynes are the most reactive hydrocarbon compounds.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Benzene (C6H6) is an unsaturated hydrocarbon with a ring structure. Six of the valence electrons are shared by all six carbon atoms. Hydrocarbons that contain similar ring structures are known as aromatic hydrocarbons because many of these compounds have strong aromas.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

The terms saturated and unsaturated are also used to describe fats. The term fat is used to refer to the fats and oils obtained from plants and animals.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

If the hydrocarbon chains contain only single bonds, the fat is classified as a saturated. If there are one or more double or triple bonds, then it is classified as an unsaturated fat.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Unsaturated fats are generally liquids at room temperature. Saturated fats tend to be solids at room temperature. A diet high in saturated fats has been linked to heart disease.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Fossil Fuels

Fossils fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons that formed from remains of plants or animals. Three types of fossil fuels are coal natural gas petroleum

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Coal

Coal is a solid fossil fuel that began to form millions of years ago as plants in ancient swamps. Most of the hydrocarbons in coal are aromatic hydrocarbons with high molar masses. These compounds have a high ratio of carbon to hydrogen.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Burning coal produces more soot than burning other fossil fuels. Coal forms in four stages: Peat Lignite Bituminous coal Anthracite (metamorphic rock)

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Natural Gas

The second main fossil fuel, natural gas, formed from the remains of marine organisms. The main component of natural gas is methane. It also contains ethane, propane, and isomers of butane.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Petroleum

The third main fossil fuel, petroleum, often known as crude oil, is a complex liquid mixture of hydrocarbons formed from remains of marine organisms. Petroleum is separated through fractional distillation.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

When petroleum is heated in a distillation tower, most of the hydrocarbons vaporize. The vapors rise through the tower and condense as the temperature decreases. See figure 8 on page 268.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Combustion of Fossil Fuels

The primary products of complete combustion of fossils fuels are carbon dioxide and water. Some sulfur and nitrogen are in fossil fuels, and air contains 78% nitrogen. The combustion of fossil fuels produces nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Acid Rain

The combustion of fossil fuels causes the acidity of rain to increase. Rain is slightly acidic, with a pH of about 5.6, because carbon dioxide dissolves in water and forms carbonic acid, H2CO3.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released into the atmosphere also dissolve in water, forming sulfuric acid H2SO4, and nitric acid, HNO3. The pH of rain containing sulfuric acid and nitric acid can be as low as 2.7.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Section 1 Assessment Activity

Quick Lab: Comparing Isomers p. 265

Carbon Chemistry

Section Assessment Questions 1-1-8 p. 269

9.2 Substituted Hydrocarbons

Carbon Chemistry

9.2 Substituted Hydrocarbons

Organic compounds containing chlorine or other halogens are halocarbons. Researchers have established that halocarbons containing chlorine and fluorine deplete Earths protective ozone layer.

9.2 Substituted Hydrocarbons

Carbon Chemistry

The manufacture of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has been restricted since 1990. A hydrocarbon in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by an atom or group of atoms is a substituted hydrocarbon.

9.2 Substituted Hydrocarbons

Carbon Chemistry

Alcohols

The name of an alcohol ends in ol. The functional group in an alcohol is a hydroxyl group, OH. When a halocarbon reacts with a base, the products are an alcohol and salt. CH3Cl + NaOH CH3OH + NaCl

9.2 Substituted Hydrocarbons

Carbon Chemistry

Organic Acids and Bases

The sour taste of a lemon comes from citric acid, an organic acid, C3H4(COOH)3. The functional group in organic acids is a carboxyl group, COOH.

9.2 Substituted Hydrocarbons

Carbon Chemistry

The simplest organic acid is methanoic acid, HCOOH, known as formic acid. Vinegar is a solution of water and organic acid ethanoic acid, CH3COOH referred to as acetic acid.

9.2 Substituted Hydrocarbons

Carbon Chemistry

Amines are organic bases. The functional group in an amine is an amino group NH2.

9.2 Substituted Hydrocarbons

Carbon Chemistry

Esters

Esters form when organic acids react with alcohol. Esters account for the flavors of many foods and pleasant odor of many flowers.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Section 2 Assessment Activities

Section Assessment Questions 1-5 p. 274 Handout on Substituted Hydrocarbons Lab: Making an Ester

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

9.3 Polymers

A polymer is a large molecule that forms when many smaller molecules are linked together by covalent bonds. The smaller molecules are called monomers. Polymers can be classified as natural polymers or synthetic polymers.

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

Synthetic Polymers

The properties of a polymer depend on the type and number of monomers in the polymer. Rubber, nylon, and polyethylene are three examples of compounds that can be synthesized. The sap collected from rubber trees in the tropics contains rubber.

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

Natural rubber collected from trees is soft and sticky. In 1839, Charles Goodyear found that when sulfur is added to rubber and the mixture is heated, the rubber is no longer sticky. The process is called vulcanization.

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

Natural Polymers

Almost all of the large molecules produced by organisms are polymers. Four types of polymers produced in plant and animal cells are starches, cellulose, nucleic acids, and proteins.

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

Starches

Simple sugars, like glucose, have the formula C6H12O6. Glucose monomers join to form starches. Simple sugars, slightly more complex sugars, and polymers built from sugar monomers are classified as carbohydrates.

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

Cellulose

The carbohydrate cellulose is the main component of cotton and wood. It is the most abundant of all organic compounds found in nature. Most animals cannot digest cellulose.

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are large nitrogencontaining polymers found mainly in the nuclei of cells. There are two types of nucleic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

Monomers in a nucleic acid are nucleotides. The three parts of a DNA nucleotide are a phosphate group, a deoxyribose sugar, and an organic base.

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

The bases in DNA are adenine thymine cytosine guanine

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

The adenine base always pairs up with a thymine base and a cytosine base always pairs up with a guanine base. They are arranged like the rungs of a ladder and the strands twist around each other in a structure called a double helix.

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

Proteins

Organic acids contain a COOH group and organic bases, or amines, contain an NH2 group. An amino acid is a compound that contains both carboxyl and amino functional groups in the same molecule.

9.3 Polymers

Carbon Chemistry

Your cells use amino acids as the monomers for constructing protein polymers. A protein is a polymer in which at least 100 amino acid monomers are linked through bonds between an amino group and a carboxyl group.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Section 3 Assessment Activities

Quick Lab: Distinguishing Sugars from Starches Section Assessment Questions 1-6 p. 280

9.4 Reactions in Cells

Carbon Chemistry

9.4 Reactions in Cells

9.4 Reactions in Cells

Carbon Chemistry

Photosynthesis

During photosynthesis, plants chemically combine carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates. The process requires light and chlorophyll, a green pigment in plants.

9.4 Reactions in Cells

Carbon Chemistry

During photosynthesis, energy from sunlight is converted into chemical energy.

6H2O + 6CO2 + light C6H12O6 + 6O2

9.4 Reactions in Cells

Carbon Chemistry

Cellular Respiration

During cellular respiration, the energy stored in the product of photosynthesis is released. Cellular respiration is a complex series of reaction summarized by the equation C6H12O6 + 6O2 6H2O + 6CO2 + heat

9.4 Reactions in Cells

Carbon Chemistry

Each process produces the reactants for the other process. Carbon dioxide and water are reactants in photosynthesis and the products of respiration. Carbohydrates and oxygen are reactants in cellular respiration and products of photosynthesis.

9.4 Reactions in Cells

Carbon Chemistry

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

9.4 Reactions in Cells

Carbon Chemistry

Enzymes and Vitamins

Enzymes and vitamins are compounds that help cells function efficiently at normal body temperatures. Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts for reactions in cells.

9.4 Reactions in Cells

Carbon Chemistry

Enzymes allow reactions to proceed faster at much lower temperatures than would normally happen. Vitamins are organic compounds that organisms need in small amounts but cannot produce.

9.1 Carbon Compounds

Carbon Chemistry

Section 4 Assessment

Section Assessment Question 1-5 p. 284 Consumer Lab: Comparing Vitamin C in fruit juices.