CH 3 Traditional Modes For 20th C Program Evaluation

. Evaluation Models. Viewpoints on Educational and Human Services Evaluation. Second Edition.
Hingham, MA, USA: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000. p 44

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3. FOUNDATIONAL MODELS I'OR 21"'
CENTURY I'ROGRAM EVALUATION"

h,lu .. "" ,oo.y "',;Lab!e """y more .... tu .. ioo approoc'" , h,n in 1900, As
they oddre .. tho cOal"",,, oIlile 21" cen' UlY. i, i, .n owonuo. , imo to cooside,
2fI' roolUl)' " 'ai",,,ioo <!e,.lopmo"'" "'" v>l.x>., for f"" re US< , nd whlch
0 " .. " .. [,ft behind, I ha,,. in thi. chlpter. atl.mp",1 to sort n aiter_
... ,,, " >I.oti",, io' o fish. "", n _ i""" coli the -k",I"''''- and
,n. '1Ilro""bac": More imjlDl1>lllJy. I ha,', ct.ar3< .. rI"d each """""" its
and "',alne",,,: and OOIIoo.rOO . ."d how he" applied.
The "', ..... ed .pproache mel]led mai nl y in the U.s. 1900 and 1m.
20"' c.",",, E . ....................... m ..... App'.",,_
FoIlo ... iog , period 0( inac'i" ity in the 19'iOl . ""''''''"''' of intemation.1
and natOooal forc<' " irnubtod , .. expansion and <!e,,lop""'.' of ,,aiu .. ioo """'y
and prlOC'i",. Tho main i.fioe""" the .f/Oft< ' 0 v2>1l)' """E' h< n the U.s.
<!ef,n", ,)'....., b), the s.""",, Un ion. iaunchinE 0( Spu, ni k I: the
"'w U.s. i>.w. in ' h, 1\!(:(Is to 'Guitably .er' .. , minori t"', and 1""""" d;,abil_
i,"', Fedet:aI gown"",n' " 'ai ",,ioo requi","",". or , h< Gre .. Soc i,'y program. ini _
,ilIt<d in 19<6: ,n. U.S. mo",,,,,,,, in the 19'roI to !>old I", .. i"",,1 and
so.'iaI OIJI'lIIizotiom accounl>ble for both pruden' .'" of resoorces and ",hi""men,
' n. , _ ." , ... _"" ....... .. ... u,;,_ [, __ C-' ,
Ox ..................
D.J. ' '" , ._ "T. _ "'" , <_ , .... , "","AI_ JIOOlil C"""," C """ ..... " "' ........
" , 0.- ." _ N"""-
of obje<ti."" Ih< """. '"' """Ilene< in ,I>< 198(1,; ... ""'lII< of ioc .. .,jng U.s.
int<mlItiooll roo""""",,,,, .. , and ,tie tren.l in Ihe 1990. for "lIfiou,
t.c.1I .,side and oo,side tho U.s. . '0 <mpioy .,ooI ... ioo to <n,u", qual it y. {'001I'<'i-
(i....,..".. and "I""y in ",,",'k<;,. In .... ",form,. '",-.eric ... 'O<l''' Y tI>s
"'P" .. eJly p<e>oal >c1'IooIs and 00.",... he.ollh--<are and "";011. oocill!
welf"", <nterpri.." to >how thf008l> "ll....,. ..-I><tl><r or "'" >en'''''' aOO
impro"ement <Ifo'" were rucce<dinF.
The de,,,lopme'" of prog .. m ","ILlation os r"w of rroi' .. ,iooal ptlO<tI"" .....
_ by "umber of seminal ",riun!'. Tbe>e ioclOOe-d. in order.
by Ty'" (19-I2b. 19SQ 191\6). C. mpbell and Stanley Cronb.>ch
(1%.3). S(Um<be"m (191\6. 1967). Sen"en 11%7). sW;e (1%7), Sochm.n (19671.
Aikin (1\169). G" D.a (1969). Pro"" (1\169). s(Um,be.m et ll . p .. lett ,00
H.milton (1972). W""" (1972), Ei,ner (197S), Gbo< (1975). Croob.>ch ,00 MOO-
d .... (980). Iloose (1980). and """on (1980). The", ,,,1<1 OItler , ut borsl>clIoIan
be8-'"' to pro",,( .Uer""i,, ..,.,......,11<> to JIfO!''''''' ,,,aI,,,,,lOO. 0..-" Ihe ye"" . r",h
li tera,"", 00 ..-i.Je "";.,, y of .Ueffill,h'e "'08""" .,'.",.uoo .""""",1><. de,'elop<-O
(_ for ex,u"r"". Cronboch [1982[: Guba and Unroin [11lS1. Nave. MOech .
00 Mosteller 119991. N,,'o II99Jt. 1'.1100 [1982. 19'1O. 1994. 1997]: R""sl aOO
Freem.n ]199Jt. S<hwandt [1 'IS<t. S<ri,'en [1991. 199J. 1994a. 19\4b. 199-k[:
Sh>di"'. Cook. anJ Le,'i(oo [1991[: Smilh. M. F. [1989], Smith. N. L [lllSn St:.ke
1197'51>. 198& 1995[: Stum,bearn 119971: Stu fflebeam and Shinkf .. 1d 11m [Wholey.
Il .. ry. and New""mer [199S[:Woflhen and Sanden [11lS7. 19971).
. ............. (. A nd ...... ...., ....
The """ ,be torm "'<11""",,, r>Oher _ <W""'"", mo.kl bec>.tz;<.
for one reason. Ihe former i. bro.:oJ '"""gil (0 ,,",,'er in.,it .. .. I.oo","'), ptlO<_
(",os, Abo, beyond t.c. h cre..lit.>bi< and noocredit:.ble """'"
,u,oo.. of ",'.I"ation "W'ooche, .. y tha, tl>< t<rm mOOrl i. "'"' demand ing to c<",,,,
!heir publiV!eJ ide ... bout __ to condll "" .l..oon.. Bu( for "- ","
,,,,,,oo .. ion . the term ",.,.ul woolO ha,'e be-en uoal to enrornp' most of the
"'aI .... ioo _>Is d,><,.;>ed ,n (hi. <""-pier. Thi. i .., be-c. u", n)(JO( of(he pre-
",mN """""",tie, are ide.oIi,," or "mode]" fOf <on01Jing prog .. m ",,,ILl>-
(ion, iO<roI'di np to the" author>' belief, aOO exJ'ffi<"""'.
" .... '0 S'"d, A("rna,h . .. pp"""' ....
The "udy 01 .lterru1l"e "'aloation " ,ml""" nt fOl" profe<>ional i,j np
ptog""" ",.,.oation and for it> "''''''if1< """"",,,,<111 and ope.-...ooo. 1'roI'=ionaI1y.
, .... f ul >looy of I"O!lflIIll eval""" approa<l><' <on help ,,'aIu"on leg itimize
"""""",tle, (hat Nmform .-itll ooond pr;ocipte, of ",ll u.o,ioo :>nJ di"""'"t those
th .. 00 noI. S<1<ft(if1Call),. >och re,',,'" <an tlelp .. .Iu.o(ioo "',.,>K1Ien "' nti fy.
"amin< . nd :oddr<., ronceplull and (<<h nbl ....... pertaimng to tl>< de",iopm<nt
of tl>< ,,,.1 ... ;.,., discipl,ne . Operationally . critical 01 altern"i,'" <on help
,,ll ... on roo,ide-<. =<S&. . nd "''''''1'''1)' lIjl!>Iy "",ioo.1 ""I ... ion fram"",""'., The
""'''''' ., pro<'i.les ",bsunce for ",.1 ... 100 tr,," inp. The ",;lin ,aI .... in Slooyi np
oIternaIiw e,."'u,,ion ore 10 disco-. ... their ""'<IIh> .00
",.,.,.. decide ""'" "",ri , .uOstanoial .... , delermi .. an<l how tOe)' ore
bes, aw/ied,'M obuin dirK';"" for imJlf<l" int the", .""road..,. an<l de'-;' Ln be""
. Iternali,-.>,
Tho ... or I' .......... ",,-,'uo"on
n.., r ...... brood ";"'" "I""!!ram e""I ... ,;"". It e""""P" ............
... "," ohny rooniina<ed .," of orti,-i,;'" directed '" och",-ing [urn"", Of<
=>ffit< of <)-cIic:iI progr ..... _ soch .. ",tro mrricul._ food sumps_
hou.i np for tbe .. ,.oo >I1nu,l in" uenLa inoculation" ' ime_boonded project.,
""'" lIS 0.-"..,., ... """ diss<mi .... ion of. fLre pre".,.ion guido: and l1.1!ionaI,
regional, or " .. , 'l''''''1IS """,,'m, ,och .. u.o.. JIf<l" ided by re8iona1 .due .. .".,1
s<,..-ic< 'pe",;"', Soch program ,,,.Juation, both owrlap an<l Y'" Or< ">lin_
guiYcl>le from OIher form. of .,..'u>lion_ "P"'i.1Jly ,,-oI LJa1ions of " ud<n", pef>On_
""I. materials, an<l in .. it .. i"""
P .. , ..... CLa .. ,nn,Ion, Of .. " ..... "" ",..'u.,Ion " pp .. _ ....
In """I)'zi n tOe 22 ,,,al ... ;,,,, prior """'11"''''' "'8.ruin;r I""!!flUIl
.'aJualion', ""e of tOe art """"Ited. Soat.', (1974) anal),si. " nine
I""!!rnnl ",':1Ioa,;"" approorre, pro .-ided. "",fu l 'wlic";",, of od",.." OI]'ani"",
(the type. ",..- L&><J 10 detenni .. informal;"" requi",,,,,,,",) fo< lI>C<fUin-
in8 diff,ren' 'ype' of I""!!""" .,-_ions_ Hasting" (1976) ""'ie\<' "the grov.,h
of .,-alLJalion """")' an<l prac'ice Oelpe<l to pi"", the .,-oI Lla1ion f,old in , hi .. oo_
ooJ ",,"pee'i,-, _ Guba'. (1976) pre .. ....,ion ond .. """""" of.u m.j or p/tilosoph'"
in <Yal"",ion "'" Hou>e', (1983) ..... )'si. of ._110. il lu mi"",""
importan' .nd di.tinction>. Scri"en' , IlW\. 19'1la) wri'in,
on the trnrudi"'ipli"" of ,,-oI LJa1ion retped '0 "'" 00' diffe",n, ,,,.l,,,,,ion
it "' .. III", in,-oI LJ.1b., in ...,in;r the 'pp"""Oe. in the brooder ""'",,'
of " -01"",,,,,, focu", d 00 ,-ariou. ooj.ct' orOer than program., The 000< Lv.I"",,,,,,
MoJ,I, srn, ... , & S,um"b<.m, IIID) prmi<led. I"",-ious in'-en' ",), and
..... ysis of ""'''''''''' .....,1>. "'Oe """"""'" "'1pI sIwpon tOe iues
--
............ n' E ... ' ... " ... ' .. n .....
In rharac, .. iLinE and .. """"1' ,,-oI LJa1ion ' re ' ""-;00. kirwh of ><1 i,-i,ie.
in tOe ""'" of progrnn ,,-aIualion W<f< on the t..;i, "tOeir
<le;;ree of rooformi')" to particular dofmition of .. -.....,;"", In ,hi. dUpler_ "",-
.. ,ion """'"' ,,-" ","," -' " .. "*' ...J;"", '" ., ... " ... ..,.',
""';, . -"""_ This defLnitioo .houkl be widel)' """'pI:IDIe .. i, "l''''''
oommoo dictionary defi ni' ioru of .,"alu",iOll : it i. abo "",.iSl,n' with the defLni _
lion tha< undorIie> p<Jblisho;l ..,.. "professioruJ .... >otis for o,-.Iuatiom (Xli ,"
Commi,,,,,, 00 St:uxIartls for ELloca,ionaI halLJ.1'ion, 1981b, 1M), fJoo"-,,,-..-, i, wiU
become ,.,.,..-,nt that """y "udie< done in the n,m. ofprogr.un .. -oIw.,ion , i, her
do 001 conform '0 this defmi,ioo or directly "PI""" i, _
'" ....... ... ,,,_A.I *_
Cl . ... .. .,.".".nd " .... , ...... I ... ll .' p p...,..,....
In. :>bel" o den nn,,," of,,.luallon. ",'a l"allon 'l'I"OOo<he. ct.<-
.ifle<! imo foo, c""g<><"" The n", c ... gory locludes approache. lha, promot.
in""lid or .. (ref.",," '0 '" I""..Joe l'lIIIIa' ion.), ... hile ,he oU,.,
' hrff iocloo" ap"""",he> ' hat .gre<, more or wi' h ,he "'finilloo (i .' .. Que>.-
,ioosIJ.lethods, Orien"'d, I""""", men<l Acrountohili')', .00 Social Aen<blAd""
Of Il1o 22 P""l'",m ",.1 ... 000 .pproache. ,ha, "'" de"",ibed, are eI"';f>l
.. I""..to.I,.I"",ioo . .. q ... "ioo<lmellloJo-or"n'''" approac""' . Ill"'" .,
im-l>l'o",,,,,,nt/orcoontat.ili'y""'''"'''" ' pproache . .00 fOIl , .. "", .. I .en<bl
OOmc><y.Jlrectl _oar""',
F..a<h 'W,ooch" ""'-lyzeJ in '"m. of"n .I<""il""'O: (I) OO, '"""e "",ani""" that
i . ,he m.in r ll'" ,liar ,,aI.wOl'> "'" '0 "" IlP a stOO y: (2) m.in 1'"'1""'(,) "",'eO:
(3) 000""" of "",,'ions adl,."..,.j: "",,"ions , hat .... rtlar.>ct<ri"", of eoch "ooy
' ),pe : _hods ')'poc>lIy <rnplo)'I : (6) pe"OIl< pione<rOO in roocel"WlliL,
.. ucb stooy 1)'P<: (7) other pe"""" woo !la,,, e"enJed .I<'''iopm<nt.oo "'" of
earh "OOy 'ype: (8) """,iJ<ratioo. in when ' 0 u'" each
(9) " .. of In. .pproach: .00 (10) of !he .pproach. Ihe",
.I<=ip'o .... roo\l"" ... on e><h of the 22 P"'!!mm ,,:>I.wioo approac he, ..., p<e-
",",I . These .. ,'''''''''''''' Me ' hen uS<d 10 "''''h conelu,ioo, abou, hich 'f'I"'lac he,
iIIoold be ,,'oi.bl. v.hich "'" tllOO' """i, orious, and unde, ...... , rircum,taI>cn "'"
worthy 'pproac"'" 1ft be>! >wi,e.!,
j wi'ooll' """logy, , ha, ,Ile .""",m,,"" ohl'l""'"'Ile, .nd ,he .ntrl"
in lho ,ummat)' rhalt In thi. < ... p<er .... ba.eJ on m)' ""judg"""'" I .......
M poll .00 00 .Jefln""." "",,,,,,,h exi ... , '0 """,,,,nr a """",n,", 00 ,Ile rl'l:lfar,
" ""IC .00 >!renplll. """ ... k ... ,,,,, of the d,ff", ", approoc""' . My ..... yses ",n ee'
)U" of peri""'" in .ppl)' inp .00 diffe" n' " ':>I ua' lOfI _,. ",
HopefUl ly. """" ", ill be =1'ul to ..... ....,... >nJ ",'alWitioo .. ud< nts at Ins, in "'"
fOfm of h)'poth<"" '0 .. test! .
I !Ia,'e m.inly Io<iI.ceJ at ,n. ._n., .. ",Iath'el)' d,>cre" '0 rood"", .... aI-
... ions. In reality. IIIore are """'y occa<ioR> iI " funct ion.1 '0 mi,.nd matrh
d,ffe",", A c .... ful """>'''' of ,och """,b;natorial appIko' ioo. M """Or
wooiJ prOOoce ""'ern approache, ,ha, mlEh' m"ri , e .. mina,ion. Tha, .... Iy,
,;. Ii beyoo.! "'" iOOf'I' of this chap"",
O"".U'" ,IU. <h'l"<f i, focuse<! 00 Ihe ..... of'he an In
",.1"",,011, it ooc<""')' "' .Ii""" ba.l .00 tncti=, .. ""ell .. [he
be" off.,..,., E.aluator,.nd ,holT elie,",.,.., some<i"..,. "' mpIN to.t\aJe, ",,,,,",'ely
",,,,,''', Of e,-.tl f:>l , ify find,"&, . Whil, 'lICh effort. migM 1_ ooond ,,'aJUa.
tioo . lIIoy ... aptl)' , ermed p, .. d ""al ... ion. if they f. iI to procIuc<.oo "'port to
al l .ndie""". , ... 01 """ .. "..,n" of """i , .nd ",.,..,h,
P",udoe,'. I ... iom olte o ..., "","..o, ed by pol i' ic.1 objecti,''''_ For PO' ><Jru
t.>lJing or "",<Lng . uthority ffilIy pre;en' claim> .bou, ,h. i, ""hie,'._
rne n!> .odIor the I. ult, 01 ' I><i, """"""nl>. or hide 1'0 .... ;.11)" inlorm>. _
'ion, These objec'ionabl. approocho, are p"""",,d boc."", ' ''y ,hroofh
,,-.J1a!ion .00 un "" u..o by tho in 1'''''''' to .. >load conSl i'""nl> or to pin
and m. intai n .... nf.i, "", , .. tag' 0'''' other>. e;pecially penoo> linle .,.,......-,
If " ', I"",,,,, acquo..,,, '0 :uwl , upport 1""1Jdo:",'aI."i,.". they promot, :md
""we<' injU>lic<. tkision mating_ ""'.,. ooofl<lenc< in ,,-.Juion "",ie<; .
.ru di",rl"dit ,I>< ",'.Iu"ion profmion,
.'pp......,h I , !'ubi'" ..... " .. '. 'n'p ..... S'ud'"
The ""blic ",llItiom 'ppro.><h ""gins in,,",i.., '0.'" d ... '0 llni"", "", _
>t i'""nl< ,hat. prog",m i. >ound and "rroc, i,'" Ot .. , lobel, f", the 'JN<h "'"
( ... ""'l'"""" Ju .. and inf""",,,,iaI.The
public ",lation. ' f'!'<oach .... y m",' ,o. <Undard for oil
:wd"""" Iru , fai l, ., , l<gi' imat, .""Iualion b"""u", t)l>i<.lIy it present>
, prng''"''', or an ""l'8ernted ,-i<w of them bu, "'" it! .-.ak"",,,,,-
The .,h.""" OIJIaniw i, ,I>< pfO!'>g,ndi"' , informatioa ne<d . The >lLKly".
pulp<>'" i, '0 holp 'h, J><O:IIr.om diTKIOfi""blic ",lati ... , offlCi.1 proj. ct ' COII" i",,_
ing. positi'" poblk imag< for program, The [!IIiding 'I.,,,' ion, ..-. .Jeri"ed from
the ""bli< ",Iatiom >pi.li" ... nd admini,,, .. ,,,,, "'''''''plion! of qu",'ioo,
consti'LI<"" woold fi oo ""'" In ,he ""bli< ",b.tion. study "",l;o
infonnatiOll ,ha, ,",oold ""'" help , n OIJIan ization <onfi ,m il> claims of .=11<1=
,nd !eC\I'" p<Jblic '.WM. From ,II< thi, ' ypo of study"""" not ",lid ....,..
""'nt 01 """it .nd .. onh ... , information '0 help th, f"'lFl" .... "pot its best foot
101 .. .-ard." Soch >tum.. .. 00 .... 01 find ing>,
T)p;oal "",,000:1, u>l"d in p<Jbli< ", lation, stud". are SUf"'Y' in.ppropri."
u>< 0( IlOCIIl> ,''''''so bia...J ",l<nion of t<>Iimoniili and ....root"" m.. .. of
obIai r>I i olormation, .. 11;", ",Ie..., of ... iy tto. poo.i' i, " "'porting central
t<ndeocy_ bu, not '''';'';00; OO'ff-lJP of .mblorno>ing iocide"", .. 0:1 , ho .'" of
""pon' ""0<>." r""",l ....... In <O<1II-.st '0 th< "rrilical frien<b" in A ....
traliaro poblic ",I>lion, itudl" u'" "lTierldl)' cri,ic<: A po"",i," rharne_
t";,,;., of,he pobl;" ",Iati"", ",aItaoor, us< ofJubio", onethodo; i bia..o . ",mpl
to n.it.", [IOOd pict ure for _rom. The fml H." 0( buil' _i n bi" to report
ml)' [IOOd th inE> orr",,, >ll )' , '; n"". of th i, approoch, If an Of.ni,>tion ,.b>!itu ' e,
bi.,.,.j reporting of only "",iti," f", b.abOC<d "'.I.,,iom of .00
.... i, >OOIl " jJl .Jemor.li", " '. Iu .. ",, :ore tr}';np '0 rund uc, .... report
".Iid ..-,I ... ion, .rId may discredi, it! """",]I Jlfocti of " '.I.,,ioo,
By dj'''''noting poo.i ti,-. infOfmat ion 00 prngram', po,lorm."""
information on . honroming. and "1'01.""" and rii"n" .... )'
mi,l<ad con>l i,u.n". and 0,1><, ,"""t.>lJm conc"rn ing ,to. _ram', tru,
,',h,._ The poibilily of .""h "", iti,', bi" ;n >d"",,,,,y ",'.Ilation> underli", tto. Ion _
poli')' of Coo,",""" Unioo not to ;ocl""" >d,'eni,i np by'" 0 ... """ of
the proJoct! :md "''''ices "" ing ",..1 uatNl in it. Co,,,,,,,,,, r "'1""" maE" in< , To !!Wn_
raj n creilibility .,ith coo"''''''''' C"",.'""" Unioo h2.. for the mo" p"". mai n_
uineO . " iodel"'oo.n' I""'JI'i," :lIld a <OOlmi'"",n' '0 i<l<n'ify :lIld "'port bolt.
:lIld .. .,.,. in , .. i!<m. ,,aJ .. teO :lIld noI '0 ,hi. i"for_
ma'"" with bi.o>ed ods. (An '''ep!ioo i, ,1Ia, ,II< ""'l'oWn< 'ohmi"" it< ,,,,,n wI'-
plemen'ary public .. "", :lIld """"'''''.,
A cootact wilh "" .<ban ,,,I>00I di5lOC' ill.str .... ,he publ", ",laI"". ' )"1'"
of uudy. A , upe,i n' o""""' "'Gu<"eJ rommuoily '.""y for hi, di'IT"''- The
_rilltffident .aid. ",,"ghlforwatdly. IlIaI ........ eJ SUI""1' th.n y", kI
f'O'i"w "'port "" , he di<lrict', I"'norm.""" """ 1eadenhip, He said ,"ch
I""iti,'< repo<! n , de'f"'_ly n<lod .. ,II< ,;"'" ' 0 ""'or< ,he ronfide"", of
,he communi' )' ,n , .. >00I dislTicl . 00 i" hi m. The '"f"'riDI<"""O' did noI
<1 ,II< ..... e)' """ I""iti," report. ,00 i, ""'" bec.me clear he ,,,,,,,,,h,
one ....... 00ed. s.,'=1 """'" ,ft", , .. req"'''. he n , summarily firerJ .
Anolher ,urn,*, occur=i .. .. n a lar< urn .. ><boo! dislTicl u>ed on< set of
n"ional 00,"" '0 inte'l"" """I" :lIld .noIher 00,"" table for til< I""It<",
The ",wi, ..,.. 'purioo, portroyal .00 rooclu,,,,, 'h'" ,II< "",,,,",,' "'"
perform."". had """"",;ally irnpro',od .. n !he fiT>! """ ...,000 Ie"
IIdmin i<!Tal;""'.
halu",,,,, neN '0 be <au';ou, in !he)' ",I"" ' 0 ,he publ'" ",laIions octil'i_
,ie< of their '!'OO"""- eli ..... and "'I"''''j>o<>. C<naI"ly. jllJbI", ",I",ion> doc"m<il"
",f"",,,,,, i"form.' ion from 10000 e.,.I ... ion>. hal""", ... >Iloukl pe"u>li< 'hei,
.ooie""", '" ma" hor>e>!"", of , .. " al ... ",, fiooi"" h.lu.,or> 'OOuki nor be
P""Y ' 0 rni...,... <>p;aJ ty ;n """" .rroneoo, report' ..-e i,""" tha' pre_
dicubty .. ill mislelld ",aden lO bel",,'e ,h., a """",I)' Ha ... eJ ;. eIf,i,, .
A, one .. " 'aJuaton <an pro""'" and help 'heir die .. , among, lO
indef"'ode n! """"",'aJ Oal"" <xami.., , he "'l'aniLll'''''''' .00 use of "":>1_
uallO" fiooin, prof"'iorW standarJ, fo<
Aw""",h 1, ..... ,,"'.U, C ..... "" .... S'ud'"
The poI.",.lIy COOIroibi ,rudy i, '" ,t\a, can be either ""r.",ible or iode_
f."' i .... A poli' icaJ ly eootrollerl . turI)' i. illk, ' if til< "-.Iu,,o< andIo< clie", (aJ "'i'h_
hoJ<l!he full.., of"'aJu",,oo from '>I),H,,,,,,, who ex(lR" . Ie illmale.
and legal riht> ' 0 see !he ,b) abro;laJe 'hei, prior .,.,' .""''''0' '0 full)' ofu-
eio ,"" ",aI ... ,ioo 0< (c) bias til< ,,.1"";00 """SO"" by ooly
pan of' h< I, i, not !<f i,; ..." for. 01,,", f'r>' ,o'f'" '" mak, !he fi nd-
i'W of. oommi"iooeJ "".Iu,,"" jllJbI "' I)' .""i!able and ' II<n. t\a" ioi ,""
"""II>. ' 0 release """" or CIlI)' (>lrt of the findi nF'. If and d" .. 0< """"-
at", "ioI_ , .. for"", 1 ..-ri",n "l're<men' 00 di>seminat,o or appI.,..1e
law. ,he" .... other pmy has riF"' ' 0 ..... appropri"" ""ioo Mlor ""'. OIl
admini<!Tali"e or le!IaJ re".,.]y.
et;..,,. """"';me> """ "'Fi'i""el)' cormn;"ioo <m,n ,,"die nd l eep !he find_
i'W pri""". awl""bI" law> .00 lO :ill 'F'I'fOpri"e ad,,,,,,,,
.. "''''"' ,he ",alu_. Thi. cOIl .. ,II< case ,n , he U.s. for "'l'''''i-
,,,,ioo. noI g<l"emeJ b), publ'" disci".",,, Ia .. >. Fu"hermof< . .., " 'al",,tor, u",l ..
IeJJ rontractu.1 "l'reement. <an plan. rooduct. and "'po<!.n .",Iwltion lor p,h ...
purpose,. "'" 'Oe '0 .ny """ide pony. The '.y '" ",.ping
client_rontroHed "OOie, in lep i' imate territory i, to reach 'ppropri.". 1e)lJ1)' <Iofen_
!ibIe. ad" >nr<. "l'""ment< and '0 adhere '0 !Ii< coo,rxtual pr<l"i!ioos >n-
f"inp ",Ie"", of the nudy', fll>li ng>_ S",h "OOi .. >ko Oa'" '" ronfonn to
appIkaille 11 .. , 011 ",lea!< 01 infonn.,ioo.
The ad,'''''' orpaJli,,,,, 10< a """rolled " ooy ioclude implklt or
.,pI'd, thre", f",,," oy the <lien, for , fI'O!'>'Tl ,,.mation Olldlor obj'i,''''' for
"'inninp poIit""l roo""., The dien" , ptJf!>O'" in """mi,.jooing wch. '(00)' "to
,",,"re ... i,,,,,,,,, in "'qui,ing. maintai ni ng. or infi ",oce. pow",. . ndlor
money_ The q_ions are tho.< 01 ,n",,,,,' to 'Oe 01""" and special PfOOP'
that share the dieo:', in"""'" and oj"". Til< ma,n q"""ions 0( in' ore" '0 'Il< d iem
..-. , Wlut is til< ' ru, h . ., h<>t <an be <letormined. '"IToo ndi np partirular dispu'e
or poli.ical 1I'hat ,oforma',on "'",,Id be ad""otag<ou' in a pulen'ial <on-
fl ict .i,uation' What d"" m;pht be uk"<! ad,-.... "l''''''',ly III <oo[,OOIatiOil" T)-pirnJ
method, ,tie politicaJl y rootrolled "oo y ;nclu<lo CO""" .. ion,.
si"",I",;'" >!lJdie>. pO, . ..., poll,. pO, . ..., inlotm .. ion fI .... and ..-Ie<1i,.. rdea!< 0(
G<nell.lly. ,he dien ........ informa'ion ,tI:I. i ... "",,";Cally ","nd ., po>_
si>le. Ho",'",,,.. Oe '" sloe =y ,,100 .,"'" '0 withhol<J fi nding' 'Oa' do not ,uPpul'
hi> Of he.- posi'ion. The of the .pproach is that " """""" tOe nton or m","1"_ the f,ndinS'. migb' ,1OIOIe pric.- agre<""nt '0 fully '""_
findi n!". or "iolalo a ')lobIk' , '0 ' now" Ilw. thi, ' ype 01 "OOy c,,"
in' o p><uOOe,.luat'oo.
A ,up<rin"ndent 01 one of ,he ... ioo', brj><SI f'oblk school di,trlrt> """" c0n-
fi ded ' hat he _""" "" e,"n,i,. 00<"""'" 01 detajied inlorma""" .bou, .. rh
school ;n his The inl",,,,,,' iOll ",b.led to "lIdon'
"""Il<, qualifJ<:>tiorts. IlIciaI ,,-,j, of teachers and "'-..age pe' _pupil e'pen_
di, u". "",,,,,,,,onomk d .. 13r"';",.., 0( the "OOen. body. " ",he.-. ,,""pe 01
"n"", io the and '" fonh. The data ",waled " .. .. e<J d,.<ri<,
" 'idl unHen di.tribotion 01 resou",,, ""d marledly difl.", nt ",hie",,,,,,,,, le\-cli
"""'" ,d,ools. When ... 0<1 " 'hy al l 'Il< oo<ebook', ,non.-. in pencil. til< ' "P<f_
in"ndent replied tha, i, ... as "",," "",Iy .,..".,iaI ,tI:I, he he pt inf"flnN aDou.
'Il< cu""n' .i,"""ion in .:och "hooI . bu, that it ... ., ai>o imp<IlI' i"e 'Oa' ,tie
rommuni' y_",_l "'l'e. the Doard. and >j> .. l '".""" groop' in the rommuni')'. "'"
"",'0 >oc"" to 'Il< informat,,," _ for ... y 01 thes< mip h! poi n' to 'Oe distrir1',
ineq""'" ... basis for prot'" and "'en "'"",,'in ,be , upe,i ntenden' . H,,,,,,,. roe
.,.,.,W :os,;., ..... ,he docume nt uf'-.o-da". only one ropy iSled . nd ,he '"P<' _
;n"nden' pt thai in his de-d, The point 01 ,hi, eu"'ple i, oot 10
'iI'ely ,I>< ,uperintenden" , heOa,ior. Ho..-.""", the superintendent ',
rO;'en ;,,.,.,igatioo and .. lecti,e ",Ie ... 0( inform .. ,,,,, ..... de<i<>Mly 001. r"", of
' rue e\aiualion. for "'hat he .. "01,,.0<1 '0 the . ud"' oces did 00< lully
:on<! hone"ly inlorm them .bou, the obS<,,'ed ,i ,u""", in the distnct. Thi, exomplo
.... )' appropriately'" "rmed p><tHio<ulu.uon o.c.u>< i, both unci<,infofl"N and
mi,informeJ 'Oe _ di,,,,,,'-, .,,"'hoIden.
Sti ll 'n<!Iher """1'1< ' ... ... n ",hen 1n ,,',Iu_ l"'" her
KUJd rro!'""" ""_.,. """" . both """flhs ond ,..,akn..."" of 1M 1aT_
g""'" jlfogram, The ,nl"",or ... ", r.,.,,1 and 00< ",eel; laler ' h,
"I<""," to '"" ",OIic ",-i<l m>ion only th, f"O!"3III',
-"" c-. iiI;< ...... undoubtNly l<d "' '"" fl<r.d ..... ...., sunsh ..........
the United S"",., Un"" curren' US, ond ,tat< f.....oom of i"formati"" I"""i-
siom. ....,., inform,""" obta,netI 'Itroogh the LI>< of ",blir f.nd, m.iI [., mad<
.,-ailablo to in"",t<d and pot<n'i'; ly affecled ci,i""" 'Oe" "iii "gal
de!'rr<nl> to aoo "mIi<, for illicil. politically ,,', I..,ions tnat u'"
jllJblir fuoo"
WOil< it ,.,-ould .,. wu-ealiilic to rerornmeoo ,hal ><fmini", "'"" .nd othe, ,,,,f_
uatioo usen not obtain ond ",Iecth..ty ,mpIoy informat'oo for poJj, ic2I gai n. .,'a\-
u,toc! sI>oui<l not 1<00 the i, """'" .00 e-ndor><meilll '0 "'aiuation, I",,,, ,,ed by
111<" ("h ..... that mL"'-'JR"'nt 'Oe full lei of "k","'t Ihat pr, .. n' bf,if><d
"""". ';mal at political CO"" ... , or 'na' , 'io[at, OflPlicabI< b" nd.'or
Jlfior formaf "l''''''"''''''' on ",Ie"", of f",di"g', Despjte tho .. it ran .,.
lor .,,1 .... 00; 10 pi'" p<i"'" ", .. I..,i", f<lb",' to d;' n". pro>'id<d they
cooform ... ith appIicaIlle I,,, .. "at" e> . 00 ond 00000 rool"",u.1 'g""' _
""',," on "Ie.o .. of fioo i"8'''' "".chi and honore-d ,
(Ill ""T" ,.,," ()' .. >:,. A' _un' ON

Qu<"iollllme thods--ori''''N program ,,',IlJ.llioo """,00<",,' II) addres. specif><d
'I"">lion,. to ",hich may or rna)' not he ,uffie",,,' 10 .. "",. program'. meril
and worth ' nd/or (2) ... ...,., ptof,rT<d melhod('l_ WOether the qu<>'ions ond
m<thodoiogr ... 'pprojlfi." for do\',k>pinf .00 '"ppoc1i"g , ..... dai"" i, """_
ondary ("on,iden,ioo, n..,.., . ""road ... , ifill)" .. 'Oelf poio" """ .. _
tionaf objectiv,,- standardized 01<:"""''''''''' de,'Lees, """,-analysi' procedure,_ exf""
. theay Of """"'f of program, "'" "ud)" p<o,,,"u,,",- mar ...
i"form",ion ')''''''''. for <ootroiled .nd/or on ",..,mdi "f rom_
mit .... o' 10 .ffIIlIol' mi" .re of qu>lilati,.., ond 'I""""""h.., ..... hods_ Moo;! empha-
, echnical q"",lity and posi' ,h., i, is LlSuai ly bet,., to ""'''''' "" i"'N
q",>lic.n. ,,<if tlwt 10 "tempt . broo<l ............ of merit ond ",'onh,
The", studies "'" .,. rall<d qu,.;..,,,.f .... "'" "00;'" bee, ... """"ti n." they
happen to pro>'ide "" ide"", Ihat fully "'''',., program', ""'''' .00 ,,'onh. ,,!tHe
in 01"", ("""'. thei r fOCll' is 100 nano'" Of is 001)' "nf.n,ial to <J1l'ltioo. of merit
ond worth_ Whil< lOe """",""he> "" I)pically labeled as ", .. I .. tions. they .... y or
may not """,,100 "'Iui""", n1> of. iOIJOO ", .. IUlllion, Slud", hav"
Iofilim." ."" ']WI from thei, "laIion>il ip '0 program e,-.lu,"011. lOey (":ill
... imponanl ":lITOW q",>l ion., The main "utio" i. 'nal the .. t)1""
of "ud", 001 he uncritk.lly "I",ted 10 " '. Iu,,,ic.n,
Approa<h J , .. "'"""' ... 8 ..... " .... ...
The objti, .. _ .. <1 ""y i, the ola>sk eumpl< of . qlJ<SlioosJm" l>o<h_oo.lUoo
,,'al'"'t"'" """""",t.. St"ffl,b<am anJ M",",", (1 '188) 1"'" idOO rompo-ehe<l,;,' , i0oi;
.. mi, "fI!l'O""t1 by an e<l ite.l ,' otum" of the ow.kal of R.ll'h
W. Tyler. In ttl .. """""",h, """" Slaten",", of objth .. , I"''''"'''' the .d"an "'1" -
nizer. The obj"ct"'"' may be mandaooo by tt>e , Iient. fo<m"I.1I by ttle "".1""0<.
or <pifieJ by ttle "",.,., 1"""""'" The ..... 1 PU<pO>< ohn objec""",_ba>eJ ",dy
i, '0 Jetem\i .. ttle fI"lI'J>/Il ', obje<!"''"'' ""-,' ,, "'n achie",' . Typioal -.1,_
<II('fi ate program Je,' "lop>. '1""''''''. and "'""'I!""..-ho to ttle . , teot
to ea<h ","00 ""jOct"" .. ",hie", .
The methods "eJ SI .. ie, ,,"""'ially io"ol\'" OP<' _
.. iooaI obj<cti"" .00 ooIl, iog and "".Iyzi"l' pert,", nt ioform .. ion to de .... m ...
how ",ell each objecti" w .. """""-..I. A wiJe flIIlg< of objecti '" and perfon,,""""
..,.,"""""" tru.)' .. , mf>ktyeJ. Cri,..-,oo ref, reoceJ "'IS "'" """"all y releu .. to
thI, ",aluatioo approach.
R.tII'h Tyler i, gen<flllly '" .. ,he i. the ""J1,,',,-h;eJ
')'pe of .. uJy, P,,"'y and E. L Thorndi,,, >hoo iJ _ be cral_
ileO (Tr, -"",,. Maoy _ " !Ia, .. furthe, ,," Ty"rs .. ""n.t """"ibotion by
,''';aI.,., of N. "\'III . .. .,., model. The", ioc lLl<le Bloom " aI. ( 19S6).
H:tmmonJ Metres"" anJ MIOIlaeI (1\167). Poptwn (1%9), Pro,'", (1971),
and Ste in""", (1983).
The objec1 im.-b.a...J " ,,!,,<,ally ' ppl"'''''' in -.,;.-.i"l' tipJ1t1y focu","
proj<c'" t h .. ""-,., , ul'P"rtabl, obj,i,'",- Ewn ttlen. 'LlCh >t ud", <an ..
by Jooginp proJt obje<!;,'e< apal .... the , nl<oooo be "fio, .. i, ' ....,.,.,.j
for >ide ,rr", ... and ",oo)' lnp ,he pro" .. .. ttle 0111<0 ..... .
The obj<cti."s-b.ased >I ud )' "", """" the roost pI''''''''", .pprooo<h In ,",' aI _
... ion. It has rommoo""n .. _ai, po"!!""' .dm,lUs,r.!"" "",'. had. S"''' .mount
of exl"'ri"""" it: and it m.le, US< of ' ectwlol,,!,ie, of t.ehavio"'l ""J1"'''' ..-.l
Oot h oonn_ref.reoc,," and oriterion ",fere"",," "'''lOp . Common critld.m, .... ttl ..
<octi "udie, lead to term,nal ,nform., ion th>t i, of li" " "'" in irnpro" inp 0 pros",m
or orher . nter",i .. , Ih>. t the informot ion ofte n i. far too to <oo Sl" on. , ,"f_
fi <",ot .... i, for j udp ing the obj<ct' , meri, ,nd ..-orth, that ttle "udi." 00 001 "oc",'",
posit,, .00 "'F"'''', >ide ,IT", and th .. they may OrN" "n .. _ y objOCti.,
A .......... h . ' A,,,,,,,n'. b1ttl,. t, ... , n .. n, R,- ......... St .... ...
The OITOIIn ..... ,ity ""y became promine nt in the ,arly 19'1Os. It boo" ",
of "ide,!"".d <li "",,"""'mem .. ittl the pe"i,,,,", ""'.., of ""alUalH>n .. port. indi_
th" _ oooe of th< ....... , . ",ai, and federal '0' ... """'" ,n ,,<loc'tlo",1
and soc .. 1 progrun rnald np any "",it"" . ""iSl",ally d'>Cemabl, J, (fer.oc".
One pro!","'" ><>l ution "",i1l ,l\at OITOIIo ..... lity 1)" '"'''' ooold be ini" .. eJ to
,,","re bottl tho.! ,,""'. JI"O' ....... woo].J f"lml the ir ",,,,,,,,, ibil"'" to i"""o"" .....
""",, and thai " ... hlaton " 'ooiJ find the prog, ...... . ffects and d"erm, ""
1"'''''''' ..-.l , oc<<<<l tnp an.J nor .
.., 'Prop_ .......... Aa .... _' __
The "' .. n organi", .. for ,b< oocoo n' ''''ili' y study "'" ,II< pe""'" . 00
g'oo!,< ",_ibie for p<ooocinS """I", !he "'",'ko p''('''iders' wert ,ospoll>i!.l i" ...
00 !he o,'J><dI oo' coo", . The "udy'. )1m!""" ...., '0 p"",ide <oo"ituoo"
... ",,<ur,te lICCOOn'i ns of """I", 0"'""'. thooSh _ ing . kin '0 'otim .... ioo.
,h>., ,II< ""un. "'" primarily anO p,o!""n' spon>iI:ol it y for Jl""'I anO bod
00"'00"'. Some!i""" >CrotJ n"b,lny pros"''''' admim"", >anc,ions '" ,II< .....,.,..,.;_
bIe ..... k, p"",k\el< . .JepeoOing '"' ,I>< ,." , .. ..-.l q .. li,)' of !heir ...... ,k" .00
ach",,ment
M"",m.br lny que"lO", roo .. from ,b< pros",m", OOII"i'""n" and ron' roHo ....
""'" '" "'",,)''''' P""' nt g.....,.: _ boaRJ,;,.oo local. ,,:>Ie . ..-.l "" .... 1 fuoOing
o'lpni Zll"""' . Thei, nwo queSlioo <o""",n, ..-hetb<, '''''h in,IveJ set"i p<""ide,
.00 """"i,-"IOO olla/pal with "'>pOIISibilit)' for deliveri ng ..-.l .""k ..
i. <>nyi ng 00' its .. <isnIDem, :uxl ",hie"i ng :.II n moold. "'" ,I>< resooro
inVcled '0 , u!'POf1 u", wm.
'" '-:U"')' of metllod, 110,, bn useJ '0 'IIS. ..-.l ,""e" ",,<oum.b, l"y.
n..", iocloo. perforfl\;lOC, oootr:><'inS: Prog .. m Pt.nning .00 Bud,"ng Sy",m,
(PPBS): .\10"'8<"",0( by Obl""il-'" (MBO): 7= Bosed Boo8'-"ing: n,..-.l" ed
"program .iri .... ..-.l ioOko,or:;: I""!'ram inl'" t oo'PO' d"'at "" ind<_
pe"""" go:.J och""eme n' "..t""", pro-<lullll <ompHa""" .udit>, 1""" "" ...
meri, p;1y for ,ndi,'Wab lIDdIor "'g .. i""ioo>: roIle<t,,'e bargaining
lIWI<la,ed ""'ins insti,",ioo.ol report o..-.hJprof' I'" self"LJdi<" .iI, "WIs
by expert panels: and p<ochr .. " for . uJi' ing , '" fI"<'C"' . ..-.l r<S<J tl, of .. If_
" ooi ... AI", , ,,,,IOOed "'" mandated goo!> and sundard,. de<entr,li""joo,oo <lI .. ful
def,nnlOO of ",_ibiU, y :uxl ,",hori,y. p;1)'0 .... by fewl". ,,\<1 re<ogIl i_
tI'"'. , .... ,,,",,,,, taI",,,,',,,/in' e",,"' ion ""'hom)' by o"..-:;igh' bodie, . oo compe' i,iv,
biJJing.
(l970i io g<"I"'mlly ""kno ... as pione<r in !be "",. of ,",coon'_
nil!)' . Am,oog , 00.. ..-100 10>.,., ,,,,nded work .., Sten""" .. 00 W,bs""
in U"''' de"'loprllffi' of. II:ondbooI; for rooooc'ins auditi ng "",,,i,ie<. :>nd
K.arr.ey. in 1""'iJ,ng to !be .\ Ikhig"" Deportmen' of EJIIClIIioo in .10"01_
opi"l' ,I>< fi r" "", ..-ide edoc,""m,1 accoo n",bH,1)' ' yst,m. Kir" (1990) anaIrLi ,he
hi"",}, :>nd di,<f'<i' y of,trempl' lit ",,,,,,,, ... bil"y in eduo",i"" ... i' hin ,he follow_
broad ')'1"" of """,,"tability: ""rf",IWIDC< ..-..l <001_
pliaoco ,wo.larrl> 0< regulation,. i"""" i .. 'Y"em<. reilance on ,b< maric" .
<h>.nging loeUl of ou' OOt i'y 0< romrol of hooIs, :lI>d c"""ginS prof=ioo..1.l roles.
A rec,n' .... jo< .tremp< lit ac"",,"ClbiI"y. in,oI"ing >.>OC'''''''. ... the K, n,"", y
I",,,,","onal Re",'" Informat, on S),""m (KoteI, & B=on. 1998). Thio _".,,',
f .. lur, """ <10...-1)' ....,.,iated f .. , pace imple"",n'ation in "'-once of ,' >! ida_
tloo. reporting and I .. "" re!flIC'ioo off!>w," ",sui". ""'"" du, were "'" compara_
ble '0 , 00.. in ",he, ""' ''. pa)',,,,,,, by ",,,,Its ,IIa, fost ered " ,",hing '0 "''', ..-.l
othe, <hearins in s<hooIs .00 I><,,'y "pen", .. <OCIl"ed v.-i'h perfo, m,n,e '""""' _
me n" ,1Ia, rooiJ "'" be ,.".ioed a.-..r time.
M<oo n' '''' ility "",""",,1><, are "WI",- to orga>liLatioo. ,,00 prof'''OonaI, f" "",,d
,,00 to em)' 00' publk mandat . .Jeli,", public "''''i, . ..-.l im,,",men'
""",;'11)" I. nde.! projlram, . II beOOo,'" (tie .. projlralll 1eaJ<r. (0 " .. ,fItlI n a ./ynamk
.... Ii"" of infOf,,",(ion n<IJ (0 demorulIllle lulfillm,, " of ",..,.,...i"li"es .00
""" ",'emen( of pOOIi'" "'''''I''_"Il>e)' >hook! loc u. ",<ountaDll i ()' """twli.m, espe-
ciall)' on e"'"","'" (hal <an be (fie prospect of illl("O"inp
00""'""'_ The)' iboold >10:1 loc,", ",coonubill(y (0 "nlla""e ",11 <oop<'''ion (o,",,,,d
II<h",'e""," of ooIle<!i", pool' ra(her than (0 in"mida", '" .. imul:> roon(e,pro-
due",'e rompeli(i"". Mo,,,,,,, ... oocoon"",Ii(y "00'" (haO Nmpare p"'!',.m. r.hoolJ
I .. ron,ide, [be I""I'W"" ronl"''' _ "...,.,oall)" be""flCl"''''' <IIa,,,,,(e,i,,ks .00
"""'"'. local '.PI""'- .. .. 1abIe :irK! ",,,maI I""",.
The mal n aJ ... "upe> of "''''''' ..... Iil)' .. .u... are thai (tie), are I"'I'"lar .monp
conSli(""m p,oop< aOO poIitki,,,, and .re aimed '" impro"inp (>Ublic "''''''''_ The)'
can .1>" p<m'iJe l'f'OI'J. m _I wit h rlear e'p'ation, "l'.in" which to plan_
e,,,,,u,,,. aOO report on <he" "",'ic", .00 roolfi"""",,, . The)' c:>n be .les ipoeJ to
!'''' "''' "'" pro,ide" (0 illllO""e on I"oc""u"" <ooplN i( h rlear "poc_
""10M .00 requi",men" for prod oconp .00 00 acrompll"'"","' . F.rthe,.
,",nl np up tIe,I"'),. I,i, rompe<i(ion romparable projl",n" can ",,,,It in
be"", ,"",' 0= .00 prod uc" lor ron>Umers.
A "",in di....t ... III>.p" i, thai acroulllllblli'y """"'. ol"'n ""ul( in inl'k!iou, 0011\ _
p:lli"", .oo thereby prod""" unhealt h)' oornpetition aOO much poI it"''' unre".oo
",rimoo), ,",,,,ice 1"'" ....... anJ (hem .00 (hei, co","' ... n"_ Also.
",<aunlabili ' y ,1M"" loc., too =rov.ly OIl ool<ome iOOica(or, .00 can
u""",irobi)" rwrow tile ranp" 01 AIlOIhe, di...J'''''''l'e i, (hat poIi(ic;'n.
"'00 (0 lorce "'" imple"",n",(ion ofa<coon","lI(y eff"". befo<e tile ,",Ned 'lI>(ru_
.",n". >COrinp nrbrk . """"'" ".imnp. <'l<. can be plan oed. ole",1oped. r"W_te'tN_
onJ '1I1idoted. Furttlermor-e. P""f"'ili lor "''''arili aOO t""a" of (>Un"hme n( ha,'e
oIlen Ial "<'lie< I"""ide" (0 ctle .. In ",der (0 .. ,.'" posi(i,.., ",.1 .... I0Il ,eport . In
school<. che .. inp to obtain ""lid sane(ion, tIai I'juentl y bloJ
bad p. (.'00'"'" in leader>hip. anJ >baOOonment oflll< oc""" ... bl ln),
'y>t"'""
Approoclo S, ObJ<,<'h. T .. nftl ....... m.
Si"", (fie I9JOi. A""""an eJoc"'ooo tIai be<n in.OOat"" " 'illl .uoo.r.Jiz.ed. mulD_
pi" rI>oico. norm_",le,enceJ ""';"l' projllllil"- Phnobly ev"'Y school di",k( in III<
"""n(ry "'" ""'" ,ueh projlli1lJn. The .,, " ill< a<lmJn ",ereJ ......... Iy by Ioc>.J "'.-
Jj,trict, .ndlOf ""'. eJoc>tion olep''''''''''''' '0 inform """",, ... paren ... aloe .. "" .
.00 "'" p<J11'" .. 1",[,< obour (he 01 ch ildren aOO yooth, The p<J1J'OS'"
of ""(ing are ,,, ...,,'" the ",hi",'e""n" of It-.!"Wual ,fIkle"", aoo grouP' of ,," _
ole"", rornpareJ (0 no,m, .ndI", .1lUld:.rd,_ T)pkally. te,," "'" a<l mini .. e<eJ to lIil
.. uole"", in "''''''('''' gta<le ,,'-e!<. 8er:wse the "'" ""ul .. locu, 00 "odent 00"""""
.00 at< ron ....... ""ly av.ilable. man)" aloc."", ha,'e trial '0 "'" Iho .... ul .. (0 ",a!-
u, .. tbe qWlli(), ofopocl>.1 protect> onJ .pedfLr school projlfilill' by inle"inp (IIat
hiph """'" ",1lK( """""Iul effort oo loll' score; ",ne<IOOI ell"",. Inl",_
"""'" can be if Iho "''', "'''''' "'" "''l!eieJ OIl ... proje '" projl"m
obj<cti,'''' or .... n oIp'rli, "I .. o","den" and iisl1,"<n'" back_
o"""",,,,ri>li<> .... "'" .. len into ",,,,,,nl.
Ad,''''''' ... iz<r< fo< .... ndard ize;i Noc>tional ""IS include "n",. 01 the ><1>001
ouml norm proup>. The projIrnlu'
main purp<<. "'" 10 rompar< .... "' .. penorm."". of ioo:li ,idu.1 "ude ..... and
group. of .. tlden" 10 those 01 .. IeeIN norm groop. ,ndior '0 d .. soooe shonlall.
",Iated ' 0 !,," ieular objecti""'" S,.oo.ru;,od "" ""ul" are 01", ol"n u;od ' 0
"""par' , he penorm."", 01 projIrnm> """ schools and '0 <umi"" ",iii<>=-
""""" ""roM )'u .... Met""'""" 10 the """1"';>011. t),"".II)' '''' "and:trtiized
;ooi"jdual and """n """" lor , he ,0IaI , .. , and >Irol"'''- The 000""" 01 ""I que>_
"om :ore """lIy "''' publi,he,. .00:1 ",,' de"el<ll"""n"",lecti"" rommin..,..
The typical q,","ion oddr",ed by i. , he "" I"'normarte< 01 indi_
"i<! tul "OOen" i, '" or .... "w"!'e ""nOfm:tI> of ""aI ..... e. and rutionol
oorm Other q",,"ion. may roncOfn t .. of "uden" who ,",_
pa>sed ooe or more cut_>COr< .. :tn<Lrtls. whore tl>e [tl"oup 01 ,,"de n" r.tIlb c0m-
pared '0 or"r and whe t .. r ",h;""ment i. be",," ,lun i" prior )"""'. The
mai n prOCfi. i> '0 ",leeI. odmin;,,,,,. """ . int"P"''-:tJld rq>Of1lhe ......
Li ndqui .. (195 II. nujor ptooe<r in !hi. area. "'''' i n5lni,"",ntal in t ..
Iowa "'''ins prog"'Iru ..... A"",ri",n T'''ing the Natioo.al M.rit
ScItoI=hip T'''"'g and the Ge,.,mi Edocatioo.1 De,do!,"",nl
os .. ,he M .. ,u","",n' R"",.rch C,nl .. , he Un;'.,.,ity of Iowa,
M:tIl), irwJi , jduai. tta", ""ntri ... "u ",D.1:,oti.II)' to t" de,.k.prne" of Noc .. ional
" >l int in A"",ric,,- Ehol (11l6.'i). A"""l'''' '1939). Lord and NO"jd (19681.
and Thoroo:like (1971), Inoo,"'ion. '0 , .. in the 19'.1(\; indude the
of itom respoo .. 'Ol')' lH.mblo"", '" Swami""...,. and "ai",,-addO<i ""':t-
,u""",nt Horn. 199-/; 11''''',,,. 1995).
If . ochooI' , """""""I oarefu ll), ",lee, te", :tnd u'" lhem 'JlIIropri.tel), 10 """' ..
.00 improw "ud<n' .00 "''''''' ' 0 the public. the ,n"o!\'ed "I"-"''''
.00:1 offO<! i. highl), j u"ifi], Slude nt ooloolTl< m,,.our .. for judgi ng 'JI<Cif" pro-
j" .00:1 pro:If"'"" mu" he ,.Iid.at.o in to"", of tbe !"" kul..- oojecti,'" .00:1 the
,o"""'te,i"i" .nd r><ffi, of I .. ,,"den" "''''od Dy , he projIr"", . H"","' ....... ".
shou ld 001 be " lied 00 exc] ",iwly for "'aI ",,',ng 'J>'C"'I)' tt'l"'.o proj" >fld
progrll"". Rowl" should be inl"'J'Rted in light of other informal"'" Of! " uden'
,twxten"ioo_ progrom impl< ......... lion. "udenl par1idpotioo . 00:1 other ouloomo
'T.,.,,,,,,,.
The main ,"""'''l'''' 01 .. :tndardized-"'''i''F pro:IffllD1S "'" to" , hey are effi ,;'n'
in ,..lid :tIid ",Iiobl< infonnation on .wden' ""nor""",,, in nun)' """,.
of the ",ttoo( curric ulum and tlut they are 1 forni li..- at "'"<I)' Jeo,'l"I of tho
",ttoo( JIfO!I",m in "i",,",II)' all octtoo( " i .. rie<. In ltoe United Sill' ... The main lim-
itot' on. ace tit" they pro"ide d.ta only .oou, "uu. nt """"""",, they reinforce 'w_
den'" mul' ipie-choic. beha,'ior r"", ,ha .. ,"i, and 'l'":tking
o.ha,oo, the)' .. 00:1 10 1Ildr= ooIy ]o.,er-tJe.r Ioaming obj'i," " .nd. in man)'
' ...... they "'" perIIap> belief indie""" of lIIo "",io<-cooomie of lhe "uden"
in 1 JIfO!I"'m_ ",boo!. or ",_I di"nct than of ,he qLl>li'y of and
S .... e (19711 and othe .. .. effec'i',l), , h .. st,,,,d,,,diHd """ often
ore I""" 'l'P"', imation, 0{ .. , "",hen >c' ""lIy "oc h. Moreo"<r . .. "'" been
pat,," I)' cl< .. in ",oIu .. "", 0{ Jl<O!Ir>mS for bolh di.,.h''''1ed .00 <too.o".
nOfm_ref"",,,,,ed "'''' of"'n do oot ...... 01" ochie;" .... n" for lo<>' and lugh
<tudent<. Unfortu,,"tely. Jl<O!Ir>rn """Iu>l"" ofi,," .. made uncri,ic. 1 us<
of st,,,,d.rni,ed tes, ",wi" to iud, Jl<O!Iram' , oo t"""",. i u" bee,,,,,, 'Oe "",I"
""'''' """ '<nielltl)' "'aibble :iJld t.a.l f>c. "aiiillty f<>r ' Oe p<Jiijic. Of' . n. the coote n!>
of ,och test> do oot m,"ch ' f>< projITOl", ', obj' i"" s,
0.." .... _ >: , . , ... , .... . " \"., ... _.,"" ... . ' ........ n'
R u""n' o,"co"l<A .. Iuo-Jed ... e' ..... o' is special case of the us< 0( <tao_
cbrdj,ed to o,"".ate "'" elf" 0( programs .00 poIic;' . The empha>is is
ofi"n on . nn",,1 ""' in8 .. all Of """"""00 of leY,,", to .. ..,. ""ods and
pani,1 0.' "ff" 0( the diff"re"' cOOlJlOO"n" 0( an edoc .. ion ,)'stem. i""lodin,
0{ ,oo,,'wal, and iooi,'idual "och,,,,. Charac"'n<'ic of' hi. ,W'"",h
is ,he . "nu, 1 rol.,..,ion of oo!Come me:ure, based on ... ndardiHd iooimt"". :>n.aJy_
m to de!ennine what ,.,Jue i, addeJ to 'h' >crue ... men" of studen" ",,,-..I
b), panicul" romponen" 01 ,he ,,oJ ..,;'" , ),. tem. and reportin, o(!he """I,, for
poIicj'. "",ountabili'y. and p<JlJ'O'-'s. 11>< main inte"''' i, in
not perform,nce ofindil id.ai stiJ<lon". A . 1ate educatlOfl d'pwI"",n' mal' """ually
coIlec, ochieYe"",n' d>IlI from all "ude n" {ot. ".,'''',."'" ofpad< k,,,is) ... i, tf><
cas< in ,he T"""""", Vai",, _Atlded At><>tmef\t System. The .,-,1"",01' ma), on.aI)ze
!he d, .. to look a' ""ulls f<>r diff,,,,n' school., R".I" ""')' be further
brok"" oot '0 mal, coolfWi""" bet .. """ currkul" . ,'".s. teoche". "lementary
,.""" mOl;' school . lize arwJ """"'" d""if", .. "", 0{ ,,,1I00I,. ui"ric". and are ..
of. !Ute, What diff"re nti.,,, ,he .pproach from ' f>< ' )'I,k. 1 ,tarldardiHd
meot .. <tins i. 'f>< ,mphoslS on iOpIl ,,,kote:J anal),';, ofdaul ' 0 "",i:d 0"'
"ff..,,, of system Nrnp<>ll<o" and ide ntify ones ihoold be imp-me:J arwJ
... hkh ones <hooid be """"",oded and " i"forced. Otherwi ... , fIe '''0 approaches
.. ,.< moch in """"""'.
Ad,'''''''' "',lUIr=> in oo trome " 'al",,,ion . nd , ,I",, added
or< i"ukat"" of in!eoded ",, !Come, and "'Oe"", for ond
>COle. in order to "urni", polk)' i5sue-t .nd/or I""I'J'ffi ,If'''''', The POIJ'O'-" of
oo trome ", .. .,,,.,nt sy>tems III< to pro,ide dire<1ion for
polk)mal; inF. "",oonubility to ron" i' "en", arwJ feedba.ck for i"'l'"o"ing
.00 "',,""s, The _oorh >I", '''''''''' SIlmdardiz;ttion of do .. for ........... t and
impro""""o, throoghoot , 'y'W'l n., ""'I<"< of que<t"'"s to be oddre>><d b),
00"0lIl< enl""'"," from 't"".,;.,. fu ndi ng "".ni,";"",.
poIicymalen;, !he s)''*''''' ' ,nO ron""""o".
One fOf m 01 ""teo"", "'ai"",;oo i"'oh .. , ':d",,-Jed """"""lit. whkh Iw beffi
d,o,-.Ioped b), Sand", and Hom (199-11' Web:,,,,, (1'195), W<b<t<r. M,ndro. arwJ
(199-1): , "d T ymm' (1995). 1I1u'lmi,', que,,",,", :ddr<..eO in this form of
",..Iu.,ion ore, To .. "'ent ore p,rl ic "l., Jl<O!IrlUn> "aiL>< to st oo"n,'
ochi"'omeo,,' What are "'" c ...... y= trend. in oo!rome," 10 what "",lOCI of , he
'Y"'"' '' "'" ",O!'"m be" .00 poore"'> Wh .. "'" koJ'. pen,.,;,. """"fal l,
in I"'"kul..- fII'OjIr.m obj1 iv .. that requi", fu nlle, "ooy and . ", ntioo' To '''I\0I0
"1O"t "'" ptOjl"'" ""'cess and failure, associo:.t<d "'" ,y""m',
of ""'<Is' OulCOOle iIlmll i"l' .. ..,...... i. probabI)-
moo;! , _i"", in ""e edoc .. "" departme .. , and btFe
Ji",,,,,, where there i. "'pport from poIky g""'!,< . ..:Imini"raton. .nd
>en'"" """'>de,, '0 """, "'" ._h It "'Gui",. buy_in:
fIOIiti<al ly <If<<, i,, I"ader> to {'OIltonually expbin and >ell ttle ptOjlfl.n" >Mlal
.. , """"""'" of SIOCdhly operating. J )'IWllk. computerized ba><-
li ... or",lel-""t input and output inform",on: highly "'ilk>.! te<: hn"''''' to n""e i,
ru n ,ffod"mly and >our.tely: a po"'erful conlputer ')'-..: rompI",ared """,icaI
""'"y';" ,nd Iligl>-le"<1 rommi'"" nt '0 u'" "'" """It, for PU'P'''''' 01' poIi,y
rl<,elop<n<". o<cououbtlity. ptOjlmm eI1ll .... ""'. and im"",,,,",,,,,, .. :>II "" ...
01'''''' .)'S"'m.
The ""n",,1 of ""'oom,,, iOl-olI' i"l' '-aiLl<_..J.l<J """""",nt
i. in <he ,y""n"'ti""'ion .00 in"ilUtiOO>.li1.1!;"'" 01' . d>. ,;ba", of oot,om,. """
be use<! m'e< time and in ..... nJanlized .... y to "udy and Fond m'''[[I' '0 im"",,"
001<00,., . n", ..,.,...,..,h ........ mc " nt "'" 01' otand:ord iHd .",>: " "",.nobIe to
analyst. of trenJ, '" ""'e. dimkt_ ocI>oo:>I. and ol ... room ;'I'<!<, uses "url<nts .. 'lI<i,
"Y'n """""" and on-a<i= .""",, '0 "'-<t)' ,,00.0'- The lIl'" i, 000 _
dU<I"e to ,,:>nd.uti oI'COOtlnuoo, progres> """"" .... fo, ""e<)' "..., .. , ..
""""""" to "",k cut ocote<. The Wter . ..-h,1e p",,al ... in oroJUntabili ' y
baslcaIly fai l '0 ut, in'o 001101 me.nlngful gai ... try low Of higll ocluel-_
ing "oo. n1<_ , ioc< , och ti<wll)' "'" far "'100'-..1 f, om the <UtIc. OUI ><Ore sun-
d>.ro;. and Horn (199-1) 1,', ,ho",n til .. US< of"",,, ,ut =<h m.), proJ u<,<
" ">lied p;rt","-" in " hk h "ude n" "he beg ... be"",' ,he , ut ""'" mal, til<
gain, 11>0>< ,,00 ,uned aim" "'" ,u, ""'" """<i:ord "'''/;0 litlle
pto!f"'''- Ut, "'" slope. from I.fi '0 of. tool >lied. the [I"i'" are
fOf .,..' "00e0" and _",il'o1)' fOf <he Iligher
achi<v<. Thio th>t te><hen ... ,,,,,,,, ntrJti"g maiN)' on """nts
'0 the ,"t oro itandard bUl "'" beyond i, :ond Ill ... \oao, ,lie Iligll
acIliel ...... "
A m.jor 01' ,lie 1". ILI<_oddeJ .pproaoh i, ,I\>., iI i. poIitk>J ly I-oj .. ile .
inc. i, i. U,;etl to ,<I<"tif)' ",,,,,,,,,iI>iIM)' fOf """"""".00 failure> doon '0 til< level>
of_ and It i, >I>olle"" ily .. Ioant 00 q"""'illl. th-,, informatioo '""" ..
!hot <00>108 from "and",dized. mlll' iple-choi.ce achie"emen< "''',. Coo"'l""nti)'. the
oompiex and powerful ""'")',",' are Oasal on lima ed scope of oo"orne ... ri:>ble .
N .. Sa!wlen (1989) I>lo "]!ued tha, . bod)' of<l'Odeoc< . upport. tbe
u.. of ,t:.r>:h,Jized_ mu I,i ach""-"",,o' t..... 11<),,00 the
....., 01'0000\0 measures. the. "I'f'I'O"Ch does "'" !W"ide in--Jept!1 <lD"",""""",;.".,
of ptOjlf:>lll inl'"" and pox .. ,.. .nd " ..... if an)' use of qualo"",,. methods_
De>pi'" :oJ,'"""""""" '0 objec'i," me>,""' rn<nI .nd ,he ""J>!oY""'" of hiefll.",h,_
c.1 mi,ed model, 10 def""'ibl)' 1'"",, 1 "ut .ff",,, of> '-..', com-
ponen".nd indi,iduaJ " ,",f m' mbers. i,,,,, of til< approoch "'1''''' ,hat ",u",1 focton
... so rornJ>le. [h'" no me ...... o"'ot .00 ami)"", 'f".m <at[ ru
ity to (tle Imi of teoct..n for ttle ""..!em" P""!'''''' of ind"' iJ uai and <01""("",,
of "uden",
'>PP"""'" " 1' . <1..,.' . , .... T .. Un.
In tl>< 1910< m.j" efforo mad< (0 offset the limo"""" of t)pk.1 multiple-
chooc< Ie>(,; by .mpIofi"l' petform.""" 0< authefl ti< ",""""re,. 'The>< de"""" fjUire
"oo.n" (0 demon""", arhle,,,,,,,,,,,, by "utilen(k "''1'"'''''' (0
., __ "'" tasl;<. .och .. wri((e" 0< 'PO<"" mu<k,1 Of 1")'0_'" pre-
sentaOOrn. portfol"'" of ,,Oft !"'>'Iocu. Of soI,n""" (0 defLn! probioIm,
Argu"","" for ""nomt.nc ..... , are '""t they f"", I-.J idity and model
and r<l nfOf'" "OOeots' rlO<ded lif. !iJD>. After al l. >lOOe n1>.., not .... so
tIIaO they will do well in b<SI from ... Ou( so th'" tIl<)' " in
'"""or underlying und< .. and sI;iIo and 'ffMi "'I)' appI)' them in real lif
i(WIlions.
The ><I"an organi",,, in penOfm.nc". """""""" are lif ... "'iII ""j<CIi"" and
ront< .. _relat,," pe,form.nc. ta>I;s, plus n)', that (tle" acIIk,',m<lu c .. be demon_
",.ted in pca;':', The nuin purpose of penormaoce ta"', i, to rornpote ttle pet_
form."". of indt,idua! 5IOOen" .nd groups of "oo. n" (0 ...00,,1 ""rlOfmanc< 00
til< ,""" . Grld<s ,";gn! (0 ..,h ",sp.>nde"", perl"",","", . u,i nF set rubrics . nab'"
.... """"'( of the qual"y of ><Irk","",n" represe"'''" and <npari""" """'"

The of q"""ions a.J.mO<d b), pe,for""",, ......... onaI)' .... of .. Iect,,"
life-sl ill ta>ki and ronten( 'pedfoc"'ioo, in curricular m",eriaI . The t)'po<3I ==--
me nt quesuon' rooc<m "tle(tler ,ndi>i<ID.1 " 00.",, ,"n effect,,,ly wri ... 'pe"".
fip'"", .... 1)''''. lead ,....,..,,"",<ly. and ""'" Fi>'<11 f<Oble"" up to til< ",,'el
0( """'1"'"''' The ma,n ""inp pro.."" i. 10 define ..... , of slJil> 10 be
............ r!: >elect the ()"" of""""""",,, de>.';':': roIIm,, the .... ...- """': 0..",_
mine Nbric" dofine sundanl, for ""rfOl1n.l.oce: ""in and ""Ii ......
" ,,,, .. ,, I-.t ..... til< "",,,",,,,,,,,nd . dmioi ... , . soc<o. i ... '1""'. and "'[>00 til< """lis.
In of " ,", Flemer (1910) <>111 fOf (.,,. that ."",rtai n "u_
<lont, """"K-.J 10 """",..roll)' ooofroo( and rroO"n" in rooc,e\e
Some of the poooeer> in appI)' inp performance ,..,.,,..,..,nI 10"'" """,,>1'00 'l'''''''''
we.-e ,1>< ... ", <die",,,,,, 0.."",,,,,,",, inV"m>oot.nd Ken(""k), (Ken(""ky Ilepart_
menl of &local""'. 199]: Koretz. 1986. 19%: K"""z & 8l11TOO. I99S) . Other SOUfUS
ofinformalioo ,boot the and;..u., '" pe,fonnan<e ", .. incloo.
B:>l ... O' Neil. and UM (1993): Her""", . o.arhan. and Bat L,nn. BaRr.
and Dunbar Mehrens (1972): Me<Sid (19'J.Ir. Slillmln ReFan,
Pililbh, Smith, O'DonneIl.,nd POOl (1991): Norm," . and UM (I99S):
Torrar> (1993): and
It i, often diflkult 10 ..ubii'" the """''''''')' roodi(""" to employ til<
re,form."". ._h. I( ""l ui"" , hupe ootl>.y of Ii"", .nd J'O>OUf' for
de>".""' t and appIkalioo. T)-pkally. " ... oJ "",."", o..!"""",,,,, and _
districts sIlooJJ f"'ObOOly use <his approach I''''Y ><I<ruwly aOO only ,,'he" they
.. 1 . ....... _ ",." ,.., ,_, ...
can "\al, ttle i""e>(me ll( l",edeJ 10 I"odoc, ,-.... ",," II> 11Ia(.." II.., 1",,.
"'I"irl io, .. ,,'o,,". On (he 0III<r h.lld. "LKIe ... "" ili"g ,bili(), " be>t .w 'wl aM
ourtured through obtatni"ll. '"'" p<O"i.Ji"g <fi(k" 00 llteir
wri(inS_
Or.e .. k ... ofpelfolmaoce .,," i, minimiz>(1OIl ofSueing_ R<g uiring ,,"_
de"" 10 COO"""( 1<>1'00= (0 """,,,,,,,,", <ask' al>o ",inf"",., wri(inS. rotllp<J(' _
("" . cientlflC oxperi""n"("". aOO he, lIfe slJll<.
M.jo< Ji>a.d,1IIlt:Il>" of(he or, lite he,,), (i"", l<gui",""n" fof oJmi n-
""'or"", ttle hIgh ""'" of ocori"ll' (tie Jlllkul(y in Iel i.>bi< """'" tit<
fIlI"OW ""'" (1Ia( """ feo;jbly be .........J, .... lack of 00<0" for oompar_
'''''''. .. the "",100>1 "wI. In gooe," . pelfOfm>ne< ""'" .. , inefficien'-
rosII)' . :tn<l ollen of dublOU' "'lIability. Moreo",,.. with IOOI(iple_dlo,c<
"' .... I'<,form.oc< ("". in the """" amouo( of (<>ling (ime. ""'-., . moch narro .......
"'"to' of que"io." .
.. pp ....,h ", >: . ... ( ...... , .. , s, .... ...
In rontrolled e-'peri ""' .... program ",.1"",,,,, ,iIIIIlornly lIOSi gn " lJden" or
gJoop' of"OOeo" (0 exl'<,imen"l .... coolrol group' .... (it<n ron([." (it< 00(_
COO"" .. hen (it< "perimem,1 groop ,."".;,-.. partlclIl", in"',\'On("" .nd (he
cootrol sroop re"'" 00 'f''iaI t",atme"( ot" some cliffe", "( (,<a(me"_ Thi, ()'pe
01'0(00)' "'''' qui'" prominent in ptogr:lln "',"""''''' (he "'(e 1'.lI'tO;.oo early
19700. (Itefe w ... fe<ler.l.I requi",,,,,,n( 10 "' .... the eff(iI....,,, of fle.-ally
fund<d inoo'-orlOO', HeM,,, .... experimental p-ogrlWl\ "" . ,,, __ fell
into fuf.""' .... Jisus<. Apparen( "'...,.". for thIS .kltne..., (hOI """"",ors '-y
can the "","lrI "perimen"l oot-.l""", :tn<l .=ml""""_
Thi, approach i, labeled. que"ioll >-<Jrie"(ed or quasi-"'-'iu.>"oo strategy bK. us<
it >taIt5 ",ith que" .... """ thai ""')' address ooly . ... of ques-
t"", to .,..,.. progrun", ""rit .... worth. In (tie 1961l<. Campbell ....
S""'''y fl%3) :tnd Iter< hailed (he tru, "'peri""' "t .. (he ooly "", rod "".." of
,,. ILl.llng in"""''II(ioo._ Thi, PI"'" of ,,-.ILtaO"" hl>lOr)' remind> ooe of Kaplan",
( 1%4) r,moo, "':>rui"g .g.",,, the '" ... of (he 1,.,,(ru tnef1I."
g;,-en me(1tod i, equ .. ed to . f",IJ ofinqulf)'_ III soch. case. the neM ofinqUl'Y;'
",,,ricted (0 the que"ioo, that are "'''''e<ab!e by (he metltod_ fishe< 1195 1)
'f''iflC3lly 'g'""" "'I",tiog hI> "perime ..... me(oo,h ""ith """,nee. In
genenol. experimental desifO i,. "",(oo.! (h .. can coo([ioole importantly 10 1"08''''''
., ...... "" ... MIh. """ {CIt'I"" 8. (hi, >oJ"me) ha" detooll_
"r.(ed. bu t b), itself i( i, of"" i"sufflC i<n( (0 :tddre .. . eh",,(, full "'n['O of """Iw._
(ion q"""""'"
The >0:1,'_' Of;>ni",,. in experi"'" ..... "ud,e>..-e problem ,""men"_ rompel_
ins (",ato"",,,- hypoll>ese<. 'l"""ions . .00 r.r.domi,,," "e"'"",'" .00
comp>risoo gTOOp' . The ", ... 1 p<J'r<"" o(t/te cootrolled " peri"",n( i, to determ",e
c:.usa! rdatioo>lup' beiween 'pe<lfted in.lepen.lent .... ""penden( ,-";,bIe . ""'h as
M'''''''' given in"""'tonal me<IIotl .... "u.r"t st>ntlan!iza!_,,,,, perf""""""e. It
IS P'"'irulal1)' (hat (he soo",., of q"""ion. in""";>("" in lite e,peri_
me n,,1 " udy "'" ",,,,,,,,,hers. prornn and policy fig""' " aOO not u,ual ly
prose .... , coo"it .. n":>JWJ pra<titiooen.
Tho frj ue nt q""";"" in ttle .. perimental >t ooy Wilat ore the efft> of.
gi'""" in<o,wnt;oo 00 'pe<iftl ootoome ,><iabJo, ' Typk.1 "",tboJ, uS! are expe'_
i.-..nUlI and qu""i""peri"", nt,j de>i[!ll>, Piooe<rs in "pe,imenta' ioo to "caI_
uote progmm' "'" C1rnpboIl and Stanley (1963). Cronbacn .nd S,.,.... 11%9). and
Lindquilt (1953). Othe" who ha,'e de,',1opaJ ,he rnethodoIog)' of expo-ri ... ntotion
wbsunt;"lIy for program ,v;du,,100 "'" Br>nICn (1'19-11. Glas. and (1968),
SochmlUl (1967).,00 Wiley and Bock (1961).
h.lu"o" >hookl coo,i<I<, condocting <OIItroHe<l experiment ooly when it>
required oondition>.nd .. ,umption, c.., he met, Ofte n ,hi, r<qui"" ,"b"", ,;"1 polit .
;c.1 , nfl.ence. ,ul""'ti.1 fundi ng . nd widespre,.j ,he in>"(,I>'ed
funde". ",,,';ce p<O"iders . nd henef,d..-ies-----<o ,ubmit to ,lie "'Gui",,,,,,n of ttle
"pe,iment. Such ""I.irement> tl'l'ically i.dude. ,mong other< ":>I>1e pro!lIm
that ,..i ll oot haw to be ,,,I<ll<-d ,nd mOOif,ed ,he ,,'>I.,ui.,..; the .bility to
.,,:>bI i..,.nd ,u,,,in companble progrllDl and control groop" the abili,y to ""p the
program and rontrol rondi ,ion, "'1"''''' .nd uocoo!>mon".d, .nd ttle .bility to
obt.i n the ",I,"" cri ' erioo ,,"u"" frool all or '" Ie .. t a ",,>,<senUlti," groop of
the memb.". of the ",d NDlpID>OIl lOU"" h.luability ..,.""",nt "' ..
de>-,,1opaJ a< part",ul .. methorlology for ""term;.i'g the fea,ibility of "",,;ng
alleOod with", .. periment (Smith. 1989:WJ-.oIey, 1995\
Control.". .. perime"" number of od" .... g .. , They focu, 00 ,,,,.1,,
:>JWJ not ju" intention, or joogmen", They pro"i"" """'g method, for '!I>bli,h_
",I>lively ."'"'lui,'",.1 ","<>.I relauoo..,i", ... n tr."ment and outcome
,'"i:>l>I ... ttlat c .. be especCaily .. gnih" t ",hen program effe"" are
small but import"'- Moreo"er, beco.", of the prH>lent use :>JWJ SOC"" .. of
experime"" ;n f",1ds as ",NOe i ... ..-.l the tIa, wwspre><l
cret!ibibt),.
The>< ... . ... off",t Dr ",riom objections to experimenting on
school "ude." and other hUllUn ' UDjer"- It i, often con>idered u""tnk. 1 or ,,'en
il"-'!r>l to depriv" OOII,roI groop memhe" of the he""r.ts of <p<ciaI funll, for impl"O" _
i"l' "''''",,', l.ikv.'ise, m .. y """,nto do not w.nt >CbooI, or other org.aniratio., to
expen""' nt on their chiklren by u,,,,"o,,,. int""',,tions , T)-p;c..ll y, ",hool,
fi nd it im","'t;<>1 aOO un","""",bie ' 0 rnklornl)' =ign students to treatme.".nd
to IIokl treat"","" """Ulnt throofhout the ,tudy period. Furthe,more. "'""rime".
tal "udi .. pro"ide. mu<h M'roV'''' ofi nforllllltion .. org.,,;,1I; 0II. oito.
need to ....... nd their progrlImII. On ,hi, poin'. ex""rimenUlI studies
tend to pro"ide tenninal infonn.ti"" ' hat il oot u",ful for the de> .. loprr><n,
.nd imp<O"e"".t of program< .nO may in het thw ... ongoi ng modif", .. i"", of
progr.H"' ,
M:>n'8ement Information SI"tem>..-e Ii .. political ly oontrolled "I'proache" ex""pt
.... , they m.nagers i.formotion """""" to HId""t ,00 reJ>Or1 on
til!I""'u . <J!I!KlIi"d to ' Uwi)'in8 tllom ,,'i(h inf""">l ioo oeeded to "in
political od"'''''"g<. n.. information oW'"""h i. abo , leo the doci_
,ionIxcoo"tability-<><ien(N . pproach . .-hkh ""iU he discussed 1",..-. """I" (hat (he
tl"d,ionIoccoontab;li t)'-o.-;,,,,N .pproach pIO";o", information needed (0 loth
Oe\.-Iop .00 "'fend. f'I'O!!f>Ill" merit .00 ",-hich I""" beyond
;nfor""' tioo (Iu( '"""'Een ,...,.j to implemen( .00 report on (he ir maIllIg'''''''''
""'f'O'I'ib;lilies.
1be od'-.oce "'Pni"" in mo" m:lll.1ge""'''' infor"",( ion ,)',,''''' ioclude
profI3IIl obj<cti,e . 'p<'Cif>l ""( i,-iti .. ,.nd proje<t,," JIfOIlram mile>_ or e'"nt<.
A mOfla!!,,""'"( information 'y""",'. 1"''1'''''' i, (0 ron( in.o'I>I), ' ''PI' I)'
with (he information they ,...,.j to pl.n. . 00 "'port 00 til<ir pro--
g= or <pheres r:J' _ ibility.
1be <OIifC<S of q""" ions oddr .. ...J "'" the "",nap.mem per.o",,,,1 and their '''pe_
nor.. n.. mai n 'I"'''ioo, they !)-pically ""' .... red ..-., AI< f'I'O!!r.>rTI acth' itie>
heinp imple""' nt<d ."",,tlin8 to >chedule . .>ro><ding to biJdg<t. and "'itll til<
"p<ct"" """I,,' To P""';o" reody ""' .... to inform.tioo fOf _ .. ing . uch quos-
(Lorn. ' )>Ierm re,,"Wi), >IC<e.oo """', """",iblo uj>-lO--dat' information 00 P""!'",m
goals. pwu>l ope"'tiom. ocrual operatioo, . taff. f'IT'F'l"" "'l'. nizatioo. ope""ion .
"pendi,"",. thre.,.. problem>. I"'bI"'ity. and ",hie'e"", n" .
Method, '">?Iol-ed in 1IWI'g<"",nt infonn>!i"" 'j'",""" include .) .... m onaIl'.i.,
F'rop.ram h.l"atioo and RO"iew ThnlqtJ< (PERT). ent",ai P.th Melhod. Pro-
glllm PlaoninE and Bnd!!"""8 Sy ... m (PPBS). M,",,!!,me'" by 0bj1i'''''
compur_""'-ed informOl ioo period", .. aff f'I'O!!"'" "'J'OfU- :uwJ ","1,,- bud_
geoary
Cool (1966) in(rodoced (110 "se r:J' PERT to educ. tion. and K fm.n
(19691 about (he "'" r:J' """'''8ome''' inf""""tion ,)'"""" i" education.
B",i""" and P"'!''''"'' i" comp<J ter inform.tion ' j"''''' "'gularl)' pro"Ode
",,,,,,,, in manag."",,,, information 'y""",,, n..", focu, mainly 00 how to ",( up
and omploy romputorizod information banks for "'" in deci.ioo
oWin8
W. Edwards Deminp (19861 thot r>WI"8on >ho<Jid paj' 0","" . uention (0
proc<" r"her tb:ul heing oo"ome,. H. odn""ed ) ... mabc
approach for monitori ng.nd ron(inuoosly >II ent"'J'll"'' proce><. "'puing
that cloIo auen(ion to the 1"""'" ""ul( in hen """ITlI", It i,
rommooly sai<l that. in . uo",ioo to tIIi. and reWed od,'"", from lkming.
lapane'" car oW ... .00 I. "r Americ"". l'f,,,"I)' ioc",:>Sed the qLlOIi(l' r:J' tom<>-
Oilos {Afwro. 1990). B.ayle> nd Ma .... o {I'I92) "WhO<! Derni"!1' appro.><h 10
pror.>m ,varnat""" in educ.tioo. B.ased on thi. wri ... , """""'>!ions. til< opprooch
,,-a; oot ""it,," to """"ing the complexities of Noc",ional proc= pw,;bIy
bee .. ",. the m, "ufacture r:J' >utornJbile>. ,,"ucator> ho,', 00 clefLni(;'".
<t>ndardizO<! roo<lel> for linking ,,,.,, educat"",,1 PI""""" to >pif>l ootrom.
Now,hel<> . gh-en modern dotabo .. t<chllOIopy. progrlIm manage,. often c'" and
sbouid employ manop."",n( infomlll( i"" 'j'''''''' in multi)''''' proje<" . nd f'I'O!! """'.
Program dalllbo><, c.n JIfO"iOe information. 001 only for proflIffiS OIl """k,
but _ for ,n ttle broode< >l udy and impro .. ,m,,'" of progrlllll proc""'"
. 00 OOICOO.,..
A major ad,""ta['< of tit< u'" of """",[,<ment info"na'"," 'Y'''''IllS i, i"
"""'[0''' informatlOO ,tley un u'" 10 plan, monItor, cootrol.:IIld repon 011 compl<.
operaIlOfIS. A oJ ,/ftC" I< Y lhe WkOlioo of ,00 u"f)'-<JI'i< n",d I)'pe of, )'''"m
10 IttC>Iioo .00 o<It<r oocial ,"""',,, ..... IS that ttle proJ llC" of man)' pro-
P.flIIIl> "" IlOl ."",nabl< 10 . """"",'. P'"";'" def,nilion .. i, lit< <>'" Nip<>-
r.oion' , profi l :.nd .,.. """me"1. Moreo" .... """" .... '" NlOCalOonal :IIld .od ..
progtvnS ofte n :tte '''''pie> :IIld ov,"I'iIlg tattle, th." a,," ,tan<hrd_
i,.,j lite lito", of and The ;nformat,oo &>""'",d in m,,-"_
'S"m<fIl , nformal"'" ,)."'ms l)pi<"I)' la<k< Itie >COpe of COII,L inp-u l. proc<->O nd
""Irome tn rormlllion ""lw.-.d to '""""'. l'f'IllF .. n' , "",tit and worth,
,''''' ...,h ' 0 ' ........ ,.c .. , ,'nal"I' " pp.--<h
.... 1) ..... Wi! to prog,.m "" .. ""'''''' i, ><1 of 1",[0'1)' quanti"" i,"
proceJu"" usal 10 uode.",,"" ttle full """ of prog",m ..-.J 10 deiermi"" :IIld
iU<Jp" ... t\al inl'"'''''''''' "'UmN in object"'''' ..,hie,1 ..-.J broader socia! be""fi" .
The ",m ;, 10 determln" ""'" .. ""i:>teJ .-ilh in,,"". tlo""m; .. lhe
",on"I: )' ".1 ... of ttle prog",m oo loom.,. compu be""fil"' '''1 ..00.. <OOlf'l'"
the romput Ni ,,,,io; to tI>;y;e of<ill""" progr:ll1,,-:IIld ulti"",,,,I)' l'f'IllF", n',
producti" ;' y in <OOO>Omic I"' .....
The be..,fil",,,,, ..... )' ... "I'!'fO""h to program "'al"","", m.y be broi."n oo.'n
into Je\'<f< of procotJ u",: (I) "'" of f'l'og,am Inl"'''. (2) <0<1,
"1Tli""",, ...... )' .... and (3) he""fil,rool The .. m.y be looted at ... hlef,
..-d,), The fi ... tn". "'" anal),'" ofprogr:ll1\ inputs. rna)' be don, by i'If. Soch
.... 1)' ... ,,"tail "" ><:cumul","," 01 . P"'!!"""" fmaneia! hi<lOly, i.
u",ful In <OOllOlli np J>ro!l"m tlol;,.",)' . 00 "'peOOi lu"". The program'. fi n_iii
hi"",)' C;lIt he u<l 10 ooml"" it> aclWll .00 prOjecled """, :.nd flow ""'" .. !ai,
to ttle 00>Ii of similar J>ro!lc .. (O>! ..... )' ... e:,n _ be ",,,,,mely ,''''''''1< 10
ootsiders he ;n1<, .... 1 in r<plkarJnp prog'''''',
(",t..,I1",,,,,,,,,, .. an:tIyoi. ine lll,l """ ..... y<is "program InfI'J" to
Oet<mline "'" <0>, as;oc;lII<d f'IOl""'" IO",ard och"" ing "ach objtiy". For
"""" pl<. or nloOf" progr .. ",,' """, and ...,ceo ... ;n ach;"ving lhe .. me obj_
, i,'", miplt be ,oolf'l'l"<l. A proll'''''' coold t.. '"perior 00 """_effectiv"",,,.
[IfOOnd< if iI had the ...-.e ""'" bul , ul"',ior 001"""'" .. <imilar J>ro!lfllrn<. Or ,
projl""" oouIoJ be JudgNl '"I"'rior 00 ro>t-effect"e",, .. [IfOOOO. if" ><h""-.d lhe
objtil'" .. n1<ll'O "pert>i," progr .. (""..,ITI""''''''' ..-..ly= do IlOl
' <quire con,'",ioo of 00""""'" to moo"taI)' "'''''' Out "'"" t.. loy! to cl<",. ,,"'._
>!fib\< projlIlllll objec"''''''
B,neftl-root :oruIy"" I)'po<al ly build 00 00>1 _ys.i. ofprOjlIaJU inputs :IIld
cost-ellectll''''.''. ",""y.k BUI the benefit"''''1 anaIy>is l""" furt her. It ""'k' 10 iden_
lify brol.J<-r ...,['< 0100lNm<S It\an j"" thO . .. ""wed prog, am object""'"
II "XMni ... the ",1.lion.rup .."..-""" the in,'""",,,'" in progf'Oll1 .00 the ",,,,nt
of po>il l\'" and ""p",h'" imp:>cts on lhe progr.m', """ironn,,,",- In doing so. il .""'_
.., I. "'-_ ... '"' .... .... ,... , ...
<>in, and p/ac<. , """"""0' l'oW< 00 "'''1''''''' inl'"t< .00 eoch >oi<nlif..o OU(Com<.
II idenuf". , f'ID!!J'llll', benefl(",,,,, rlllioo< ond romp"" tho", (0 >imi1lr mOOs for
program'. Uhi ...... ly. be""fi (_eo" .nxi", see. ooocl.,,,,,, .bou( tbe
compo"""'e Il<nefit<.oo ""''' of(1l< eurnioed "'''1'''=.
A,h"""" org:lllu"rs for tbe ""ffiIIl benefit_cost 'p",ooch are ."",ial<d """
""""do .-n, for bodl progfOlll inl'"".nd 00(1'"". P",!,fOIIl inl'"( ro<t< may be deli n
.. tal b), Ii"" items (",g., per"",n,!. tr.",,1. material>. <quip"",n( . coounu n",.,ioo,.
C""Ir"",e-<! .,,,,'j,,,,. oml",ad). by pr"1'rlllll eompooon" . nd by )_, I"
"",..,ff1i""",,,, anaIy>i.,. prognlffi'. ""' ..-. """"ioed in ",laboo '0 <:.:" program
oJ,;.,,, j, ... and theso mLl>( be ck-arl)' def,nal .00 .,,,,,sal. The """" ambi,;ou,
benefit"' '''' anaIy ... loot" rosI> ",,,,,,..,0<1 main efl"," and ,ide "fI",". t:III_
.nd inu"ible oo(come,. po>i( j"e and ""F"i"e out","-". . .00 ,0000_(<<m .00
k>nj!-terrn ootcome-<----ho ;n,ide and outside j:<ogrnm. Freq"""I),. they"'" may
bre do.,n eo,I< by iooi,idu.I, and sroup' 01 be""f",i>ri<" One m.),,1>0 ,,imate
,be """ of foroSone OjI!IOItuniti<> .00. """"'i ...... f>Oii'",>I """, E,'<n Ill"n. (be
"' .. ,.1"" of benefl" .. "",iot<d wit h h.man m"i"ity Of .. 11_oc,.al i.,.,ion "'" .. any
(0 .imate. C""""I""n(ly. (Il< benefit"' '''( ",!u"ioo r1< on uubious
a<rurnpIion' and u"""nain ",.liti ...
The of tb<s< (0"", of benefi,,,,,,,,( m).,.;, ore ., p.in d< .. krov,'l _
<df" of ,.-hat >00""" "''''' ;"",100. how thoy in'es!O<I. and with ba( eflect
In J>OIlUI", mll""ul ... """,..,ffoc,h'"",,, and benefi' '''''' 3l1:li)'"" ""'" (0 de(ermi""
Il1o P"'!'rom' , for ,be bud: n.,,-. i. inte"''' in ... ,.-erinp !hi, ')'pe of
q",,"ioo. POi<)' board>. p<O!1rn1l J>i.ann,,, . and "'po),, "" <!peci>l ly i""'e"e-<! (0
know ,,'he!be, program in'eslmen" :..-e 1"')' inS off in po,;iti, .. "" .. It< (ha( ,xceed Of
"" .. ,,,.,, .. os (t.o.e j:<,," UCN by >lmiiar j:<"1' r ...... Authorita(;,< inform. _
,ioo OIl tbe benefi t_co lI(>p<OOC" may be _ioed by (0, of K",
(1995). 1.<,in (1'183), >r>l r ..... p (Chaple, (hi, ,-01""",).
II<n<fn",,,,, aoat, .... i, potonti>l ly imj>O<Un( in mo program ",'".",,,,,,. E,..I_
u"on .00 their client< .., ad\'i<od to dhcuss !hi, m.II" their
cI"",,- (0 ",,,,h 'W"""i.te ad\'l!OC< "8""''''''''' OIl ...... ,hook! and 0 .. be d.one
to obu.in ,he """""" ro<' infomu(iOll . .00 to 00 moco ""'-<ffecti"" .... .00
benefit_co>! "",I),';' as c.n be d.one "",II ,nd within ",""""""Ie roil<.
Bo""f"-ro<t i n imp<>n.n( bu( problem'''''' oomider:ltioo in ",ogram
..... """"'. Moo' ",.I .. , i"". "" ."",n.bIe '0 3II:II)'2inS the cos" of _rnm Inl'""
.00 mai"", ni ns fi lWlCi>l hi""'Y of expendit."". The mo; n impedi""'''' i, (h.,
j:<ogram authof;,; .. often do no! .... ( ,,")'OIIe OIM'than (0, awropriate 3CroUn
""I< """ .ud;(ors looting into thoi, fin"""i. 1 0001;,. If ro>( """I)',i" .,<11 " ooly
the ml'"t Ie,,,,, i, (0 be d.one. Illi. ""'" be cle:uly f<O"ided for in ,be ini,i>l COII_
!ne,.,1 "l'''''''''''"'' tho wor\;. Performi np ro>(..,fI""i"".",
"""')' .... c .. be le.,ib" If"'" """')-..i< of inpu" is "l'reeJ to: if ,be ..-. ole". mea_
ourabIe _,am OOjoc'i,'''', .00 if roml"'''''"' "'" infoem .. ;on c"" be ohaioed lrom
p<O!1rnm>, UnfOftunat"ly. i( i. "",:.Ill' hanJ to meet all the", """'i(ion .
Ew" """" unfortun"" ;, tbe I"" 'hat i, i, u .... II), impnoc,kal to oondue( thor_
ough benefi ("" .. """')"I>. NOI ooly mu" i( ""'" >I I (Il< condition. of tbe ""I)"i,
o(proY"'" ,"puts and """.."ffeeti,e""" .... ,)."" it mil" >1<0 plac< IDOl\et:ll)' "at u,,,
00 i.le"tofLl OIIlro.-r.e . both .,lei""ted .D<l 00< ex!,<",l.
" pproa<h II , C I I1k.,1on " .. rinR
The -
,"00. The .pproach """,,"ially JI"'" rrot'"m OIl triat. RoIe-pl.yi,,!, e,-.Iu""'" com
I""""'el)' Implement born pcOSKutioo of the rrot' ... th .. it
faite.l-aD<l <lefense of the rrot'lllil>-4fglJinp that" .",,,,..,<leJ, A tie ....
argume." ",thin tli< ftamewort or. jury triol . 00 <0IlU'0l, the ><cord_
inp to .. han 'gree"""1< OIl rule. 0( ""i<lence and trial The actu.1
... p<<<leJ by lhe roHect"'" 0(.00 sharing 0( "'i<le""" by both """'-
The and <lefe ooing .,at....", n",y call wit .... "" .nd pI""e docun","'"
and OllIe, oxhibits in", "'ideoce. A jury hear> the .00 ultimately
males and ........ ruling on the ."""''' or f .. lu",. lde>.il)'. the jury;'
0( pef>Oll' 'epteseftt"''''e 0( the pros"""" stakeholder>. 8y ""leol:lpi np
the the adml"i_i op ey.I."", c.., . fter the (fial. COO1rMie . rooOen...J
"i<leol'jl<" .. pclmed report> to disseminale le"neJ throogh the

The ,,",'.tIC, orglllliu-n for. IuaIion', auJier>.."" "m
""""'e baI.ncN "ideo 011 pro;r""" , ,lrenpth nd w,,,"' .... ,..,. The k')' qu-
tlOftS """""lI y ",e: ShooIJ the ",Ojlnm beJooged """''' '" fai l ore' bit .. j!Ond
or better lnan . ltem .. " " rrot',.,n, lnat ..Jdr< .. the .. me """",,,,,,,'
Robert Wolf (l97S) pi""",red the j udici.1 'JIIl<OOCh to ".Iu,,,""'.
Ollie who applied. Ie<ted . nd funlte. ",,, .. loped the approach ,,,,,' ude i.e,"""
(l974). .. """ POfNm .D<l C.rt;oo (198)).
Based 00 the I""" w;es of thi. "Pf"'OOCh. it ("lI" be looed '" 001)' """l!'fllIlly rd_
"' .... ., pros'''''' "'''''''ion. Il<c""", of .. "",,,,,,,,,,01 "",,,",.!he _h """",_
'!!"" to pte><nt l>i-' .. pu""'nt< 10 order to w,n their """. Thu . Itut h
= 'ing " ,.Ix>nl' nalOO to The mO>I effect"" <lebaten ate to COll _
I' i""" the j ury of the" positioo ,,,,'" wheo it " poca-I)' fooooed . The 'ppro .. ,.-il i,
...., potiti<ally prob\<"",1i<. ""'" it <oo,ide<>.ble ""rimooy. Despite iii<
all""''''O'''''' of ."ng the 1>w. w'th ,I< atte"""m ",Ie< of e>'ideo. as me"J>hor
f", pro;rmm ,,.llI;}t""'. il< promise has ,"" be< n fulfilied. Thore ..., occ .. ""',
in it """"" prac!tc.1 "'"'" for .,.l lIaIocs 10 'P!'iy thIS .pproach .
.. ............. 12, C ... Study >: '.1 ... ' ......
" at.,,,ioo that i, """'-l 00. <a>e "t>./y , in_""prh <le",ript""'.
""""yw. .00 'y"the<" 0(. ""nic" ' .. P""!!""" or OIhe, oItjoct. The ,n"e>I' gator> 00
not "",ltol the P""!!""" in any w'y, R:tIhe-r. thoy loot. at "., it i, or ..
it occurnJ ,n the past The .. udy lcob " the ptogrl'Ill ,n ,t> gl!It>phIC, ""ltural.
org:lll' " tiooal . oo h,,,oricat rome"". closely """"nins i" IOIe,n.1 ope,,,,,,,, nd
how it """ Inl'"".oo p""" ..... to prooJuc<. ""(ron",,. It e>ami"" w"'" , .. ge of
intend<d >nd ",' come, . I, Ioob .. , he 1""1""'"",', muldpl< >nd
>1>0 OOIioIically .. , he ovcrnJ l PIT'!'ram. I, clwrleriz.e. bOIh o' ral <lornioao' theme
.00 , '.,.i"io", .00 ,be","ion,. II def,ne oo """'ribe, the 1""I'J>ffi', inI.nd<d and
>0'\1011 be""ficiari .. , II .xami ... beneflCi .. ;.. ne<d, >nd ,he ,,"n' '0 ",hich ' h<
.. m eff<"CIiwly ' h< need . I, <mpIcI)'. mutliple "",hods '0 oboain
.00 in' egrate muUip" sotlI<<S of infor"",'ion. lI-'I1 i" i, br .. '" apan >nd """Iy"'"
PIT'!'",m ,1008 >, .. iou. di"-,,,n,ion., i, lObo F",,,,ide. an ""91 clwacterilO.tion of the

The main ' hnnt of ' h< C3>< "udy approach i. to deli"", .. and il tuminal,
program. _ r>e<"<....nly to guide i" de,'e""""n' or to """" .00 il> me,it
>nd ",orth. He""". thi, Chap' Of cho""'teri'e< the c"'" >looy "PJl"">"Ch as , <p.><>-
tiom/metooo. _or;'ntl rath<, than an improv."",ntlacroun"",ility
app<OIICh,
Ad>'"","" organi,""" in <as< <IUd", inclode the defi nition of ,he rrogrun. char_
octeriwion of il> aOO organi""ional ,he his.torio<al pe,iod
in hleh i, i. to be eumioed. the progrom', be""f",i .. ;. od the ir .,',.,',.., neI>.
th< progrom'. uOOeriyin8 logic of op=tion ood prOOucth' i')' , ood ,he key roles
,""ohed in th< program, A case . rudy progrom ",-,luaIion'. main p<Jrpo<O i. '0
pro>'ide stal;ehoId<", .00 the ir """"nc .. "'ith an ,othoritati>". in_depth. ""ell_
<loco"", n' '''' "plication of ttle
The <_ study .hoo '" be u)-J to the ques'iom ofmost in"r"" to ,tie ",'al ua-
lion', main ,udi.nce . The ",'. ' "",or mo" the",fore ide n' ify and in' ,,,,,,' ",ith the
progmm', "ahboklon, Along the ""y, stal;oboIden will be eng,ged to help pi ... ,he
"udy and inl<rpr<I flooing., Ideally. ' h< .ooieoce, inclode the progr.trn'. ,.,..-.igl-<
body. admioi"""",,- ".ff. fin,nd, 1 'I"""""'- beneficiaries. and potent ial II<IojM:m of
the program,
Typic,l quesliom fKl"ed by """" or all of ,he abc .. " .00;'""" ..-" What ;, tho
in concept '00 JOCtic<' How has it "'''''-..1 ""'" ,i..,' How does it :.:to_
oily opera' e '0 prOOuce ",,, .. ,m.,,' Iw it producI? What ..-. ,he sOOnfai l
.00 neF"i,.., We eff"'I>? Whot are the !""iti," 00e ,ff",,,'> In ",ho, "''')'' and '0
",hat degr= tlo ,-.. i"... """,holden ".1"" ,he program? To ""hat extent did the
PIT'!'r.!lll .fftiwly """t h< .. ft ciari,, need,>What "', .. ,he most imj>O<Ull t """""
for the progrnm', .00 f. ilu,es' Who, "'" the PfO:I'ram', most impo<t.n,
u"""oh'ed i<su.,,> How mueh n.. it co,,> What are ,he NSt, per h<nef"'iory. per
)'<:If ... , ,? Wh.t part. of ' h< h:" .. b<-e " ,", .. "".fully 'flUI"I""'I to other
';1< How does !hi. compare what migl-< h< called critic.1 rom_
petitor.' These questiom onl)' ill1J.!trnt, the ""'i< of qL>e>tioos that , c ... >I ud)"
might .oJress. .i"", e""h SlOO)' h< .. mpe<ed b), ' h< int"'''''' of the d"", aoo
OIher . 00;'"" .. for the "udy .00 the ,,-.lIWO<', intere>l<.
To oon<luct ,ffecti", ,ase "ud;'., O"aiw.'ors _ to <mpIoy, ""Ide range ofquol.
;tati, ', and quo"'itath', me-tho<I,. These 1lllI)' i"dud. ..... y>l. of""h;"", roHtloo
of artif",,", ,"eh .. wOO< wnpIe<: <ooten' anaJ),;' of pr,,!,ram <loco",,, ",,, both inde-
pendent and participant ob,.",' .. loo" inte"'ie",,, logical ami)'"" of ""","'ions: focu,
gJOOP" t ... " """,tion"';" rntin8 scale" forum" and maioten,,,,,,, of.
I""l',am cbtao. .. . R<j>OII. may incOf'"o .... In_oI<pth 01<",,,1"""" , nd lIe"""n" of
uy hi>lorbl focu. 00 cri,,,"' indde .. phoIog'aph' . n ..... , """''''')' . ",1<_
,',n' 11< ... cUppm!>. ..... " , ,0.1 c"",s.-br<,t 1>bI<s: ,nd ,umOl."i .. flUin 000_
du,""" . Tho 0.'" ",00), "pon may i"" ,ooe. oI<",ri", ion oH,y di n",",,,,,,. of'lI<
=." ..... 'mi<>l ,II< .udi<oce. " .. OIl "">ll """"'" !""sen'''"", :rod
.".",."' .. . Cas< ,,"dy "'pon'""y ",'01,. .LHlio.oo ,i, ... 1 m<J,. os prin""
doc.m .... ,
C ... r!uJy ... tOOd, <xiSieO for many Y"" !HId N.". hn .""Ii," in 'o<h
are .... clin",aI p"ycholo:ljl)' ... til< 1l ...Jico' profersioo. and rocw
"""', in appl)'inE ,II< """hoiJ to l""I'flIm ",. Iu., i"" i"" loo. Campb<1I
Linroln and Guo. P .. " (1'192, Smith .00 PoIlI,"" (1974). SIlle
Yin 11'192).
Tho ""'" otooy '[I!II'<h i, "I'I"""!'ri"'" ,n J>IO!!mm ..... IuaI""" It ""l"i"",
no ronorol, of t",o",,,,n" and ",b}:ts "'" k>OC5 .. I""l'rull ., die)' not."lIy occ ur
and ",'01,'<. 11 _ ... ""u""y ",.... by <mpJoyi ng.nd .. 1><'-
sp<ct" ....... ,00d,. :rnd inform .. ion I, all ",,,,,an, ... tOud, .nd
inform"",n "'"""', 11 loot, .. f>"'I'WIl' ,,'illli n ",Ie' .. '" cooteM, ,00 d<s<:ribH
ront"'ual "n,,1I'> on ,Ii< f'<"I'J.m, It loot, at 1"01:11'" hoIi>licolly'OO in depth.
I, 'UIllI'." ,h. p,os" m, "tem.1 "'''''dnS' and how " prOOoc<S oo"om.,. h
'1'1<1"",, cl< ... procl.". I"" quol",.i", infor nlOtIOn. h can be ",ki<e<l '0
foc., 00 ,,'" ""'" i"'!""'>ll' que""", It can be don< '"
in ",I , im<, I, can be """ed '0 ,''''''' de,"li "", and ,u""'qlJ<m1r uf'da""
NsN on fu""", """Iopm<"'.
Tho m.in li mil>.'1OIl of til< c"" "ool' i, ,ho, """" .",10 .. "", may mi, .... its
op<n .. " .nd tack 01 c"",rol . .. >II "'CU .. f", it h'l'homdl)' .nd
'''1'' '" eosure that fio.l inF' and intp""' '''' JlO""" .. ..
"'",",""", FUIIII<,mor . bec.use of. pteocc ul"'ioo "''''ript i''' inform.""".
tho case st.d), ",.1 ... ", ""y "'" roll<ct !U mc i ent j u"8"",n .. ' inl",,,,,,' ion '" I'" 'mi t
t:ru..l-baseJ """""""'" 01 . pt"l'rnm> n."it and worth . U"", 01 ''''' :rpprooch
mi # 'Ii# q uo"' i lat,,. analysi, i n favor of qu.li""i,. ""aI )'si>. By til' '" pn:>d oce
c"""""hensi", oI<""il""'" of. proj'flIm. the CllS< stooy "'.1 .... '" "")' DOt p,od.",
""",Iy f.eO...,. n<Ied to help " I""l'"m 01<,'.""",,,, "1. To """"""'" Ihes<
pot,ntial p"roll,. "'01.""" the c< stooy "I'!'f<'><h >hoold fUlly aJdrs
tho ptioc,p'" of roond ", ... Iu"ioo os 1.,1 '0 ..,cun.<y. utility. f .. >ibility, .nd
I"opri<ty,
pp .... <h ... , CrI,kbno . nd c .......... u .... , p
The ronr-.oi,,,, ur_o.sal 'pproac h oot 01 me<hods .sal in .r! cri,le i,m . nd
" .. "')' cri,,,, i,m, I, asswne, th .. c ...... n "I"'''' in suD" ' ''';'' ' .... ...
c..- of in-def'lh ""'I)'.i, .00 ."luat"", that cool" no< be done in otOO "'Y' .
lu" ., national ",,'e)' 01 .. drin " roulJ prOOo<. inlorm .. ion
,..,i, ,,..-enU 1"<1."""", for ')'1"" of ... :rnd p,"i, " ' .. "i",,)atds. " "'oold no<
pro"1o\e ,he ""uill. creO" ..... of Ill. quol" "" of ,",,,kulor ... th ..
nli# be .I<ri,eO f,om. ronnoi .. " u, tIa, ... prof",."",.lli f"im<
' 0 tM ,,"JY'M pT3ding of " .. i"", :uwl joog"",n":ore hip hly.>nJ

n." odune. orp""i"" for u.. oooooi.",u, _oo...o "udy i, u.. ,,'.ru.tor., 'l""i>J
",peni .. uwl ",,,,i,h' i,"'. n." <IUdy', P"IJ>O"" i, to do""ib<, oritbll), awr";". uwl
iIIuminat, particuLa, p"'l"am', n." .. ,. Iuau"" qu<stion. odd,,,,,,",, by ,he
oonno" .. .,_bo .. d "'al"""ion "'" det.nnir>i by "pen .",Iua'oc>-Ihe critic. and
.ut"",;ti ..-ho lu,', uoo. n.,,, ,1>0 " '. Iu,,ion. Among the nuj<>r q""""'"' obey
can he '0.,. lR: Wlu, ue the projIllIIIl', ",,,,nee .00 .. I""" o"'o<""i>-
' irs> Wtlat """," .>nJ do"""i" "imnp"i,", til< fW'icu lar proP"'" from ",he" of
th< ..",. kind?
n." "",Ihod,ojO)' 01 coo..,;."",y,i p include, critie' ,)'''.m'''ie us< of ,h.;, 1""'-
p'ual . pt expffi ,,,,. ",fi ... J i",igh". uwl obili,;', to ",mmunkate
th<i, """"""0", The .""1".,,,,', joog""'o" OR COOW)'I in , i"id 'erms '0 hdp ,1>0
. ooi , . ,,, .ppred ... ,nd undo.-."oo l1li of tho program', nuar>c , Ei,,..,. 1983)
Iw Iocatioo' A do",o Of mor< "udon"
condoctl "",,,,ch and do"eloprr>Oo' 00 ,1>0 coo"""",u"o;p .pproach. <,g"V.II=
(1913) :uwl Air>oi<n ond Eimer {Chap''' 11. this "01""",,, Thi> .pproach 'iou,1y
dej>end> "" tho coo.en "'pert", 'l""1;f",,'""". I, abo '"'lui",. an .ooi'n<. ,hat h""
confi de",,< in, .00 i. '0 o<oep' .00 ..... til< 00II..,;.",,,,', "'por1, I ..-""IJ
>cc'p' ond LIS<"'y ,,-.Iu,tioo that Dr. Elliott Ei.,.". a; reN to pre .. nt. but
u..", "'" rIOt flWIy Ei ... " out ,1>01<.
n." main of ,he ron"';""u,_bosNi study i. 'hot i, .. the panic_
uJar "'peni .. and f,""ly d<,'<q.,d .. of per><XI' ..-110 lu,', d<,'oted much ti"",
and <If on ' 0 ,1>0 "00)' of , pR'Ci .. ""-,, Soch indh' iJual, e," pro"ide all >my of
detoiled informa,ion thol an ,udi, oe< Oarl ,1>00 U'" to form '1T1<Ir< i[l! igh,lul aoaIy_
sis than ot/Ie", i", miht b< The opproa<h', diw'-.rLt"l" i. thot it i. dep<rI-
de nt on til< "'peni",.nd quolifica' ict", of the p:ut,eul..- doing ,II< projIraIll
""hJlltion. """ing room lor much .ooj1i>ity.
App .... <h U, n ...,..'.8 ..... ': .. ' ua"""
,,'alw.uon. bos<d on I""!!"'" 'iYory .. gin .. 'nh . n'" III a
d<\'elope<! and ,'.Ii<bted thoOf)' of how projIf3IIl! 01. cmaln t),pe ",ithin ,imil",
.. ope_ to prod<> 00 ' '''''." or (2) OIl i"i,ia! .tag< to appro,i",. .och ,
tiYory til< <on, .. t of, panicular P'''I'T:lIll "'.I,,",,ion. The lormer conditioo
i. much """" ",I'o<" i,', of u-.. implicit promi,., in theor}' -bos<d program
"'.lu,,loo. >ioc< ,1>0 " i<tene, 01. "",nd theory me.n. ,lu, ,ub ..... 'La) t>ody
01 til<oreli",1 """ .Iopm<o' Iw protJOC<d .od ' '''ted. coM-rent .. t of CO<1C<pru.I ,
h)'pothot",al , .00 prngmnic princ iples ....... 1 ... <soc;'",," in",u"",n" ' 0 guido
inquiry. The d-..ory can tll<o .;0 , pr,,!,,"'" "',I"",,,, to d>de q",,"ion,.
iodic .. on. >od ",,,,,,,,," ,nd pr"l''''''' .Ie"",n" ohookl
b< osetl to ",',hato, projIrnm ",,<'fed bJ' til< 'lJ<oo-y.
Sorn. the<>ri" haw bn u>l mor< Of b< .uc"fuily to "" aluate program;.
.... """""",h ""'" "", .. UI< of "iobili' y, For "amp!<. hoal,h aJoc, _
, ionlb<hanor P"'l',ams ... , !OOl<1imo, loondN "" the""'ti<lll f"lTl<wort. ,
' .1' ',,; . ' , 21c..o.,. "
,"ch .. !he H, al th II<lief Mod.1 (Il<del. 1974: I,n, '" Bee ..... 1'ISt: Muli.n. 11<1><)'.
& ho""". 1981), Other .x:>mpl<> are tile PRECEDE_PROCEED MOOoI for 1le,IIiI
prorootioo ,,.1" 100 (G"",n '" " "' ... ,. B .,d,,,,'. (1971) Soocial
( ogni ';". Th<ay. iii, SUg<' 0( ClunE' n..ory of Prod .. ,l. ond Diel<"",n"
(199" ....J Pel .... 00 W.lef1lWl'. (1982) ' h<Ol)' of ,"c""lul orF""i,.'ion" Wtle n
"., " frnITl ,wort< exi", their "", probably'''' ,n", nc<, _,om'. ,ff,i,,,,,,.oo
pro"i<le ,ffible " " """ , lor ,val .... np it! f.ne' ioni np. Unlonun", ly, f<w
program are .. are ""u.-...s<d by w,II_""",.I."," .00 I<!"," ,h<ori< .
Th",. ""'" 'i1<ory_oo..d ,,.Iualion, begi n of .. ou, '0 """'lop. ,h""J
,ho, 'Wrop", .. ly could be u"'" '0 pui"" ,he panicul .. "'''1'''''' " .. I." ion. A, will
be il i"",,,," ble' in thi. ,",ncti,at i ... ""'" "" hoc 'i1<ory .ffon,
.nd ' heir li ..... g< to progrnm ,,,I.,,ion. are probl<malic. In .ny C"'"'. I<t '" look ..
",hat , .. tt><ory_bosl ",.1"",,,, .nem",. to
The poi n' of t" 'h<ory dey"lopn>en' or .. !<enoo .ffon i, '0 i""n'ilr ad,'.nc.
Ofgani"''' '0 the , ,,I.,,i,,,,. E!S<nt"lly. !he ..... the m<ehani, m. try " 'hi,h
Jlf"1" "" >eli,i,I<, .... 00.,,,000 '0 JlfOO"'" or con"ibute to
.ion; ", i,h , .. . ppropri.te <Ie"";,,,iOll of """"'. 'p<CiflC1tion of ind'p<nd.nt .nd
o'p<oo.n, ".,iabl .... nd f>OItI1),.1 of l .y The main ,",'1"'"'" of, .. t h<Of)' -
basal program ",.IWllioo .. , '0 d.e<enruDe ,1>0 " .... 10 ,tie !"og",m 0(
intere>! i, .01"iO. to . oo",und wh), i, i, ,,,,c<li ng or f,il inS . nd 10
JIfO"'" di"""i"" for !"ogram imJlfO' ...... n'-
Que"ior)! fo< tl>e prog.1UII ,,-.I .... ion ... derh',d from the theory.
Exam!'i' q"," ion. inc l.",: b ,II< progr.llTl grounded in ..,
,n,e.I",d . .00 "al iO>II tll<Of)" b th, .mpIofal th.Of)' .. n, l\', of rec. nt
"""..-eh' AT< tl>e progrnITl' , tarp<t<d o.neflCiari< . d",ig". ope""ion. ond inteooi
"",""""', ,,,,,,i",n' with 'Oe pu idi nE theory' H","' doe! the "'''1'''''' add ....
and """0 , .. full of peni",,"' need. of t,,.ted be""roci..-"' " If lh< proglVl1
i. ")II';'''''' !he . ...,!he expec ted "'fUlls bein ..,hl<wd' Are
progrnrn inpu" and opera'''''' prod"" ng oo tcom<. in the ''-'y' the ' h<Ol)' pdict.'
Whal dl.., .. in til< progrllll', <bipn ..- impl" ".n' .. ",, prod..:. be"" oo t_
' '''"''''' What , I.me"', of ,h. program ... "",,,,i,1 lor "",c".f.1 .. plication'
0 ....... 11. , tIe prOS' '''' Iheore!icall)' ","nd. dill i, operat, in orcordooc< .n
'ppro!,,"" 'Oeoc)' . Jill it JlfOO"'" ,he . ,'pected 00''''''''' . the "n.o,be>;,<d
" .salli nbg .. confi.meJ. W"" p<O:lIrnITl modific.tIOn' ... ......w. i. ,he proprom
worthy of ron,i n" "ioo ondior il i,,,,mi .. , ion. an" p'ogram f. at."" .. ,
, ..... ,,1 for """,><1'.1 plk";on"
The n".re of , t\< .. q"' .. "". "'8[""" 'h" the """'"'' of ,h. thxy_ba!<d
'P!"o1Ch i. <lepe<l<l< nt 00 fou n"",on of "",nd ' h""')' "", .. Iopm, nt .nd ,,,,w
, i ... Th;'. of,ou ... . ,nwl,.".. oo """""pl"li"'i"" of" 1<.", coote,, _Il'pend.nt
theorJ. formulat ion ,nd ri S"""" " .. ing of h)'p"' ..... ,je,h-.d f. om the 'heory.
"",. IOpll><n' of ... for ",""tical impl."",n"' ion of the 'i1<ory 0."," on
r",ld Iri>i . ond independent """....."" of the tIYory, Unlonuoal, ly. not
many ",ogr.un ..,,, 10 ,ducation , nil the social "'''n."" "" p,ound! in "",nd
""",""" M"""",,,,,. ,,.I.,1On "' .... 'inp 10 .mploy, 'heory_bosl ,,,.Iua, ion do not
of" fInd it f, .. ible 10 rondOCI lbe full range of 10e0<y o.,,lopme nl .nd "al ida_
lion and still I'"' tho .... tu .. ion dono on ,;"",. in clalmi,,!, 10 coOO.."
, Iheo<y_ba>I ,,.Iualioo ... .Iu"o oil,n ...,m 10 promi .. much""", lOan the)'
c." delh-",
The main pro<eO"'" '),pic.li), u>ed ;n -'0e0rJ-'-bo>I JIOOIlram ,\'alualion," ;,
model of ,he JIOOIlWIl', logk. Th;, rna)' he Jet:lilod of hov.' inJ>U" are
'I>ooghl 10 bo proc<soed 10 proouc, inodeO 0lIl""""" . II may abo be groondod
'Ii<ory . ..,h as rhos< ><I\'()("" .. by GI=r and StrlltlS' The "",wort anal)' ...
of tbe hme< 'I'P'"""h i, ' )1,o,ally ,n arm("h'lf 10000izi ng proce" in",h'ing "-' OJ_
.. on and pef>Oll' wOo ... ,uW"'<d ' 0 know.., .. tho J'fOFflIm i, peeteO to
oper>.t, .00 pro<luce ",suits. n-..y .roe"",. d;sc"" """'" """" . ,,,work,
dj"""" f"n"', . nd fi nally produce """wort, in "llf)'; ng of detail of ..-hal i.
,",'oh'od in !he progr. m w"'" and 1>0>\' the ,.rioo, ,iemen" "'" link .. '0
prodoc .."irod ootcome,. The """'" d<m.nd'"g f!JooodeO tbeo,y requires ys-
temalic . mpjric.1 J"OC<" of oo..,,';ng " ... " or ... m ... ri,l, drawn from
Op<ral ing progrlUlU. foil"", .. by an modeling pro,,,,, .
Pione<r> ,n (Oe<>-y de,-.Iop<roon' pro<'""''' ' 0 program <vlI' u",ion
i"",ude G ..... and S"""" (1%7) and W" " (1971. OtI>er .h-.Iopers of the
... Bickman (1990). Ch<n (l990). and Rog"" ICh.p'''' IJ <hi, ,,01" .... ).
In any program 'v.l .... ion sign""'nt. il i, ",,,,,,,,,\>I, fot (lie <"alu .. ", to .xamine
,he ""0' to w hieIL JIOOIlram pW>. and operati"'" ,..., groundod In .n .ppropri.te
' Oeor)' or model . !( (":Ill "'''' bo u .. f"1 '0 <ngas' in. moo;,um of ,ffort (0 ne'..-"'"
th< program ,nd the"'"Y ..., k out loy ,..nabIes 1I1d link>;lf"" A> 00<<<1 1""'ion,ly,
in ,I>< """ i>!>Ie but ""< sirualion w"' rehall'. v.li<hted (Oeor)' .. ill>. ,be
,,. 1 .... '" Ill bonef",,,,lIy .ppI)' it in (tie .... """ion """ in anal),zing

if . re"',,"nl tOeory of ttle prog:run'. logk does no' e">t.
" .. lualoc! ""eO nOl dewlop roo. In foct. if !hey .tlempl '0 do >c. ,bey .. i U iocur
many tII"" to th<i, "',",,,ion' , success. R"her (llan ,,at.,.(ing II J>I"O!!flIIl \ and il<
"nderlying logic. ,,atLaten migt. u,uIJI ,n. JIOOIlram ouff. r<>JlOOsibili()' for
JIOOIlflLffi design. They do , poor .fob of theo<y o.\<i<Jpm<nt. giL"" limita_
,ion, 011 ,i "", and r<>OLIfCfi 10 and "" :m .ppropri ... ' heo<y. The)'
inour tbe wnfikt of in",,"" >sooc;'!od h""ing (0 ,,..Iu,te ,n. (beory (Ile)"
de\<Ioped. They miglu 1"" off lUI u" ,.li<htod model of (be os theay,
whe. il m.'I. """'" of tbe .-.quire"",n" of . "'"00 theay, They mig'" Oog
(tie ,,..lulLtion ;n '00 m",,, .ffon to de,"""" tIDxy. n-..y "''''' focus
.".n(ioo 01\ 10000y de""lopod <arly in program lind 1., J.i"""", that tbe
prog"m 110. ",01,''''' ' 0 be. quit, dille",nt .n"rpri (h,n ",as ttleai,,,,, ..
th< out> . I" ,hi. "''''. tbe ini("1 II>eo<y ("ookl "",,orne, --Proem" n""l" for (Ile
prog"m ,,'aluation.
0,..,,,,1. (he", i. not moch '0 =00\"",00 Ul<<Jf")' -bO>ed program e\'>lUl>-
lion. , i"", ooog i( i, usual ly not fenib", and ,ioce fai]<d or misrepre",n','<!
,(lemp" ("on be highly ("ount,Lp<Odoc(i" . N"''''tbe'''' . mode" ""mpt. 10 model
JIOOIlflLIIl>-labeleLJ ... och----e:m Ile "",fu l for ide ntifyi ng ",."" ure"",nt ,.,-j.bl". '"
.. ,he .,.alu"'", 00., "0' ,pend '00 moch ';m< 00 til;, .nd '" as Ihe
1IlOde, IS n<iI <1lfISiderN .. f" 1 Of os. I'ali<bd ' fleory. In ,be......, , ... ..
'PI""!";'" ' hJry aI",,,"y <Ai>t>. ,he .... , "" ... COOl m"". I>< .. foc;.' u"" 01" to II<lp
"nJ<t.", . nd puid< ,fie enJu","" ,nd ;n""", (fie .
.. pp ....,b " , .'u .... _" .. ..,... S'udo..
10 . n at'<I''I'' (0 .-esd,'e (II< deb> .bou( _ram <I" ""
,ioo. >IIooi<l emflloy q.,,,,,;,,,,h'e 01" qual".,;,. """hod,. ""'" au thon ha,'e
pooeJ that e,.."""on >IIooi<l rombj"" 11.". """hods ;n g;"e" prOjl:ram
".1 ... ",,,. (fOl' e>ample . ... (II< NaI""' l Sel<ne< Foun<btKlll', 1997 U", Fri"oJly
HanJbooI: fo' .\fud M"hotJ fl'alU<Jliottr). Such '<COOlmen.!."""" . Iong "';!Il ptar';_
<>, i"id<,i .... n.! illu",,,,;.,,,. . ..,, 110 """1>1 "",Iu' (0 """')' JIfOIlram ".ff"",ml><"
and '0 e,alua,O. But In Ihe ""'in. tl>< r=""""nd""oo f", mul_method
'Woach OIl')' larpe bod)' of pr",(i of mi,I _hod,
program "'al"",",,, ""her thaIl propo>,i"g' "" .... """"",h. AU ""n 'l'P'ooche,.lis-
<.""" in ("" """.,ndo, of til" >lion of t"" ,h,P''' emplo), boIh qua,itati" ....
qu>n(;tati"e metbod . What ..... (flem .pan from the mixed_me' bod 'l'P'oarh i. that
fi,,, ",.,,,,Iet.,;on, ... not (II< """hod, (0 I>< emflloyl t.u( <I""', HI< ........
me"( of "alue Of ("" >OCW misOOn '0 I>< <1'1. The mh<d- .... thod, .pproa.<h ;.
ioclud<d i" 'h" >I"," 011 q",,"ioo>lme(hod, ap(KQOCI>< ""'''"''' i(;. preo<:<'pil
m.ltiple """oo.l, rathe, ,han """hod. "'" n<e<k-d (0 rompre_
he"",-e')' '''''>S me, i( an.! worth. As with (fie "''''', 'ppro",,"", i" til;,
<ee(ion. ,he mi'I_",etllo," "'p"""h IIl>.)' or ma), not full)' """''''. ptoI!lUl'. " al L><:
thus. it i. <l .. .. , qu .. ;.., ... lua,ion'pproach.
The ,," I'OOC< organi, .... of the mhl_methods .pproach ..-. forma"", and
.. "'"W,," ,,-.1"'''''',. qua'i"'i," .nd quan"'."" methods . nd in"'a",,,,,, or
<I"o""ose """' )'Sis. Forma",, ,,-alu"''''''' are , mploy"" to exa",ine prog""n ',
de"'lopmen' .nd """ in ," <InK"'" .nd impleme n'at'on. Su"""",j,'e
,,'al""ion< baoiral ly loot .. obj(;n" ",hi,,'al, 0.( mar loot lor
brol.le, 1fl"Y of 00"0""". Quai;",h-e an.! q","(IIati,-e me, hods ." emplo)-.d '"
<oolt.ina'ioo '0 = d<p(h. <rope. an.! tl<pen<L.t.i,it)' of Thi. :>pproarh
"so applies (0 <""full)' ....."ed .. ogle progt''''''' or 10 rompari""" of .It,m"i,'e
pro!flllm .
The o..ic pur".,.., of , he ",he<! ".."oo.l _oaoh are "' pro"ide direction for
;mpto'i;ng program, .. ,1><)' el'oll. and to '""'" (!Ie;, effec, i",",,, .f(<I the)' ha,',
had ,ime '0 proJoce ,,,.,,,. U .. of Do(h quan(;"""e and qoal;"' i," method. i,
;nte nded to ",,"re dependabl' 1.INel on, ""'Be ofq.",,,o,,", depth of
und,,,,,.n.!ong of partiru, .. progrlIm" ooll"ir pe""""(;",, .od enh"n<emen( of
,lie I'O,idit)'. ",';ob< li,), . nd u"'ful .... oI,h< f.1l ... or fiod,oS'. loot
'0 q","(ila,h" methods for <tan<b,dul. "-1' lorable flnd, ng' 00 Lorge dar. ,.,,,.
The)' loot to quali"'iI.., """hod.! for e""'.b(ion 01,,,,, pros"""" ,ult.ra' coote".
d),namirs. 1"1("n" and (heme . tl<,-;an, CO"" . "" dh"",
"" indrl'iJ .. l> as ... 11 .. group'. Quai;"'iI.., m<\hod, ... 'pphe.! (0
,lie fiodi"!" ' 0 ,if . (0 mal;e (II<m ole..-. pe<",,;,'e . od , n'''''SlInB. By
boIh quanti"" h" :>nd quali"" i," . ....,'Ood, . .... .,oaIu"or cur<> c"""..,bee" 011 dif_
fmo' '"_ 0( findiog:;.oo the<...".. irntill< greater ,tak_, coofirl<oc, in ,ho
01","1 fi rwlio&"
The "",rco> 0( ,,'ai Ll3!ion que>lion< are ,be program', rooh. pi.." , .00 ..... 0-
..,Ide". The ,tak.hoidet:< often ioclurl< ,,,,,,,.1 '"' .... I .. audier=.
,he "" .. holder> ore program odmini""""" .nd ".ff. poI Ocy
bomh. flllllocial 'I"'fI>C<'. he ... l ",iui ... tax"")",,,.:>nd P"'I'",m """ "pe""
The 'fOOCh m:l)' PO"u, ""l" of q",," ion., EumpI<s of loon .. ;',
., ..... ion """"ion, """ To ",hot .... nt do progrom ><1i"ities loIlow ,II< ptogram
plan, limo and bodE." To what """" i> ,he program oehi.,'inp it> pooI<' What
problem, or i"",l<,.-",ot"'ion need '0 be ><>h=d' of>WlUfl;l_
" '" enh""i"" q"'''ion ,'" To ..-hat . "00' did ,he P"'I'r.un odl",', ilS pooI<' Willi
,he P"'I'mIl .ppropriatel)" ,If,i,', for :>II .. ...r"iorie.' What i ....... ' i"
,m'If<d' Whal "'" program ,,",OOIr1<r' joomenl< 0( progra'll "!"'ration,.
pt0''''''''', .00 ooteome.? What ,..Of< .... impoltant >ide <If"",,? h .... program "-"_
Iltinabl< :>nd ' llUIspottabI<'
The '!'f'I'O>"h , .,>de ""'!!' of rnetloI5, qLWlt'lltIh< methods
"'" <UfWp ",iop "'pt,,,,o""i,.., .....,Ie<. boIh cohort and cro-..... ionaJ .....,.."
IIOCIll _rol""nd '''''. IlItinp "" ..... qu.,i.."perime nt<. (ffi, for main
.If",,,. and. po""iori <I:Iti"i<21 ..... . The qualit"''''' """hod> m:ly r,.,tude otlInog_
rop/ly. doc""",", ..... ).il>, .IIIY",i,e """""'".., wnpIe . <in!rle. """". p:lltiei-
p.n, ob "',.... independe nt key informao". od,'OOy COO1mi,_
<= "lOCtu",d :>nd uo"ru"UrN inter',,,,..,, focu, OIlS< "ooies. "ndy of
ooU"",. diarie., los'" model . ' heo<y rI<,,kJpment. no"" oOaru. da:isiu,
'''''''. m",m . nd perform.""" .... ' .... n", Reports may ioclU<le .bstrac< . ",<cu_
ti,,, , u",marie . fuli """"' . oral . cool,,,,",,,, pm.n' '''ioru. and "'orlshops,
They should include. 001.11,,, 01 rwtaIh" :>nd o"meric.1 inform",,,,, .
his """" on s<r',ic< studies in alocillion. Ralfll Tj-'" (f)''''
.. ai .. 1931) "' .. 1Ui"ly , pion<'e< in !he mixed_""","," '!'f'I'O>"h to program
,,,,luat"". Other ,uthor:< who ha,' , wri",n cogentl), 011 !he lIT< G" b.a
and [j""oln ('98'). Ki<JrI<r .nd Fine (1987), Lincoln .nd Gub.a Miroo
(1998), p.ttoo (1'19O) nd ScIlaIZlrWl and St"u" {l913).
It ;, .. """, '''''Y' 'f'PI'OP' iat, '0 coruirl<r miud_""thods .pprooo<n. C",_
Iltinly, .... ,.-aitJator .oo.1d tlke >d \'llllupe 0( opport"niti .. to obta'n on)" and >II
""",o'iaIl), .,callable ioformation !hili i. ",b_ to =e>.<i"l' men' and
worth. SomeIi",., study"'" .. moioly or .. ti >< or qlWlti' ati,". but
usually ,ocn "udies be "re ns .... ned by i""looio boIh t),pes ol inform.1tioo.
The key poi., i. '0 d"""", method. beeau", !hey CIUI effect"',I)" oddr, ...... study'.
que"i"",. no! bec.use .... )' are . i .... r quai it"' i,.., or qUallt''''';'.."
K,y :Hh".","E'" 0( "'i ng boIn quali,,",, and qtJ.>nt'tati,'< me' hod, Me ' h ...... y
romp"n", nt ,oen other in lllat "'" i"'polt.nt '0 ,i>< '\'III"IIIion', .udirn.,
Infoonotion lrom qu'/lli' ''' i, '' _hod> tend. to be >t:ln<hrUizf"d ,If",;'n,-
to ,tandard Ie", of easily ,ummarizN and anaI)'zN. :>nd """pted .. ' 'bard""
......... "" l'c-,._ .... ....,. . ,
dol., Informa' i"" from qualil"' i'" Oj1pfOOCres odd> d,p'o, con be delj,..,red in in",_
""'Y-li k' P' .. ,n",'i",,<:.nd """ide> ""'''''. 10 "pm .nd ull<l<" .. nd tbe
"""" ,up' rfid aJ quan'ital h" fi nding . U,in botll t)P" of method .Iford. impor_
lan' cro>s-et..c .. 00 .
The main pi,fall in the mixl_",,1hods Oj1pfOOCo i, u, ing mul' i""
method, bee ..... ,oi. i. , he popul1' ' 0 do ",he, III"" ""'.us< ,be ",I"","
"",!hod> be" ",spond '0 , 0" .,-aJ.."ioo q"""ion" Mo""",,er. """"ti"" .-.111",."
lot , be romb,o",ion of "",1110.1. coml"'o"", for locl of rigor in applyi ng ' h,m_
Using a mixetJ o",hods 'JlIIffi"'h rao prodoc< coofu,i ng ,f on i"'",' ig"'or
uocri'ic.lly mi= po>i' i,i"ic and po>,modern sin quam'Ia'i,e ... :I quaJ _
laIi,.., _hod. M .Jeri,..a from diff,,,,nt tl>Mr"icaJ 'WOOCMs 10 '"'Iui,y >nd
",fl, dillen, concepl i"", ofl"" ... "'aJ",,OI'5 00 001 1"""'" ,he ""l-
ui. ire fou nd .. io01I lnoY,'I<d!r' in t>oth !he """"= .nd hu mani,i", '0 ellec, h..,ly
rombi .. quan' i",h" ond qu,li""i", melhods . The approoche, in , he ",marnd .. of
Ihi. dup'e, pi"", f!<O!>i" ,mJb!;i. "" mix," method, . cOok< of ,be
"""hod, ,ubs<,,';'''' '0 "I'f"O""'h', dominan' phil"",,",)' .nd '0 !he particu'ar
euluatioo que>'ioru '0 be add""seJ,
The mi,al methods lI(lIIfOOCo '0 ,,.ILWion c"""lude, thi> chapter'. diocu"ion
of ,)", q"",'ionslm<lhoili approoch<s '0 el'>lu,,;"", The.. IJ "I'I'fNCh<' 'end
'0 roncentra" 00 ",,,,,ted q"""ioru .00 method, oM , hu, may or may no!
fully ...Jdres, an ""du .. ioo', fuoo:un,ntai ""Iui","", n' '0 aISeS. a meli,
.00 ,,ooh. The amty of !he .. """"""he< ,ha, the f" ld lui ad, ',ocl
c"""',.:llilly .inc< the f!<O!'ranl " . Iu.,i",,. flII< oM mainly
u!eO approache, f<OUnded in Dena, ...... 1 "andardiHd ",.,,_ .ndlor
>ccrlil"ion ";si ...
I ,.,... 'urn 10 thrf-e .wooche, ,hat """,,, the n<e<l1O full y as_ 1'fOF-l'll'. me,iI
and .. orth, n.,.. _"""res are pami'" and ... k """p"hensi,."",. in ro, .. id_
,he full rnrlg' of q"'''ion. and cri,eria r><e<l<d ' 0 """" P'''l''''''' ",1"",
Of'I they '""""""'" '"' ..... oed n<e<I, of. fI'"O!l'>DI', ,""eholder> .. ,he foo nd. _
bonal ori"ri. for ...... inE ttl< _ram'. meri, ... :1 Ther.oo ""'" to exami""
!he full rang' 01 pen;""n' <echoicaJ >nd OIIOOlic crileri. for j udging prognm
pi ... :rod ope,"ioo,. The)' loot for all "'",..'" ou tcome . noIju" those <e)M '0
program obj<cti,-.., Usually.1hey ore obj<cth' ill oM ."."'" "" unde,l)' in8 reali'y In
<leflni,II',. """'I"i"",.1 an,,..,,, '0 the "'>lu,"",, q"""''''' ' ' Ty[lically. !hey
mull ' ''' rool'ip" quaJ it"'iw and q"",o' i",,h'e .,,,,,....,n' _hods '0 pn>'Iide cr=-
obed, "" finding', In 1'"""",1. !he approoche, Nnhm cIo.el), 10 Ihi. chop:,,',
defini,ion of e,..I .... ioo. The 'pproa<"'" .,., labeled Di>iOll<iAocountallili'y.
Con,u""",-Ori.n",ion_ >n<J Accrl;tation_ Th< thrf-e .ppr-<<be, ffllplw.i'"
",.,...,'iI,ly iml'w",me nl P'ogrnm P'0vid; ng OOII'U"","
.'s.,,"""''' of optional program> oM >nd helping oonlUm.,. '0
gain as" ""r>C6 tha' programs 110 pro/",ionaIly "",oo.nd .11,;, .
The .Je.ci.iooI.<<ounl>.bilit)' _ori,nt<< approoch 'mph>si'" that progrnJTl "'aJuatioo
shoold be useO prNrti",ly to help im"",,', , progrllm .. "" " "rocth,,,l)'
to its "",ri, .nd "'Oft"_ The approoc" i. di,tl ngui.h<d from m.n'g,,,,,,nt
in format ion ,)''',ms and Irom poIiticaJl)' rontrol"d >t udin bee ... ", <IN: i,ioni
ocrountallili' y-on.n,ed <tudin queslioos of.,.,rn :lIld "'or\h. The
""il O<Oj!ll ical include.n object i""t o, i, ,,>! ion to
\><" to coo""_limit<-d que,tlom ,nd , ubscription to the princi"". of,
democ,aIic SOC""), , """"wi), "um,n right<_ "",ity. ,,,,,IIe,,,,_ COIl _
,"",,,,ioo, aOO >OC<>WlUbi lit)'. Pncbclilly. ,he approoch ""hlookl", in locu. _
i .... the " -.Iu,,,"" _ _ <SIng tflei, ""'" important que"ioo . timel),.
"I,,""t inf"''''''tion to .,,ci,, deci."" m.' ing . nd produci ng .n accountabi li,)'
-The aoh""", Ofgmizets fOf ,fie approoch i""lude d"d,,,,,, ....... ""aI;eIloI.len.
.Je.ci';"" ,ituation, . and prog.r.om lICCoonl>.bility Audie""" ",dude not
i"" top m""'g'" but .1>.. ,hoIder> " .11 "'g.niwion" ."..,1>. From the
bottom up . """ " ,1101<1<,. ""')' ",dude ben,fICi .. i". .. di,"" .. ",ice
pr""Lden. odmroi""""". p!!IrntIl "", .. I...,,,. SOP!"'" l,ef.o",,,,I. poI"-'Y rml;en.
l unding , u,!>oriti". and toxpa)"'''. The gen,rir ""'"ioo .itu",i"", to \>< .. ,wd
rna)' i.., h,de gool nd priorit i ... rhoosing from rotnl"'ting ",n' ic ...
programs. boOgeting_ u. ing """ 'ic< . pmicip" ion. j u"gi ng
Jlf<'!I<"- aOO prog:run "I"-""ticru. Key r ...... of fl<'e<Ied ",calLIati,,,,
informatioo are "'''''-''''''"'' of neal>, problems. and opportuoitie" ident ificat ion
and . ..... ment of ooml"'ting Plog""'" Of JlfO!frllm _he" .. ",,,men'
of Plogrlllll pl ... , ...... meot of ",ff qu,liflCations :md I"'normanco: ...... men' of
program I",i li ti ><XI fIlOIeI1>l>: mooitori ng and ..... unent of rro=" .,.."unent
of into nd and un in"ndoed and short_range .nd outcome" .nd
as>e-ssIIlffit of <.,., ... nedi" ......
The .. pu"""" of deci,cionloccountability "udi" i. to pro"ide , ,,,,,,,!e<Jge
><XI ,-we ..... for mal;ing ><XI bei .... lI<'Counl>.ble lor deci>ioct; ,Iut resuk in de,-,,/-
oping_ and maki ng inlorm,d u'" of ",,,_efft i"e "",,,,,,. Thu, . "" oI lll1-
ton mu" in""'" "'fU""II'''''''' member> of their ..,die-r>r ... Ji><em theil
q","ions , and ' u pply the m w itll "Ie,'"",- ti"",I)'. ,I fi rient . nd ""'u,," i nformat iao,
The .JIIIfOOCh """"" thai "" "'TI.'arioo', importont f'JJPO'" is not '" 1""''-'
but to improR
The """"'" of question. 1Idd",S<d b), tll i, 'ppro",," "" the N""'mod :md
iOl"'e.j ".k,bolde,,_ The-se ""y include oil 1"'''''"' """ must make
ct>oire< ",I.ted to ;"itioting. pl ... implementing_ :md progrnJTl', ,.""ic ...
qu,,,ion. _..00 >reo H: .. ' Wropri. " beneficiary pol'" l" ioo been <Iet,,_
mined' Wil" benefici.,)' need. shoold be oddre=J" WIu, "" ,he .nibble .k...-_
natil'e to add" .. th,,,, n.",m . nd wlut ore the i, rOlTlpar;lti"e meri" and """"
A" plan, of "", ices and p>ni<fp>tion "",nd' I. the" orIeqw" "",,i';"" for I", il_
itin. :lIld "Iuipment' I, the JlfO!frllm .toff ,uffi cien,I)' 'I", lif>l.nd <"d_
i .... ' Ha\" .ppt"'Pri", roI.s .... , _igrl'<l to th< diff.,.. nt part i<' p1J1"" Are
tieil"' " 'ffti"' ly cOIT)'i ' E QU t t"'i r .iE ' ''''"''' b t'" program " ,otling >orl
dIould it be ",,'i'" i, OIly I, th< prOf""" 'ffti,', ly rearhing.U tl>< targ.t!
""""Iiei.,.i .. ' I, t'" progr>m rn" " fOf """icip,,,"r' n<e<l, > Did """"fld.,i<, pl.y t"' ,r
pan' I, tl>< progrom ""t"r th.n <ompe ti' E , I" moth' ,," It it .Ihd,bl, ? I, it ""'-
"i"Di , ' b it tramportabl. ' b t'" ",ogram ""orth .... "'lui rnl initi.1 iOl',"ment"
to ttl"" and ",Iatnl q"""ioo, "'" to be ..... "" .... onderl)' in, ":md,,,d
'" goOO fKOf'''''K i. ... t ... ), m, '" <11",;'-,,1), ",act. wd ><rw """"rICi."", targetnl
oenl> at ", .. "".01< ro<t, :lJ1d do '" ..... 1 '" ot bett'" than relV"'+'y ,,',i l_
.I"mat"''''_
M:lJl)' """hod, may be u>l'd in "'ci.ioo/xcoon .. bil it), _ori"n"d program
atioor, Ttie>e in ... h<>-
<"" tearm, oo..rntlOns. re,id<nt ",'.Iu",ol<, '"" "".,i..,xperim<n,,1 ""j
"perime ntal desiS"" To rna'" t'" ' wroac h ",'orl. t'" "", I."". rn." "'gul:>rly
in"""t """ .. n .. t;"" 00dJ' of T)-pk.lly. t'" ",.10"'" <hoo ld
,...otisll and ""g'E' re""se , "" i," ... od"i""y pone l to "'Ip ",fi", "'._
o,tton q ... " ion" >hare ,,'.Ioation plans. re"ft draft '"" I><lp di, ,,,min."
findi ' g' , Th< ",-.I"",or'. 'h1J1ge> "'ith thi, group i,,,,.h.., coo,''}'""" of ,,'a]u._
tioo th" may be 010", in ",ogram imfllown"nt .nd 0"' ... n il II ""'er_
mini ' E luture ",', Iu otioo report. I>< ""'" I><lplul to prOf""" 1"'"""",,1
arwl orb I, "' rim rep<>'" may ",t ""n<f"i.,.i". ",ogr ... ,..n, and
orh", to obtain on th< ",ogr ... ' , meri" :md .. ,otth 11'<1 00 t'" qll.llit)' of
.... ir ",",'n By mai nt' ini ng d)'namic basel,,,, '" "", Iultkrn rnforTTll _
tion wd .""Ikatioo. oltll< inlormatioo_ t ... ,,-.I .... or un"", thi, informat ion to
..",.Iop. MIIlfK,"'n,iw wmm>.ti,', ",-."at.,. "'por'. periodi<,lI y .pO", th" brood
sroup ol .... ,hol"'''' and .0""ly fKogram per""'''''' .,ith fioo i' gr for ,"' ,r ""11
"""",nt:lDi lity reportr ,
n., inml"'"", nt '" ..... hold.,. i, le)' principl' of to. , .... g,
A, '''''''pnse----od 0,."1_ 1",, "'te----<Oan """ be lp brinE abou t , .... g, in
target gro<lp"' bella,'", .1 thot .. inoo"'eO .n pl,n'i ng. moni toring . nd
judging tl>< '"terprl"" B)' in,'ol"ing t'" ",.Io.,ion
di,ion-<xi,n1<d ",'.I u .. "" by th< for brinf ,ng , ..... to und<r_
<uoo 11'<1 ,-.1 ... t'" "'.Iu ,,ioo f"OC''' and apply tbe f.ndi nE' ,
(19631 .. hi>l'd eOlICIt"" to "",,,,or th<ir ",.I .. ti"", from an obi-
ori''''ati"" to ","""m lor m'''ng be"er program <li,ioo,_ Whil" I>< did
oot 0'" t'" "nn,/o"",,,iw and ' .... ",-.Io.tion. be "",,"'i.lI), "" fin! t'"
o"",rl)' inS rooc'ptr, In di",us.inS tl>< diui""ti"", bet"""' " t'" "'lIStr,,,,,i,', , ",<>OC_
ti,', or"""t ,on on to. """ h.nd .00 , ... mrO<p<Cti,". jll<lgrn<ntal "';, ntati .. on
tl>< or ... " ... "Eue.i lor ph.,i'f mor, "mpha,i, on .... 1orTTl<" H, , or,rl to. limitl
[u""tion. IIIy 0( th< tr><l itioo 0( """inE r<!rospe<tiw outrome> ,,', 10'1100, uter. I
(SlUlfI<be:llll. 196!i. 1967) ",gun! that "" '0,,100. ,hotJ ld "'Ip program pmon",1
mak, .nd d<1,oo <li,ioo, l,),eO to .-ing I><neli riari,,' needo;_ Vlhi" I ,"H.c.ted
an impro""n"nt oo"'t:ltioo to ",.Iuat'''''_ I II", ,rnflha.iHd that ,,-.I.at"" m."
troth inform di<ion> . nrl ",""ide inlormat ion fO< :><ooo ntability, I II", 'mflha'izl
thai ,he "PPfOOoCh >I>ouiJ in' "",' willl.nd ""w tl>< fu ll ,anS' of stiliOolde" woo
to make .nd cllr>k;,s .bout Other> who ha,,, cont ribo,I
to ,I>< de',I"""", nt or . deci,looIIOOCoont.bili, y ori' ''. ti on to ,v.lu.tion "'" ,I.I .i .
(1969) .nd Webste, I j 91SI_
The deci,ton!:ooonlabilit)'-<lf;'."d "PPfOOoCh i. appIbbie in c","" wh<-re
P"'I'",m staff.oo othe, 'lllkeooW<" .. t and ne<d both formati" and summ",iw
,,.I""tion. It un 1'""''''' the " '''uOlion for both in""",1 and """' ..
,,-.iualion_ Vlbon u"'" for in",.1 " .. ..,,ioo. it i, u"",lIy im""",nt (0 00IIVIIiMi0n
an indejJendont "", ... ,.1uaIion ci the """'" ,,-.IuaIor', worl II<)'orwJ JI<Otl'3'" ,,31-
""ion<. <hi> ... I"""at "",ful in eut .... "!! students.
fadl.;". and prcdOClll..
A mop ",",''''Ill!" or tho " ,nat it <nN<nl"" '"
"'" ,,-.., ........ cooti....,."..y and ,)'",rnalkally (0 pjlwl .00 in'4*1T8lI progrnmo; ,ha(
meet .. ""f,d.ri"- t.,-ge(<CI1OrI<. I( in,,", ... (Oe full ,an"" orstiliOoider> in the ,, .... .,ioo ",0'''''' to en,"",
dut thei, -.Iu",ioo ne<d, "'" ..,,1 :oddre..e<l and to eocoorage .nd ,uppoi1 (toem
(0 "'."' "f1oc' LI ', "'" or -.hutioo Hndi n&,. I( i, """'P"'he",h-. in ,(1, ndi n (0
""'" .. . input" Jl<OC"". ond oo t"""",. It hal"""", (fie "'" or qUlllltila(;'" and qu.l_
itoti", """hod,. h i, t.)aJ to profe .. ional standard. for ",..I""iOO<. Fin.1lly. the
'mplwi= that ",,,,,,,,,ion> "'"" be in "'" democr.>tic F"i""i-
pb of > fre< >o>doIy.
A mop limitalion " that the """,i,-,.d beI,.-,",n an ..... "'''' and
stake_ in(1OO""e. "I'P""uni(;', for (he enl"",ioo "nd/Of 1Jias.i"l' it>
",,"its. when the -.iualh-e .iru Olion i, politically <O:orgN. F"n"r.
'.I"at"" "" the coo, of. the)' ma)' ide ntify",
dc"d )' it that they lose some or the indeF"'oo.o(. delacl><d F"'''fl''Ctiw
(0 ""', . ..., objecth-.. forthrih( "'j>OIU, Moreo,er. (I>< approa<h m:oy o\.,.,mpll",i",
formalLl'e "' ..... tioo and!!i'" too li(1le ti"",.nd """"""'. to ,u"""",i,-. ",':liuaoioo,
Extom:ol "","",,-alta';"" "'" be-en ' mploye<l (0 "",nte, :1 OfIIIOI1unit;', for 10 .. and
(0 ,n,u", > prop<! ""Jane" or (be formal i, '" and ,"mmal i", .. peets of ",.I"atioo,
the i, e"""",," . this approa<h clIITi the oon""'ation that 001)'
lOp deci.ion mak", are ""wd,
....... ""h (7, c .... ... .o ... "' ... SI"d'"
In the oon,!Jjlle,-iont<d 'fIIII"'l"h. the e,caI"""" is the su"fll''''' ron-
aorra.- He or <he musI cnw direc1 ,,, ...... i,.. co,d."ionI; .boo( .... I""Wll bein
ev .... ated. E".I"atOO i, """,'ed as !he JIfOC<"" ... ,I ... S' me-ri, and
,..""h. ", .. luation, the flt'OOoc1< of that """,m. The approa<h ,egards
"""UfO,," . .. .. . f"U1'J'I'l,., primary i""i ficatioo and "",ord. (nat w,lfare !he
,,"n, ",imacy in l"0l'T;om ",alta'ioo. G,ounded in. dee[>l y ",.wootI '"",' of""'ic,
and (Il< common (11"'''''' ,.. ith >kills in ,)'nthe, jLi n p,,,' i,,,,nt.
,"id. and ",liable informatio . (I>< e" alualOf sIloold help o.--.Iope" prod""" .nd
1"00""" . nd ><n''''''' , hat .... of """I)e .. qu.lity ,nd of p.r<'" u", to ron_
",me" (for e",ruple. "oo.n". ,hei, pare"". teache,.. and I3Xp')'''''). More imp<><.
"",<ly. the ,u""'or dloukl help coo,u",,,,, iden' ify .00 """" the merit and " 'onh
of oompe<ing . ..,,,.icet. >IWl prodoc".
Ad""nce OIJ!""iL<'f> include oocieul ".Iues. coruU""", need>, <,ile, i,
of in ,lie ,,'''''''''ion <l<>m. in. The f"llPO'< of . """umer
C<iOfl ted "'-.. u,,"" i> '0 the re,,"h. me ri" ."J of the prod_
0Cl. and "''''''''' of"" mat"'. ....... nd.Iherebj'. to "Ip ",'p,)'er . pr-><' i' ion_
en, :md J>O'0nti.1 he ... fidarie. """'e dlOi<e . The 'p",,,,,,,h is obit""st in
an ", .. ity and I""iling !hal i, i, I""' i..,.. , I'llouph oflen
'",mely diffiru l,. to find hest an .. .-.... II look. " romprellenoiwly
in Ie"", of i" qu .. i,)' .00 """- functionally "'FOlding ,Oe """,sed need, of
the IIIlerlded b""efriaries. aM comporllli"ely ",-.ilaNe
"t<-rna(h'e h.IWltor> ,re expecteO to ,ubject tbeir W'l',am ,,-,"1t;"'"
to eulwltioM. whO! Sori,." Iw tem>ed .... r=o"/"",., ...
The 'pp'oooh employs. ""'pe of .. """"" .. topic . These iocl ude program
de",riplioo. background.nd <OOOe". die ... """ume". fuoc'ioo. deli>'",)'
.)....,.m. ,cal ..... ot1II<brd5. 1"""""- ool<ome critic" <ompe<i'O<>.
iI)'. "",i"",.1 """'"'. Oot'om-line .".,.,me .... ",,,,,,ic.l
<=. rero,ru"endatioru. ",,,,,,,,,.00 _'"'''"IwItion. The e",,"atioo proce>' bop in'
..-i,h <oruid.".,ion of. """'" ""'ge of "",h topic>. <oo 'i n",,",ly compiie, inlor_
motion 00 al l of,"'m. arwl ultimately rulmina"" in
of,.., progrnm', men' >IWl
Oo-ion, for the co",ulller-orie nte-d >ludy "'" deri,-..J from >ociety. f,om
proglllffi <"""in",n". ond e>pe<ially from ,he ", ... """,,', f"me of ,eference. The
l"'nerni que"ioo is, \\'h",h of ""ffiII " tern ... ,,,, program. i. ,he he"
choice. gh"," thei, differenti.1 rosIs. ,.., need> of'''''. <"",u",er group. t'" ,,:>lues of
oociety at tarl"'. and ",'ide""e ofboth positiw .00 ""g"' i"e ",,,,,,,,.,,>
inch>.le chedli",. Ilf'ed5 """"""' .. ev.tLl>lioo. "'peri men .. 1
.nd qu .. i ... ,perimental de,ign>. '""""' operandi ...... ),is. rode, of ethic.l
condoct. and cos, anal)';' (Seri"en. A preferred me'Ood is for ,n ""ern,l.
indepe"""o, <onsume, ad'''''ate '0 coOOuct , 00 ,efl'O" of "Lldi", of
pul>",I)' '"J>I>Of1ed ",ogram>. The .pproach i, ke).o to em,*,yinp >oond check_
Ii>! of,he . key .. peru. Sori""n (1991) de,eloped. l"'neOC "Key Emlu,_
tioo Chedli,,- lor (/U, pu'JlOS". The main "'llOati,', art< in Illi, 'Jl!lfO"Ch .r<
grading. "",,iflll . producing ,he flO" .yn' ..... 15"",n.
1994.a),
Sori,'," 11%7) W25 pi.,..,.. , in the <o",umer-oriented 'Wrooch to
f""W3IIl " ''' ",,,ioo, and his ''']f' pornJi<1s ,lie c<>rICurre n' wed of R.lpIl N.der
.nd ,he Consume .. Union i" the f", jd of comu",ernm. Glaso 11969) lin
,uppott<d .00 de"eloped Sori,e n, ,JIt"Ol'Ch. Sori,'en roinetJ the term> and
" "",,,ioo. H, .. Io..-..J ,n., " "",,,ion. <311 be diwI]!en' in earty ,,",,'"
for cri,,,,,1 oompetitors and e'!Nor"'ioo, ",bted '0 daril)'inp gool nd pro-
fu"",i"" .. Ho..'ewr. he :d,;o mai n""netJ thai ul'i",*l)' "'''uaUoru must
OOIImg< 00 .bout f<O!!rarn". "",nt and "'''''h. 'While
iii< imponaoc< off",ma,iI'< ",'alu>lioo_ j-.,.oo "'l'uN .gain" Croobach',
(1%3) pooi,k>n ,ha, f""".,i,.< "'alualk>n should be iii< major <mph .. ;..
'" Sen,""" . ,n. luooarne",,1 aim of . >00 00 .",I.aOoo is ' 0 joop<
PfO!JVIl', merit. <omparlllil'< ' -oI .... :lIld ",-=II ,,ont.. He ..... ,,"u>lion ... Imn<-
di"'ipli"" 0"""""",in8 aU .. .... 'ioo> of , .. iom <ntiti" . <:r", 11 applied """" and
disdpli ... ond romprUe<J of. common lojl;i<. and Ihoory thai 1r3n_
end" 'l"'<if'" ", .. iu.,ion doom';",. which also haw ,110" "niq"" oha.-xteri" ....
(Scri,'<n, 19\11.
The mumer-<riented "uJy '"'lui"" , hip:hl)" craIibk ond NIllpe!<nt expen.
tog<""" .i!llOf , "Ifi<i, n' re>oUr=l to oJ.,..,. ,n. "'pm", c<>nOoct.
"00)" ..- "'ber "",ar" ' 0 OO<:Ii" the ..,ed<d inlormation. Often. , OOII,umer_
orieoted .,'01"",,,, i, """,ge< e_",maI "",w"",,-<lfiemed " 'a]u_ i, ofie" .Jepen-
<l<nt "" reins _ '" ><=s' a ,.bs",n,ilIl ba .. of inl""","oo (hat the prog<>lTl ><aff
had OOCU/llll...oo. If 00 ,och ""'" d informati"" exisls, tbe roo,umef--OOented
.,.,lu>I", pre>l diffioul,y in ol .. 'OO<Jph informa'ion to P'oooc,
dei<fl>ibIe , .mmlll;' .. proj!ram ,,. I.at""'_
One of tbe moin od,..n ... of roruun",r--orionled ",'al_ i, tha, iI ;. , Oard_
ioo'peoo.n( .. """.><n' in",ndeJ to proIee' Nfl'U"",'" hom shoddy pro-
pTllDl'. "''''ice<. .nd prodOCl> and ' 0 them '" . uppon ond .se """"
ron, rib., io"" tbat be>! .nd ""'" ""'--effecti, .. ly address tl><ir ne<d . The 'I'I'fOO"h',
",.., "" i"""pe""" ntlobjoctil< ."..,..,., and it> ."emF' to ""hio>.., romp--
...,"""or of"""it.oo yield t. igh credibili' y wi' h """.me<
This i, aided by Micha<l Scri",., (19\111 Key h .. ... ion Checkli" and his > .. 1. _
at"'" ,"",,,,",,,, (in whi<h be p,es,,, ,,.oo .,plains (he rhedli,,]_ The approach pro-
" .... fo< >ummati .. ,,.ILllllioo to )'ielJ bottom_line of men' :lIld
wonh. I.)' formati"e ",..iu.,i"" '0 .. de,"lope" to help ".,= thai
.... ir fI<O!I""'u sucreed_
One 01 ,be roosu"",,-<rienled ,,. I ... ion i, (hot i, c." be '" inde--
po""""' hom practi,;"""r> that i, ma)' no, ... ;" them to do. "'''j ob in
<"","men. If wmmati,', ",,,I",,,ion i, .pplied (00 ' llly. iI OlIO in,imiwt< de\'<1op-
en and " ill< thei, =.,i,'il)'_ !-bo'",'",_ if sum""";,'< .,oIu"i"" to applied (01)' '"''''
PfO!JVIl'. ,nd. ,be .uiu.,,,, mol' h,se difficulty i" suffici,", ""i_
""= to conf.de", ly and credjiijr jU<J80 the PfO!JVIl'. ha>., , ... "'. Thi. of"'n icoo _
ocbst., """""",h i,.1so he"'il)' depooden' on. hi p:hly rompe<enL independ'nt . nd
"bullelproof" ",'oI""t"'_
M""y edoc .. iooal ;OI ,i,utio"" haspi .. I" .00 other ,,,.,,.ice <xp.>ni""ioos haw
perinJicaily been (110 ,"bjt of all ""crodi""k>n "ooy. ond m.1Ily prof<s>ioo.1l., ..
one ,,"'" '" an"'h. ha,,, had to "",t "'Gui",,,,,,." for. gi,." pooi_
tm. Soc. " ooi" of in>1i, uti"", ,nd p""",,,,,1 are i" ,I>< ",1m of :ooo01,bil;,)' _
,,",,01e-d ., .. ... impro\'<mem <l<menL 1""itLJt ioos,
inSliMi" .. 1 prog, ...... ,00 porsonnel are " "dil '0 ..... 'her ' '''y m'
req"i",,,,,,nll 0( p<o(""ion. >rid .. r',ic< "n,., ,,00 .. th<y "'" fLl 10 ,"",'e
fuoc, ion, in soc"ty: 1)1*::IIly. ,0" felbac' "'fIO<I' ide ntify ...... lor
improw ......
Tho .. h-aoce "'l'""izm u"" rn !he acor..oitolionlconif" at ioo "udy u,""I'y are
"nd ori .. ri. ' hOI """" or r<n ifyi ng body .. , odop<..o. A, ""' _
"iou,'), ,Il< O":duaboo', purpo'" i, to determi"" 0",,,,, i",lil",ioo" in" i_
IUI"""-I . ndlor 1',,,,,,,,,,,,1 ,hould b< appro,'l '0 perform 'pecifiN
f"",,'ioos.
Tho OWR'< 0( '1"<""'" for "",redi13,ioo or rti f",OIion SI""ie. " lhe "",redil
ing or body, B .. ically, ' hoy a.ld=s lho "",,"ion: A", i""i ,ulio", .00 ,hoi ,
p<ogra"l> .00 pefSOO",,1 minrmum >laOOard,. >rid how <.n tIlei, perfor.
n",""" he improwJ"
T)p",al melbod, ""'" in the ",mtJ i'ationinifi eatioo :ore .. 11_<l""y
, nd bJ' 10" ind ivlduoi or ,n"itu,;oo. In tho "t,e of in"jl ulion,. "....1,
of e>pon. are "';gr>etJ '0 "i,il lho in";' u,ion. ""ify , .. If-,,,fIO<I. ond gather
aOdirk>nlll inform.>' ion. n., .... , fo< ,be .. If_Sl udiei ,nd '''' "i"" by oxpon
ponel' .... u, .. lIl' s uideli"", .00 " il"i. ,hal ha,', b<en . pecifiN bJ' ,he
oocredi' inf ,,!,"""y.
Accred i' ation 0( Iocati"" pi""""red b)' the Enrr,nce E"minOlion
Board .roooo 1001. Si"", then. til< ""redital i"" function .... b<en imp"menlN
.00 ox"""",," ... peciall), by tile (oop" .. 'i," S' ''''y 0( S<-conduy School S"ndard, .
dating from .roond 1911 Su'-'luenti),. !he ",,,Iilati,,,, .W'"""h ... beon
oped. furt her expanded . .00 admini ... ,1 by '''' North eenlrnl A.<ociarion 0(
S<oondvJ' Schoo!> .00 Colleges . k>ng "'ilb tflei, .,soci.atl regional """redi' ing
'geocies "''''''' , ''' Uni,ed >rid by "",")' other oocredilin8 and
bodies. Simi ... aceredi",ion pra<1ic<, .., louoo in mod",;"". . rrhillu",. and
man)' "'"'" prol",,,,,,.
Any ,n,. 01 p<Of.,,>i.oo.l1 ""'."" I ... put, nti.lly <000:1 pUI the public at ",. il
...... ic<. are nor delil'ered by ni p:hly Ir. i""" 'f"Cwis" in ""eordJ.oce <tandar-ds
of [!O<'l pr3Cli .00 salety <houO:l r",,>ide, ,"bjee' ing it> prog""'" '0 """,di", i""
"" . ., .. , .nd it> penonn<l to e"""f"ation pro=><>. Such u'" of ,dualk>n ""'k,,
i. \""y moch in !he ",blk irlt,resl >rid i, .100 mo .... of l"'tting Idb",l
ron he 0( LI>< in .00 pn<1kes.
n., m:rjor ad,,,",,!!, of tho "",,,,,Ii,,,ioo or <ertiliration .r""),,, that i, "id.1oy
PO""'" in mali nE onfonned jU<lg ments .boul tl>< qu.lily olorganizatio", ...J p<<>-
gram, MJ<l 10" qu,iif"ation, ofindh'idoal pef>OllneL Majo< diffi e" I, i" >1< 'hat ,be
guideli "", of :tJld cenif)' ing bod ... ofte n inpull .nd pr="'"
.00 no! oo' rome, . Funfler. ,he .. If_"""y >rid "i"ution process ""'" in >ecre<li_
tarion offer OWl)' oppo<1u",li" fo< eomrplioo ,nd i""pI porfOffilan<e. A, i, til< u ..
f",. nu mb<, of ,be ,,.Iualioo 'J'I'ffi"'o", described .row. il i. prutJ en' '0 .ubjecl
orcreJi .. ,ion .00 emir".,i.,. pi"""'" rMns<I,' " to ind<p<nd<nl me,..,,,luatio,,,.
Th< titre< impro'"me nt/orcoo ntobility-<>rien'..J 'woarh<. 'mpl"" ize 10" ..".,<-
m, ot of "",ri, .00 whirh i, ,I>< ,hflJ" of ,''' ",fi nili"" of " . I' lII i",, ""'"
.. , ...... -.. , .. . "" ,."" .... .- . .,.
to rl .. ,he 22 '1'!'fO><h<s "",side,," ,n th" rhapl .... The ,h'ple-r 'urn, n,,,, '0
and flllat i<1 of l""I'f>m 0\01""011 _"""re<----<tlo>< OOOC<fnN
.""l' <lcat""'''" ., f u,"II<, ""'" "",0aI .!'"nJa.
Soci:tl ",OOaIAd,'t:oeary approa<II<,Ol' "i,<CIeO '0 """in! " ,If.rellC. , n ooci<ly
",'.Iuati"". The", approa<"'" ""'k 10 ,",ur< , .... , 1II1 .. 01
sortely "ital .cr."" to 1'<locatiooat anJ ""'W "I'!'OOun iti ... 00 ..",ir<>. They
Ito,,, an . (fi,,,,,,(;,,. act,,,,, i><m ",.,.ru pref,,,,n, i. 1 " .. tm<n'
P"'!'mm "" lIIW1'''''' to the w,..) ..... "!'...!. If_ tlWI)" 1"'''''"' ha,,, .. "'l----inlor_
""'"'" i, p<I'I>'<f. (tie" ,he", _"""tie, ,mploy I""I' fom ,,'.Iwtioo '0 'mpo>I-''' ,tie
" i senfranrht>N.
The fo u, approa<h<s in ' h" ...... oo, .. eO (0 'mpkl) in ,I>< of
.... <bo"""" ., a> 01 "1"'"' i" rh..-..r,iz, n. in,-. .. . 00 iu"in 1"0--
They fm ... <OO>If1K1h';" orien' >tion .00 (he .'" of quali",' ,," """ hods.
For ,he mos, ]>in, 'II<y til< po<Si bOl,1)' riFM or be ........ "".00
",fI' the fb'Io>opIl)' 01 po"",oo<m"m . its .II.M.n( ..,.... on ,oltur>i plu_
ralj",,- """"I fd ,,,,jl)'. aoJ mIlillpl< They pro"ide for <l<morrau,
m<nt of <UI;,Itoi.Jers in aoJ , nte' p"'( ing fioo,ng'.
The", j, roocom (hat ,he", "W,oacl><, migM so I><"' jl)" "" "''' ing
,soci.al n" .. ion they fal l to ""'"' ,he "andarili 01. ooo n" ",.Iuat.,. . By
.. ""<holJe<> (he ,.(oo,i(y I", ); oy ."Iu ,,"," ",lateO <>p<C""I)" to ,nf_
pretatioo.oo ",lea."" oIflllw"S'. ,,-.Iu>tot> .mpo"-'" these pe<>OOS (0"", "' ...... _
tioo to the" be .. odu"t.ge. oI. u' hori,y "' .... ,mporta"'
",,(,.,. mal",. the <".1 ... "", ,"l"" .. bl< 10 bi .. aoJ ,"ref IIlj ...... Funl><f. jh" "'._
. "or j, ,n"'n' on ""' '" the un<l<rpri,j['geO. <""", .. <rinS If><
,ndior rihtl nF <due .. i",.1 .odIor soc"" jnj ""k", . tie or <he <OOlpIOOlis<
,I>< jn<i<l"'nJe nt. jmpar1ial !I<,,]>ti," """""'" '0 prod"". find in,. O>]>I>.lIy
iff.nd, 0110''''' 00 '0 ""' . the", "-001<1 be wj,hdrawn .. a roo",!""",,e 01.
neg .. h, "'port. In til< ."reme . .. ,./"C'".<y ."""""100 "",IJ <omproo,>i", "'"
of ,tie ... Iu.u,," J"OC<>< '0 ""hie,', """i.1 objo<'i"" .00 ,hu. <1<,',"", jnto
p>OOOoo,"al u., ion.
,hot< i, mueh to "",,,,,, mend thos< approach<>. ,in .,.,
.. ",",",eO to .iemocfll,k I"i"" ipl oI "iu jty aM f. i,,,,,,,.nd 1"''''_
(irol procedure> for "'" f.1I of "aleloolden. The ponl<.l ... sor,at
'l'.OOaIodHX:acy_"i,"'(eO 'Pf><Ol'<"'" I",,,.n,ed in ,10, rh.p''' ""m ' 011>..-, , ulli
d ..... f'guard, neoJ1'<l (0 (tie line be , ... souoo ."oI ... ion ""'ice> .00
pol iticol ly ",,"up'''' "-.I.,,ioo,. Worn. boot( t." ronIroi in ,I><", "I'pIO><he'
,nc", ... (f>< jmport.",,< of ,.bi,;ns ad"or",,), "at",,.,., '0 """""".I."j.,.,
Frour.led ,n "andards for "",nd "',I."i,,",.
App.oa<h C ( .. "t_c . " ....... S,,"' ... , or Il .......... ,. " lu.t ""',
The rla .. ic approarh in thIS'" is "'" ,I",",,,,",,,,,,, "",,)'. or what RoDen S ... ,
(1m) has Ie",,,,, ,he responsj,., ,,.IWIIion . The lobel ,II,",""",,J .,..IWIIion "
g..d h<r<. """!HI" on< p'''',,,i,.., them< i. th .. the ."I ... or mu!! with and
fOf lhe '"pport of . Ji".". clio .. fTOOp for 010/111'''. ",,,,hef>. iOdmi ni,_
t,,'on. o.''''Iopof>, ""PO)'''''- ond fin,oci,l '1""""". They or, ,he clion"
i. ,he "'''''' ,Oo, ,he)' IUppon. de",1op.. odmi n; ... ,. <If rl i..." ly <>pO"" the I'fOf"m.
gndor !!udy ,nd ... , Of ...-d 0' ... """,,' ooon .. 1 ond ad,ie. io .nder>tondi ng.
ond pr"!'f>""- The .pproac h charl"" ..... """" ' 0 in"rae' ron_
' inuoudy ",i,h . nd "opood to. ,he .. .1""'".., n<ed. of ,h. ,-., ..... cli.n".
Thi. approach coo,,,!!, """'Ply ",'i,h Sm,<fl'. con,g"",,,,,,iontN opproach,
SOIl, ... .11li<' 0" are "'" ,he in depondent. obj<c'i," .,"""'" of Seri", . The di,,,,
con"'rl"<! " .rly ,minc<. IocoI 'utonomy .nd be ll" poori. ",110 are ir ..... ",,J in
profWI' '0 .. -.1",,", i, and US< ,he .. .I, .. i"" for program imf"own, nt The ",al
g,,,,, in , .. "'" ;, ,he di ... : . Oandm.iden .. ,hey"";,.., '0 mol< ,he ,,',lu Olion
.... " ,hei, _d . Mor..,,,,r. ,he cI;.n,_contered opprooch "'-"'" obj<c'i"i>! ,,-.1 .. _
';011 . wbscrittin8 to the "",' modemi!! "jew. ",'he",i n the", are no be>! or
cI dy "",fmbi< ,-.I"., and ,.bj<c' iw inhm"i.,. i. f",f"r!. In ,hi pproa<h.
lhe program ,,.I .... ion rruy cu lmrn.te in ond roocl. ,io".
"''''ing in!<rpr<t"ion to ,he ., . ., of ,he beholden. Clion' _con",,,d ,,.I.ation i.
porn,!" the "' >Iling 'nlI)' in the ''r<I .. i,i,,", scOool of O'.lu .. ;oo." ""hieh for
plur.Ii,,",. flo, ibio. j n"f3C,i "'. holiS!",. '" bjw;. . c"",,,,,,,,i,' i". ond "". ie.-<Xi, ni l"<!
The ,ppfNCh ;, "I"i,'i,,", boc, . i,...L; 00 fi n.1 ,,'oon"';". cond u
rn.,. i",.rpr<ti nf fill<li ng' . goin" sul.hoId<,,' differe nt and often ,ai U.,.
The 'pprNCh ""'" to """';'" propam', f.1l coo n"'n,ne< .nd prim ,he roI-
I<c,ion and of mul'ipl . of"'n con"kung ""r-.pec'i .... "" ,he .-.1"" of.
ptollram'. format. operatiom. and ",hi<w"",rM>. Side ,IT",,, ,nd incide n,, 1 fains ..
w,D as in .. ndeO o,It,o"" "" to be identifil"<! and ".mi .. d,
The >Il,one. ",!!oni=> in di ... _conter! .. .Iu .. .".. ... , .... hoIders cooc"n.
and i,,,,,,, in tho pro!frvn i,,,, If. as .. ,he profI>III', 'alionak t,...
""lion>. OII"omo,. .00 j LJ<l f ""'"t>. The cliont _con ter! pro!f , om ".1.,, ioo
ma), ,."", man)' purpose . Some of the>< .,. helpmg peopI, in local ""ung g,; n
'pw;p""i," on ,be propam'. ful l COIInt< .. nc<: ,ho ny. 'h" \'O,iou.
groop' ,.. ,he pro!fram'. I'oblom>. ""'ng,h., ond w,""""''' and the U)"
.ffected p>pI< ",Iu< the '" .. , he profWll """n, iuog' i, .
The " .I.,,or, pr"'"'' foal is to cony on c<>n,i nuoo, ",,,,,,h for loy q"""i",,.
and to proI .... cl i,rrIS ", ith u",f"1 informat ion., i, become! .vai lat>l<.
The cli' nI-<:<ntc",d/r"p,xI>h" opprooch ha, <trong p/1 il""'Pl'icol boot: ,,"M_
"" .bould f"omoIe equi'y ,nd f,;""". he lp ,110>< littl, power. th",." ,he
mi""" of """'.,.. <A""" ,he hoc."., . nn,,,, ,he . uwl"<!. ",.,.u" lhe in><Cure .
and alv..)'! help poopIe ... thin8' f,om .h,m"i ... The . ppro. <h ,gb_
scribe! to rnoraI "I";"i'y .nd POSit' that. for ony ,," of [,ndinE" ,he", ore
poI<n!i.lI), mu lt ipl, . confi k' ing in'''pm''ioo, that "" eqwolly pI,.,ibl .
Community. f"",'i'""",r. .nd bon,Fod. !}, groo!" in ,he 1oc.1 ,,,' i,,,,,,,,,,n,-
'''!l.lhe, <Atem.1 progrom ""'. "port!. P'O"jde lhe q"'''ion, ,"",,,,I by ,he
cliont-<:en!<",d "to<ly. In go""'!. the "'"'Il y ',on' to ","" ,he P"'E"""
",hi,,eO. ""'" i, opo,..I<" . 00 1>< ... i, n. j1l<lg<d by inl'ol\'1 per>OO' and "peru
in the program ..... The mor, 'pee,fir .. ':J ... ;oo q",,'ion, .merge .. the .. udy
un fold, ba>eJ on the "'al",,,,, , ;,,"r.,";oo, " .. ,holden aod Ihe;r
",Ilaborar;,', ...... ""' .. of the de,',,,,,,,, "':J",,i,', i"form .. iOll.
Th. "PI'roarh ref\e<ts formaliz.o, ion of the practi of inform. 1.
iorui, ,,', ,,'al. OI ;OII, It .-.qu;re ",laxed ond ",",inlJQU' " rhaog' beI,.- n ,,':Ju_
OIor and rJ""", It i, """" Jim!",,' than 00"''''''111 , B:ir:Jly. the rail,
for rommun"atioo bet ... "," ""du",,,, alld , iJdi,nc-e for the PUCPO""
of di"",,''';''!!. i"",,"igllli"g. and pro:!Irnrn'. i"""" for rJ"nI_
r e<ltered pro:!I"m ,,-.I ... tom ore re!ali,'.ly open..,1\ded and e""I)Iont.
' 0 ... rmtiv, de",riplioo. , .. her lh ... "Ell"'[taIi ng ""","",,,,,,,,ts >0,"" , .. ",. The
"'.Iu,,,or .",m!,,' '0 ,<SUe limel), ""pons<' to cii<nt,' COlIC""" and que ........ b)'
rollting .nd "p""ing useful inform.,;OII. ""'" if Ihe n<e<lN ;nformalion , ....
IlOl ""tic'paled ot the "udy' , C""""mi""'t " 'ith the <OO'"efU-
'''''' ciie"". the "".Iu_ "temp" to rot"" ond F"""'''t rich seI of
informatioo 011 the )I<O:Itmrll , This i"dude, it. philosoph",1 foondot ion ond
p" 'pose'. hi ,tory, Ita"""""", . nd ""t"ne . Speci:J .Ue"' ioo i. g" '''' to side "lfe<!>.
the staIldards lhat ' -.nou, per..,.. hold fOf the . nd thei, judg"",,,t< of the
plOjl rnrTl ,
Depend;ng on the ",':WO!ioo', purpose. the e",,"_ nuy employ ,
of diff""ot "",thod., Pref"",d IO-'thods .... ,he ""'" <tudy. "pre.she OOj<c_
ti"'" purposive wnpli nE' oo",,""tioo. admu'l' rep""' . "ory to coo,'')' rom-
pjexlty. "",ioJrarn . 1Id lWT>ti,', "pun" CI;''''_''''terl evaluator:< or-. rha'l'ed to
check for ,he .. i,,,",,, of stobie .nd romi .. "" nlld;nF' h)' ,mplO)' ioE r<dulld.ocy
in thei, data-rolle<'i nE acti" it;.. .nd " plicari nE their ,..., "udie" They "'" IlOl
"peeted '0 oct ... pro:!I""'"' "'"' Of fin:J judges. hut should 00111,
rep"" the <>pi"iom alld judgme nts of the full r>rl!" of the )I<O:It ram", ...
as weU ., rro.. of peninent "pen. , In the ,nd. the " ,. 1 .. "" makes compre_
....... '" ..... """'t 01 hat the )I<O:Itrntl i, ,>l".""ed '0 be aod .. f,,,,ocn the ... i,_
f"",ion and di, .. lhfootion ' llat oppropriately peopje feel to'i, .. d rlr, )I<O:Itr.l m,
0.',,,,11. the rJ " nt-ft n1<red/re."""."" ,,'aIua!or """ ,"formal;OII oource.
and terh"iques S<'em "Ie,..", to the )I<O:It"",,", ",mpl",it;" ond multi_
P" ",alit;... ond comm"nic .... the romp". i' ), " ... if tbe ""ult irutili, .loot.. ond
mal",. Iki.ion, """" diff,, "It ,
s .... (19671 i. the pi"""" 01 ,110 cl ie nt-NOtered/""ponsi", ')'pe of "udy.
ond '". approach has bee" ' '' pporte<i and <ie,eloped oy De"o), (197&), MocDonald
Parl,n and Hamilton Rippey (1973), .nd Smith ond PohIond
119741, GobI', (1978) .... d"""iopmont 01 "",,,,,.,,i,'i "'''' 1Io"'il),
i"fi""llC<d by Stake", 00 rerporui,'e "'alu,,,""'. S"",e "" "I",s.>ed .t'l"i .
cism .oout "" "t,fi < i"'lui'l' ., depend.>ble to de>"''''''nE g"" .. liLalioo,
.bout hum.n "''''" ... ond pes<imi,m >bout the he""fi " offormal plOjl .. m
",.Iu ..
The "",i" rooditiOll for aw lyi,,!, ttl< rli,nt-<,,,,,,I 'Wrooch i,. "'Pi"'" rJ " ..
gTOOp .00. rOllf' Iie"t. rompete",- ,,'alu .. o<, The client must be ..-iII;nE
' 0 ,n<lone quit< ope n, fi "ibl< " ,.1.""", pl,n .. "!'I"""'i to ""II-<Ie>-.Ioped.
J. F-'o,"-' ....... 11'c-, ., ...... 7'
dewleJ. """"d;n," P"'" aM muil" ='1""" '0 equ; .. b", F"rtklp";on oy. rep-
"""", .. ;, . group of,,"".OOIder>. Th< <h.ot mu," n nd quall!;>t; ... me 'hod, """"I'"
_.00 , ,,,ally" to <ootroIl<O "p<ri"",n"l
Sludy . llhoogh in exI"'O<I.O' oase, oootroll<O r",k! ex"",im<nt might ..
omi*')'N. Cli< ... .oo oto<, i",'ol<',," " ... ho'den r>hook! hoI<J OIIt only 1IlOde" 00p<' of obtamlnF denni, i,',
""..-"" to ,,..'uation '1"""""'. Cli<nt< "",""so be """1""'0 to ambig""'" n nd
in",. multipl< Int"'1""'atio,,,. t ... of "allJ< 1"1>.,..,.;'''' . 00
, ........ -y in",,,,,,,,,,,", of """.""Ide" In iOlo'1'''' ti"g .00 ",ing noo ing . Hnally.
<hoot, mu" be <uffL<i<ntly I"ti, nt ' o .. 1ow to< J'I'OI'llIm "al",,,"" 10 " nfold .00
noo ito J 'ffftion bad 00 ong"' "g iO' ffiO<tioru ""wee" It.. "'oluator .00 10<
""",,,,,IJe,. .
A m'Jor """"gth of't.. "''I'''''';''ei<ho"' -e<"' ore.l " Ihat it if""",",
""""_' ..... <h. i" _'" allJ _llIlIb ...
... to <ODd.." .... i, 0"-" "'al""",,,, .00 u'"' 110< fi oolnp.< to II ll pro'" theu
ur.I"""oolng. ded..,.,.. ,oJ "'tion . Th< ,, .... at""" looI; ole<ply i",o ,''' <tale-
holJ<-n' nuln I .. ..,,'" :rnJ ,",""'h brooJJ)' lor ",'<".nt Infom)atioo. Th<y .. '"
"'"""" t ... ""lOIIal <. proe." . aM 001""""" . Th<y mol<
off""" ,,, u'"' of qoali"",," m"ttlOO,.oo tri'"Fu'a" fioolnf' from diff""nt ""'''''''.
Th< ,Ir ..... tt.. importance "''''''Iy for "nin""d,d .. ..
io"oJ<>I ootrom" . It aI", gi,.., ct<d<oce to It.. p.rt icip .. ion in the
""ua' ,,,n by to< fUll ,ang' of i",,,,,,,,,," )00""'"" .00 OIt..,
from 011 .och person, If< "''1'''<''" and incorpoco"',J in the ,,'a'"atlOll' . Th<
'JlPf'Ch aI", "",,'m lor offt i", communicat ion of fioo i"g'.
A m.J<>I' .. "" .. i. ,he approach' , ,' ul nerabilil), regardlnE "", ,,,I creJiDi'il),.
";nce peopIo in the ,,,' '',' ""tl ng. '" "flec t. t\a", OOlU"",rabl. """,rot 0"'" the ",'aI_
uatioo of the .. Simi'arIy . .,'o"a' Ofi so close'y """,,00Id<rs may
_ It.. .. indel"nde nt I""'pe<ti,. Th< "PP"oocIl i. n<iI ")' ."", .. bl< to "port_
i"g c"' .. noo,nf' i. ,i"", 10 m""t deci.ion or ocooumability M"'l'<r.
whe, than <",,""re. the _h', ad'....,;.1 a>pU :rnJ d,w,!,ont qua' i_
ties 11"-)' confusion :rnJ <0lIl<"''''' "'at"" II\oo!' """Molder>. Some-
ti ...... tru c=adi"". o""" ing 'JlPf'Ch ""'Y bog down in '" unF"odoctl'" que"
for multip'e inpuu :rnJ i"' efF"" .. t"" .
App""",h 2<1, c .. >I,,,,,''''>I " , ... "'"
T ... "",,,,,,,,,i"i,, >pjl<OIlCh to projIf>Ill " '''''''ti"" i ....... ily i>/Iilos<Jphic". ""'"'<
on.nlN . .oo Coo"ru<, i" , m rejects the " i"""", of any "ltlll'"''
",aliI}' and ,"bjecl i' i>t 'Pi, .. n.,'o!!y- It .... gaioe.l .. ",., Of
""'"' hum," <on,<ru<tion,. un,"' tln.bl, . , oJ coruwll ly probl,moli< .00
It pia> the , ,,I , at"" MOd 1""1'= ".'"bolde .. at ,''' 10" of the i"'l.i,) pooc"".
,II 01 ttoem .. ,toe "', .. at""" ' ..... man In"IIJ """ ... Th< opr>ro><to
that ""Iuato" be """")' elh"," i" "''!'''<'Iing.oJ for .. ' t"" I"rtICII""".
e>p"' I)' t ... cii><nfrarocllised. h.l"ato .. ' ,"too.i,<>I. ,,',n "'pe<,eJ . 10 ma"",
'''' It.. ",'''wotlOfl to ,,,,anc ipat< and in'"',<>1 or .ff",,,,ci di"",fraochi,.,J
peopJ., , .. 1"""", do Ihi. by ""',holde<:' ronsc;oo.n< '" tlut thoy are
,oerp.iLe<j , infotm<d . .00 '0 """,form The "' .. ...,.". mLlll
"''I'''<' "","'ip>n" free w;1I in 011 .. of u., i"'luiry' and >hoold 'mpower!bem
to 0,,11' sIIap< and con,roI ,t>< "".Iu"ion ",';, i,i in ,t><if pr<ferr,d The
inquiry' JIfOC<" muSl be ron';", ,, "i,h ,ffee, i,', wll)" of chanpinp.nd impro"ing
soc""Y_ n.. .... ,"'hoid<-n mu" pday. ""1' role in ,he .""Iualion '1'-"'_
, i"" .00 ,-.riaI>I_ ,h nJdy. tbe ",.Iu_ "'Eularly.nd c""'i nu",,.ly
inform. :owI <oosul" "",.hoIden i" "" "P"''' of,lIe "Oldy, The r=ind<
OIly ."",ial of ",;'n,ifi c "'al uat"" '0 WOf' in ="" and c",,'roUlfillnil"' _
Iat, hu m.n , ubje<'" In u., projlfllm ",'.luOlion. IIle ",'a]w<or bol""", "<f_
if.,.tion , to. di"",Wfl" boI"""" ri[!Of rele<-""", and the use of
and qualilal'''' "",thOOo, The "caI..- oro proI>de< fieh and depocti"" '" _ in and ..... )''' locali')' and """,_
["i'y ",'er The ", .. I"",Of I""i" , lui '""" C3II be no ul' im,"el),
rorrec' conclusions, He Of she exalts open",,, .00 ,110 oon' i"uinp ..,oreh fOf ""'"
informN and illumin:tl i"p o<'''''ru<,ioo .
Thi. approach i . .. moch .-ecr>gIliLallle for ""hat iI reje<1> .. fOf W ha, it propo><>.
I" F""'fl'I, i, OIronply ' \ 1' co, posi';"'i"" ........ for ", ... atioo. wilh it. ",ali ..
objoe'iI';" and "peri"",""" ",,!hod, I, rejoel> any obool u,i"
".ITh !Of 00f"''' II dire<lIy "PI""'" !he OOIion of".lue-f"" " 'aI",,ion
and ,"""d"", .ff"". '0 "urn," bios. II "'ject. positi, delenn;"i .. ", and
re<ilJctioni<l "fUcture ""d il> bel"f in ,lie pos>ibility of fully "odiN
"-
Ad\''''''' "'l'ani",,, of the OOIlIIUct"'i,, :opproach "'" ba..ically ,t><
""'<lmin" placed 011 ,10< "ooy ... nOiN .ro,e. the ""l"i","",,,' of 00 _
bbornIi, " . u"foldi ng inquiry. The "';n I"' fPO'< of't>< approoch i. to delffiTli", .00
maO. "'lIS< of the ,'ariel), of <,",.true""", ' ha! "';" Of """'l'" among ..... ehold_
er>, l"'l"iry' i. "'I" OP<" '0 romJIlunka!ioo and '0 IIle .. ...... )' -
.... and ')l1the,i. offuflh" ron""""ion . Ore """true,i"" i. no! ronsiJe-red IOOfe
"'ru," than <Mlwn. bu, ""'" may 0. iudped .. more informed .nd "",","i<:>,1
,ha" <>Ihe,,_ All ,,':oIuation ronciu,ion, :ore ,'"",'I '" inde"'fm;""", . ,i,h ,0. COft _
,;'uio8 of hellOf ",,,'.-m, AU <""""""ion. "" :tho coo"''' dep''' -
",,"I. In , hi. ""1""'. ,10< " .. Iu""" oc". ",fine ho<Jndori" "" i.

The que"""" >ildre<Sed on ""'''nK';''i" <100;" ranno! 0. delefmineJ indo_
p'oo.", ly ofpanieipanl>' io""",'ion" Enlu .. "" and ..... eho/den ",!""her id,n'i fy
,0. '0 0. "",,,,>SOd. /).oe" ..... ''''''l!' io the proce<' of fornmla!ing
and di,em.i"g ,t>< <I""y' .-..1OIl.1I", ,0" ",heO"1e of discu"i<oru. and
obtoi" in \'Or"",. ,nitllli P'""",' ""'" of to. p<O!IrnITl '" be .,'oI"-' ted , The
que"ioo. del<"P fUflher .,..'er NII'-" of ,10< 'JII'fOO"h'. h"""nou,i< .nd
daIectic Quostiooo may .". moy no! " ,..-'" u., full ""'l" of...." ... -01'1""
on .. "",;ng mef;' and The ... of 'l"""ioo. '0 0" "udied ;.
""".,. coosidere. ,he O'-.I.,to< oollKl> and de>erire. .I"mal i", , oo i,i".,1
coos""",io", on 111 ,,-,Iu .. ioo q""!tion or i,,,,,,. ,n,.ring lhal .""h d<p-ict,on
"""", "'ith ' Il< ""pondent', .WO'-:al_ Communication etlanne l, "" . epl open
, II< i"'l"")' . 00 >I I ","""""'nl> or< .nroulllge-d , nd raci litale-d 10
make IlI<i, inpul< and ore kepi .".,.-;>e< of ail .<p<"Ct> of the SlOOy_ The O'".alor
u" n ""'''' to dial<ct",.1 proc'" . imed ., ""hie" ing .. much NII..,n,", ..
.moog Jiff."n, ronslructio.u. Respondenl> .,. JI<O"ide-d oppoTl U_
nil;" 10 "'" full of "","ruclion iong ,.-i ,h OIhe, "Iovanl inform. _
lion_ The .-.I u>l"" ,ng,,!," ,II< =pon.!en" in a proces. of !tOO)'i ng .00 OOIIIr."i ng
.. <","ruelion,. <""idering ",Ie>-ant >n"".,1 and orll<r inform>lion.
"' ..... oul "'" diffe",,,,,,, the <OIIstruelion,_ . nJ .. far .. lhey
c.n ' owan! """"""". The ron'",",li" i>! .nl..,.1ion in ..".,.,. n<,' ...
The", i, al",lI)'> more 10 I.arn. and ullimat<ly com-el i, """ide","
'mp""'ibie.
G.N .nd lin<O!n (1981 _ ,W, "'" piO<1n in appl)' ing lhe con,lnl<ti""
.pproach ' 0 pI"I'Tllll o".I.aIion, Bhol. discip"' of GUD . has " ' ,"';"0
<>perie""" in .ppl)' ing Ihe co.""",,, i,i>! _""'h 10 program< in Af,ica.
In Gub, . he """"" lhal .,-.Iu>lions at< fu nction"", ooly
of ,II< .. .,uator. .00 in",oolion, "" ilh ,,,kobold,,,, . bUl aI>o of hi. or II<r
JI"f'<"W history and outlook. Tborrw Sch .. an.!, (198-11 . nother of Gu"' .
has . ,ri ' ten w""i,',ly aboul "'" philooophical ofcon>lrucli"i!t ",..
u>l'oo. F,n",,,,,,', (199-11 ,mpo,.-erm<nl ,,,,I",,ion i, olo<ely "igned "" n
con""",lh' i,, ,,.lu>lOO. , i"", it ""'., '0 and ail "'''''oklm. "'P"-
ciall)' too.. litll. in"..,"co_ I-J<yo''''. III<", i '0)- diff.",,,,,e .. n III<
""""""li,'iSl , nO ,mpo,.-."nen, .ul"'lion """"""he<, "'bile the r",,"rueliml
,,,.1 .... ,,, ""arn, rmlrol of ,he .",h'>lion ,nO "'orb ""et.oklen 10 d<v<1op
''('.IS.n .. , . , be ",-alWitor 'g"'" , ulhorily ror lhe ,,.1""1100
'0 """i ng in ,echnic" .. ,ist>nce role.
The conslnl<ti" i" ran be applie-d usef"lIy " 'lI< n .,-..... to<, rlienl . nd
",t.""""'" in program f. lly 'gn-e ,hal the approoch " ..,.,,-opriat< .00 .... 1 they
""'PO""-'I"l-..)' ohoo Id ,.ach '1'"'" menl haseO on "" .nd<,,,andi ng of hal
lhe ' PI"ooch can and c .. not deli",r. They need 10 O<CepL ..... qu<"!1","' and i.sues
'0 he "uJie-d ..-,11 unfoW th,ooghool ,II< proc= They .00 ohoold be '0
",,:oi,'. p<mibly eoo,ratliclory refle-cting ""eoolde,,'
",,'>peel''''. The)' ,hoold ,nov.' Ih" th, .... Ifli r. of the fiooi ng' i, likely 10 be sOOrt
(na unli" any other Oy"uation .ppr-oach. DIll rlean), .., ....... leOped in , II< ron_
!truel,"i" .pproach). They aI>o need 10 ,. 1 .. information Ih" 11flIoly
"Heel> III< ""riely ohta .. oolden' persp<-el''''' and jOOg"",n", I-J<yo"" .... lhey ohoold
not ' _'peel '0 "";w d<Frnil'''' pie_I"'" me,a,,,,,, of outcome, oc ">list.,al ron_
riLl!ions .Doul o,""",:mol eff",,,- While tho .. """"'" can hope for achi,,i ng . <011_
.. "'"' in ,he fiooing'. , II<)' ohoolJ 'Ere< ,,,,-, """h ron",",u, "'" "'"""l'"
:mol ' h>l in an)' ca ,ueh , ,,,,,sen,", woold nor g,nenli" 10 OIhe, sening' or lim<
""riook
,. I , _ ' .d ,,' e ' A. boo ......
Thi. ... . nu ml><, of .. k .n" g". II i. omplary in fully di",looinf
,he ",hoi< .nILl.al"" proc., nd its I( i. c"",i","( ,he
of ill(i,', ,liang' that people "'" ""'" li " l)" '0 ".,'" , nd "s< """"'hin
I"a<! "",,,,,"',,,, he"" if ' hey ore coosuld , 00 in,'oI,'a! in ito ,J""'kIprl,,,n'. II ... .,
...., ,, to dir' ly the full rang. of " .... hoIder> ",ho I>< h, nneJ
or ""Ipal try the " ,.'UOl;OO as import. n" parln", in ,r.. " ',Iu,,,ion
'"rpri5<, I( i, ..uo '0 I>< ed"" .. i,-. for all ,I>< porticil""ts. .... Of 001 . 00II-
""""" i. "",000, II .. .,..'''''' "'ptatioo, for ..-ha( rlienis "'" 10"" >boo , <>us<
nd off""". ilOilo i, <10<, not fi nal ... ,"' .... " """ from a " 'f' .
in i, oearch<, ",'id<ly for in>ight. and to , ron"<ff . n' suE" in
>Om< unifi,d an,nl1 are ,oofol. In oddilioo. it """ p, rticip.nl< '" in" ru_
me"" .. ,he .,'.luOl"". '0" .. ' ing ad"lLIll>.e of tl><ir "Ie"""t
Igo. and ulue thi, p"'OIly ,."1",,,, , fie ""roen of ,J", ..
fi .itl .te" ing. >nd , ', Iidati"p inform .. ion collection in"fU mon" I><f"", u, inp ,Il<m.
The .pproach makes , ff. cti .. us< of qu.Ii , .. i,'. mhod, . nd Lri .. .. '"
from " iff,,, ", 100"'''.
The """"""." li mi,ed in il! """licabilily and has >Om<
Il<c""", of ' Il< -" for full i",'01 .. """, .00 inlffiCt"" through _ ""
Ji"''1' ont ,nd ""'''''1' oot " "-""" i, i. often dilficult '0 produ ,I>< tim<ly "port,
thai >nd Jecisloo m>tol1 dom.:>n<l , Furtl><,. if the .ppm>rh i. '0
""".. it ' <qUi". ,I>< . " .nlion.nd ,,'!'O",iblo p.nicipa' ion of , ""'go of
, .... 00.1"". The approoch ><em, (0 be un".li"blly U'opian in thi, "",aru: wide--
>pI,a<!, in" ,," . nd are ofn ha, d to obIain and 'U'l>.in
throughou, projl flLlll ,,'ai u,,;oo, The Sl ru .. ion ran "" """"rb,a,,,, oy oo,"ioo
' u"" """ of ".hhold"". 111Li1o th, nd ope""""
and full di,do, ure. """" p>nicip" ' b do "'" ..... ( to 1<11 ' I><i, !"i "'" >nd
j ... ' 0 the MCO' .... , " ok.holden """",ime> "" poorly informl
>boot "'" i>oues being :dh'S><d ;n an ""'"",,,,, and tho, ,.." poor data SO\IIT<S, It
<an Do "",-..Ii"ic '0 "P' tha, 'Il< ,,', I .. ,or c:ur and wiU tok, (fie , eed<d '; m<
to inform . .oo then meaningfully i,,'01 .... tho>< ""ho I><gin ., homily of
the projlWll being .,"' ...... , Furthe,. ron",,,,,, i,,;Lt "".Iu" ion, <an be Ereatl y ho, _
do""" by i,i""" .. <" .I"llioo , uk,lloi.Jers <orne and go. and r>pen q",," ion.
add"""" and q",," ion 000"'"'"' pre"iouliy re",he", Tho", i, the fUrlher
i,,,,,, th .. """" "'.Iu,,,ion ci i .. " do no! ,ot, l indly '0 ",'oIL1.a1<n at<
to "port p<f<peC, h'i" am ....... >nd not .... , ,"n" 1
..... i' and "onh, eli,"" 001 altuned '0 ,I>< c""",urli" i" phi_
lOO<Jphy . 00 they may ,-.1 .. report' ,n., inc lude hord <fa .. 00 oU"oo><, >nd
of _ istical oignif""", . Thoy may <XI"'" report> to be ....... on reb--
"", Iy indej><nde . , ","p,, "i,'''' thai "" fre, of panir ipru'" confl im of
i, .. ""Lt , Sioce the ooa>lIUcth' ist approach i cou""rme.,"", to "'1""' _
,ibi' ity for , . ,""""" and f.il"" in a l"'"!,,,m to certa in indi. jOllal. or g'""",. many
poI.:y boards. admi . i", .. "", . M f ... lICial . po.IOn "'" !hi. "'j<-ction of
OCCOll"t"" ili ' y os ""w", .. bi< ",d """,eepubl . I, i. <ll'y to .. y ,ha, ,.1 pefLom in
, Lhoo ld share ,r.. glory or the di'gr.><e, hot 'T)' '0 "II tM '0 an " cel'-
, _ 1"' ", ... ,... "" ". c.-, -.._ "'",...... "
'ion," l), hlIll",orIiinF and , IT,i,.. """h .. in ",hooI pr,,!, '''' .... " ,in.,"ly ""
""" els< tr;', or
,'pp.oo<h ,", ' ... ' ..... 11,. , .. """, ,1<
p,,,,",,, the ... .. ory in the """"ram .,-.luIII"" 1IIOIlo1, <otefl',i ,. i, the
o.li ....... ",-. Jo""",,,,,ic .pproo<h ,,,h.ored oy Hoose .od Ifuv, . (Chop''' n
thi. "ol.me). 111< approach f."",ion> on ",plici t o.moel1lic framowm
.od rharge. ".I.,,or. '0 .phold demoe""ir priori.,.... in on", ,"1<
"""lu OO.u, I, ",,' i<ion, ,,..Iuation ... principl''' . inn""oo i, 1 soc.,,,1
in" ioo ti on, <onorib.'i , to democra<inoioo , h,oofh ' he is!uin of "Iiobl< ord
,.ali.! rilli =
111< ..r,.,,,,,. organim, of de lihe""i,.. democ ' aI'" ".Iu"i",, "'" """ in it> th"",
maio di".,,,,,,,,,,: demorr.lti< p.nicip"tion. diolog"" to ",,"mire and authen,ical'
ItlORholo.,,' inl'""- and o.l io.",ion '0 wi ... 11 .... f .. ,ib .. .".,..... .. of I
profI>III', ..,,-;, :md All !hi tli ... n,;"'" ... < ... ,;0."," "",,"i," in III
"POC" of. ",.nd profI>III ,,.IU>tion.
In ,he "'moe,,,ic di"",n,ion, ,0. 'ppro><h proacti,..l)' i"'n,if,,, .... manges for
the "1";"01< pani<ip"ion of >II in""" ed ,,,,,holden ,h"'"ghou, ,he COO"" of
th, ".ai.,,i .... Eq ui'y i, " .. =d, .od imb>. l""", in ""hich ,n. """"'f' of
JlO"'erful pm;'. "ooid domin, " ,he ,,',"" ion """''"lI' ... rot '01<"'1_ In ,0.
di,qric di"""ioo, ,he ,,.1""'0< ,,,,,hoi"',, and othe, . udi,,,,,e; 'o."i"
i, compiling pRl imi n>ry finding . Subs<q .. n,ly, ' "" rol l,boclton ><rioo,ly <Ii",."
. od deb,o" on. ""fI [indinE' '0 en,"", ,h .. "" , . .,,,, :ore mi",I"'"
"n,I, In the cu lminat ing deliber:>ti,-. .... E' . ohe "',"U1101\') ..,...,,1), romid ... and
di>C\l"", othe .. >II inpu!> obt.i ..... bu, ,hen ",nde .. 0. or .... con.ider>
[.lIy defeo, ibl< .,...,.ment of the PI"!"'''''' "",ri, :md worth. All in","",1 >I .. "
hoIdefs..., in '"" ,,. ILl>tion, and ,he .,..1."0[ their ,."",.,
in the ftn,1 r<por1 . bu t rna)' "I""" di'agree ... ", ",'i,h """" o[ them. 111< .., Iiher,
.ti,-. di"",sion """' the """"0<\' 1 ",,,,hing. ",...,..,.;I """I.';"" by ",,;'winE
inpu'" "''''''inf on.m ",.,hol ... " and .. he", ",floc'inE ......,.y "" >II '""
then ",,,,,hi'F' ."II,j",'if!l CO<1<lu.io"
111< ro the .ppr<<h I> '" "'mo,,",'ic pmicil"tion in the pr<>=>
0( "';"ing 1t "'femiDi< .... " "'"' 0[. program. n-.. .,..lu_'1 "'tellni"". ,0.
e\-.ILl>tion question> '0 ... od.iIsed. bu, 00.. <0 'hrough .od de li o. .. ,,,,,
wi," enf'f'" .. ,.,hoIden. Pr=rnabl)" '"" bottom- line q""ion. roDC<fII j udg,
mer,!! .boot the program', meri , .00 its ""onh to ,"',holde".
,mpIoyal may include di",. """" .-i,h ",.,hohIe.-.. 'U"")'" .od
deb,o"._ Inclu.ion, deli ... ",i"" ... ronsidered ",1e,'II<It at all >Iag<' of
. " ev.lu"ion_ior,ption, de.ign, impl,,,,,,n,",' i ... , ... 1)'>1>, ')'nth<>i" 1"'"
,,", .. ion, and di",.,,;"". Hoo>< .... Ib>" pR"'"' the ["'Im.-ing ton qtJe"i"". [or
.. "",sing the """"",y of. democrillic tlelibe .. ,i,, ,,',ltJalion: Who in",.,," '"
repr""" ... A" major ""cl!ol"',, "'l"""'nII' Are on)' "dudetl A .. ,n.", .. rioo,
JlO"'er im""I..., .. " Are ,he", procl."" '0 control imbal...,,,' 1Joy,. 00 peop" por'
'icipo .. in the .,..Iu .. ioo' IJoy, . u, h<n,io i, tn.ir p..-tic ipo'ion Ifuv,. in,,,hed i,
thei, i",,,,,,,,,ion' Is ' here reft ""'", ",' iOera'ion' 11o .. roru.idefN .00 "teOOeJ i,
,he .l<I,II<,."on'
Erne" House oripin"'eJ till> ,_h, lie and K,"",,'h .. )' tho, nun)'
,n]"",,,,, alread)' impl,n", .. ,lI<i, p<indpiec< . nd poin' '0 on articr. by
Karl""" (1998) to ill",I1>1' thei, >pp<OJICh_ The)' .1<0 ",I., '0 numll<, of ,110<,
.. '110 11:1,', rrac'ie<. ,h" at I,,.,, in p.n ar, comp"' ible wi'h the demo<_
''''''' <liaIojric approach,
The approach i, ')lI>I",.ble a <hen' 'P'''''' to fu oo an ,,-.Iuaoioo tIIat '"'Iuire;
<I<mocm'", partieipa'''' ' of"'te .. , . repte","'''',,'e FlOOr of"""ehokl"" Thus. the
lun.iiop .pm ...." II< wili ioS 1o tL'" "I' sufflCie", 1""'''' to aI"", inl"''' r,om a
wi", ,anS' of".l<hol<ie'l>. <>Ii)' Ji",to.ure ofprel imrrwy ftndiog> '0 al l inlere"ed
part"", """ oppor1uoit"" lor Ih< """'holders '0 pia)' an inft"'"tr.' role '0 reach_
i"l' Ih< fi "",' """,'.<ions, OIl'ioo<Iy, ' group of"'"'"hol<ie.> mu" be
' 0 e<lpg< in "I"'n and me,moprul dWojl:IlO .00 deh'ora'ion '" all <tag<> 01
the "'W)'_
The ..,.,...,..,h r... m.")' oJ, .... p,,_ It i direct .... mp< to m.>Ice "" ' ",,,ion, JU" ,
j , <IIi,.., for .l<mom"ic panic'pa'ion ofSlale-hol.Jen '" all <ta[l of the "-""",ion,
j , see"" 10 inrorpo"te ,he """," of all inle<,,,eJ panie . ioc looiop .. ,00 ou, _
&",nl",,"chised . n.! FlOOr<, ., .. lbose OOfltrol lhe 1"'''''
stri nF" M"mnplul",n"""ntic i"'ol""n,o( ,hook! .Ii"", the e\" ' LlO(ion '0 the i""",
Ill'" people <ore .bool.nd inc, ine them (0 =pect and use , II< evaluation find inF"
The "f'P"03Ch emplo)', to .. amine and .uth,n"<." " ""ehokle,,' inp"",
A key oJ,""tap' "' .... '0"''' OItIe, ""'-0<"")' 'I'!"o",,"'" " ,hat (tie de"""", .. ",
""",," e",I"""" "pre"")' "''''''''' , tie ,,, flJ le ou, iol'"" tha, ar, ronsidered
inron-ec' '" ."",hlC. 1. The "-.,"",,,,;, "I"'n 10 all """eOOkien' """,'" evefull)' roIl_
>i.Jen , 11<",_ bu, ,hen rende" .. .l<le",ible 'ju<lp"",n' of(tIe proS"""" po><ibIe,
He or >Ile 00e; 001 '""-" the for re""ruog > fmal ""'wn<fl(
to n"'JOIlt)' "Ole of of whom ar, ,.te 10 ""," conHk" of
inl""" and be un inhoned, In "oo",inS > fi .. , the ,,'a ILIa"" en""".
,,,,or,,
..., Hou", .00 1\0\0." hlI"e the ",nlOC''''''' dWojl'" "I'I'K"' h IS. >I
lIli, U"". """,al i"", .nd ol"'n <>0001 be f"lI), applied. The 'l'I"oach-----<n offe,i nF
and "I"'<'inS full JemO<IlIIi< participatl"" in orde, (0 m.ale an "'.'u,,,ion wor<_
",mrnd< me of. ooIIe>.P"" u"'" to de<pai' of " .... '-S'"F or
"'StIe, eJ"" .. i",,_ lie would sa)' , h .. an)' "I""" of ou, "ni"er .. il)' would
"",",re "''ef)' prof",..,.. (0 11<, Of hI< ,_ 10 "iew of , he "<I)'
.mbilioo, detnan<!< of"", democlllllC dWogk 'l'I'f'Oa<h, H"" ... nd ,'''''" ""," pr0-
pos! it '" an ideal 10 be l ,p< 10 mind ""'" " -.,"",,,,, .. ill ",kbn_ II "''''_
be .1>1< ' 0 :>etOe,,, il
.. pp.....,h ll' U' Uh"" .... Vocu_ " ," ......
The utrli""ioo_f""."'" opprooch is "1'1"'.')' searal to en,"", thlIl
",-.1 ... """ ""'" "" Im"",,( (P.lton. a..p.e, 2l Ih" ,'ol umel_ I, IS ptoc<" lor
<"""'" aboo l .. ",-at"","", "W)' in roll,"""",,,,,, > llip<teJ p,oop of
priori'y u",,,, ... Ieel<d from a broad<, s<1 of,talffioIden. in order 10 locu. eff",, _
ti,,")' 00 'lloir inle rwl<d use> of ,he <".Iu"ioo. All ospe<I. of . Ul iliL",ion_focu"'!
projIram .,'.Iu",ion are coo..n :wi "WIled '0 IIolp lhe wgele<! use.-. obI.oin and
>j>pI)' e\'aluaIion fiodi ng' 10 the i, in"ndN us<>.:md 10 """imi", the likelihood ,ha,
ther will. Socii SIndi<-< more fo, the dilfe",nc. or rmke in impfO"i ng
and infi u,oci ng <l<-ci.ioo. and ""ion, lhan 10< Il><i, eleg""'" or ,nnkol
"celle""e. No mal", bow good an e\'aluaIion "f>O<1 if i< only >i1S 00 II>< sl-df
&"lIori ng du". then il .. ill not con"i"" pOOli",I), ' 0 the ,v.l"",ioo :md pouii>ly
>Ilould not ha,'e be<n ..-rillen.
PI"",,,,,nl ofP""on', " .... "ion "PI""""h .,ithin the cnel""J' ')'>I,m u"'"" in thi,
chapler proIllemlllt<. His en..,.." n. pbc<d in the So.w Al"'nda >lion
b""u", i, "'lui". democllllic partieipl!' ioo of. "'ps<n'lIti,-. group of ""'ehold_
=- whom 10 de' onni"" the evlllualioo quostion< :lIld inlorm.>lion
....n. Pallon l'i, .... mcn ,ulhorily "' .. the ,,,,"lItion 10 inc",,,,,, the liUU
hood Il10, ,a. fLndi ng>..-iII be u...!. Ho\>.'e\' . Ul iliL1tionf"",,,,",, " ':>IL1OILoru do not
n<ee>saril)' ad"oc"", :Ill)' "",,", socn ... ffirmaoil. ""ion 10 right injust"'
:md 1><11" >erw the 1""', While tho "I'I'fO""h i, in with II>< Lrnprm'e-
mentl:lITOOntaOiIi')'-ori"" teO "PI""""n.. in deci,Loru.
:md inH>ki ng II>< Joi nt Committee (''194) S,.nJ"rJr, il does _
quite fll 11><"" It does not. lor .umpI<. "'lui re .. """""IllS of "",ril :md worth, In
lOCI. Palloo ""''''i.lly .... said thai his is p<agm",io:md ubiqu ilou,. In the
in""e" find ing> used. .. i ll drll..- upon 1Il)' leg ill""' appro.>eh 10 ",01-
.... ion. out lilly part. tIW mighl irnple us<. A, for the dilefTvn. of <ale_
the Uliliz.,ioo_BosaJ E""I"",ion Modol. the re>dor .. i ll _0 pi""'"
I'>t\on., <h.pte, in this ,'oIu"". not in the Soci .. E,..halioo Modol, olioo.
oo t in the >eelion 00 ,,.,<mIThlng mall", (Seclion V).
The ad,'""" Ofganim. of uliliL",ion_focu","" projI",m .,..I"",ioo> are. in tbe
abstrnct. lhe fIO'-'ible u"''' .00 u,." to he ",,,al. from inillal coo_
ption. the .,..1"",04' 100'''' .. directly .. """ ihle 10 Wenlily in concre .... nru
tho oclual ... " 10 I>< "",al. Throog h <>",ful :md thoroog h ami),'" of ..... eboId_
on, lhe e",brat04' idoolif,os mulliple and "an..J per>pecti""' and io" re'" lhat
"""'id be re""",n,"" in tho "ooy. flo Of >he on .. Iect> tl1.at
10 ,,")' tho price of .u .... "'i .. inH)"'e",'" arwJ Ihal "'JII""' nl< lhe progrllIll',
'llI.k<hoIde". The """1",,,04' Il><n mi, di<nl 10 clarily ,.-hy they neetJ
the ,,'''uatioo. ho ... they in .. nd 10 >j>pIy it. . they ' hi ok sI>ould he
rond uct<d. and ')'pe' of",port, { . .. oraIandior pri nt <dl should I>< p",,ide<J .
He Of.be lacili",,", u""s cl-.oic<, b), me nu of"""ible informa_
lion. :md report! for tbe " ...... ion. i, ...... not 10 ,uppl)' tbe <iIoico. bul
10 help II>< cl ient group locu. :md <II:Ipe tho "'-<!y. The main "",.ible
uses of ",,,I,,,,,ioo eootemplat<d io thi, .pproa<h are .,,,,,,n,,,", of moril
.nd wonh. improw,-.,nt. and generation of lnowletJg . The approoch .00 , ... .."
II>< ,,':>1 _ process ;1",lf. "",i ng il., helpfu l in ,horN
,,,,"eholde,,. ,upport 10 projIlVIl . promoliog partiei.,.'ion in it.
and and .. i"'ional c:>pa<ily. to P,"on. I><n
the "'aJU>tioo proce ;. ooorwJ and func';onaL , prin' .o fLII,1 report mo.)' not he
",,11.
In int<nde<J U"'r<. ,he e"'"tWO< 'mpha';",. tha, ,ho projfram
,,_ion', purpooe must he to them the ;nforma';00 they ..",.j '0 fulfill , heir
OOj<'cti,<>. Such obj'i,'" ma)' include oociall)' "aluablo aim uch >II
.,.-.,I>1,ms of ilillefr)'. crime. hu nger. oom.Ie=, """mpla)''''''"' ' """>e.
'POO'" """"'. ,ub= .bu",. iii""". aJ ie ... ioo. di>crimin,uioo ..... Inoori,h""'nt.
:m<l bu""ucrlltic ,...,t<. Ho<>"e\'<f. it i. the ''''1'0t.o ">e<. who <letenni""
the projf"m '0 be e,., .. ",I. wh'" inform"i"" i, "'quiri. hoYo' .00 i, mu"
he "puttl.:m<l how it .. ill be ""'".
In !hi, .pproaoh. the .,.I"",or i, no icooocl .. ,. bu, ratbe, ,be into n<ie<J """,'
",,"" .. Among other """'. he ..- she ;, facilitator. The ", .. I""'ion """'kl
the full c""S" of pro(=iomI ...oo..-m I..- progtlIffi "1liualicn<. oct jU!! utility. The
.-aJUaIor""," , he",f..-. be an ,I/.."i", negotiator . tl/l<linF "" pri""ipb of >ound
.,aJ"",ion. bu, hard '0 g''''' def.n,ibie projfran\ "-.,",,,ion to ,be ""Fct<'<l
""",' ."""i"l' """"'. The ",iliz.>t;OII_focuS<'d 0\.1",";011;, con,idelftl .i'ua,ion.1 and
d)'Damic. on the eireu""",,,,, ... tbe ,,,. lua'O( rna)' pla), ..,y of. ,.riety
of roles-lrlli"",. m,,.,u,,,men' "'pert. in"rnal roU,"l'ue. ,,"mal "pen ..... 1),".
>pOk,,!,,,,,,,,,, or m<'<li.>tor.
Til< "voluator woct, with ,he larJr,ted u,.". '0 "'term;", ,he " 'aJ",,,ioo q .....
'ioos. Soch que;tioos "'" to he "",,,,,,,ined locally_ mo.)' .&.Ires, "")' of. rnllS"
of c"""'m<. and prob.abl), " 'ill rhang. ""er time. Example foci are pr""e.,... OIl,
<Orne>. and cost benefit>, The chosen 'I"""ioru life kept fron' .nd
Cftl...- and [ro"ide the ba>i. fO( , nform"''''' 0011'00 and pLtns 1M
"",;,i,;'" .., k>ng .. u"''' continu, to ,.1"" and pay "'ten';"" to the
O/" n. """"e\'l"I. ,he .... I .. tor and dien' gJoop .. ill adapt. chang, . or ",fin< ,he que<-
,ions .. ,fie ", .. I"",ion "nfokl .
All ",-01 ... , ion metl.,.!>:If. f.ir g.am< in. u,iIiLllli",, _focuS<'d progmm O\'oIu",;"".
The .,.I,,,,or ere,,;,..I)' <mplo)' w ..... "'r me'hod, "'" "'ie, ... { . g __ quan, ita_
a,,, ar>l quaJ it"i"" form"',,', and ",mmati,,,. n,u' rll iistic and "["rimen .. ll. A, far
.. poosfulo. the utilizaliOll_focuS<'d ,,.Iuatoc put< ,fie eli .. t group in -,he dri,",,
",,,," in d<t<rmining ,,-aJuatiorr methods 10 <n>U1< ,ha, ,he ,,,,1""0< focu",. 011
their""'" imputt.nt 'I"""i""" 00I1<ru the right information: "I'I'lie. ,he "levant
,' aJ",,, ....... '" ,he act;on_orientoo que"ioru;: use< techniq"'" they ".pect:
"port, the infOfTllat ioo in a form and at. ti me ' 0 m",imi", u,'" roo,'i""", ".""_
holder< 01","" ,,"u.noo', int<gri'y and ""'"''''y; and fodlitllt'" , he u",,' . tudy.
application. oppropriat.-<li""mi""''''' 01" fLooing.. The 00.., for in',,_
pr<'in8 " 'aJ"",;on findins. "'" ,he u .... v.I"" . ar>l the .",Iuator will engage in
,.1"", ct",ificati"" to ''''''''' that " 'aJuati,,, information and int<rpr<tlL';"'" .."w
....... ptJrpo"", U"'" >l< .,"i,.ly iovol",0;1 in fi nd inF', ,he
", .. I"",ion JI<O'"<". ,he ,,"" .. or boi""" .. ,fie cone"", for u'ility .. ith [ro'isioo> for
,1liidj,y",," eo"..,ff.."i",,,,,, .
In g,nenI. ,ho me'hod 01" u,iliza,ion _foc""," prog'= ",-oIu","" i, I.be""
'""' i"e-",,,,,' i,<-adopti''''oo .i,"OIi"""lI), "'p<>II>i"': "mp/Ia>izi ng , hat the method_
oIojl)' "'o!'e< '" re,roo'" to .Jelibe,,,,,,,,,. betw""n .. ',lu"'01 :>nd diont
.nd in ro,lSHJ<.r""OO of ronte" .. 1 d)'nama. P"'t"" {19971 ")" th,t ',,,,1_
u,"'" are "'ti,', in pr<n'ing to in .. nde<l " .. " thei, own be" .t>ou,
'ppr<lIl,i>1' "'aI"",,,,,, f""u, and metOOd>: they "" reocti,' , in Ii, .. ' It,nti,'el),
,nd re,,,,,, tfuliy '0 ",Ile<, ".nc<,n" .oo they are adapti'''' in finding to de>ign
"'a/u"'""" 'hat ioe"".,.. ... mwr", ,n"""'" , . while """"ing "ig" sundord, of
",of"'iOll2I pBrtl (p. 3SJ,"
P.tton (l9S0, 198'!. 19\4. 1997. Chapter 23. thi, ,'olume l ;. the I<adi,,!! propo_
.. nt 0( utili",,""' baseJ ",'a/u",ion. Othe, >Ii, .. "",,,,, of ,he 'F'fI"OO"h "'" Al<in
Cron""" and A>soc""", O.si, .00 .nd the Jojnt
Committee on Standard, for Erloc .. ional hal ... "", (19811>. 19\4),
As def,ned b), Patlon. the 'ppr<>a<" ba, "i N",liy un' ,'ers.o! appIic.trillty. It i, ,i,"
",ioool :>nd 0 .. be t>iknd to """" lUIy ""a/u"'"", .. , ignmeflt. It ,arri<.
it the mtegrit), of sound ",',Iuat"", priocipio., Within the>< g,,,,,,,1 roostraln ...
,he "",1 ... 0< "" goti ... , al l "'peru of the "caluat"'" to ..,'" ,,,,,,if,,, indi l'id u.l, W 00
,."."j to ho progrnm ",'aI ... "", performed , n<l "'100 intend to 1Tcl. roncl<t.
us< 0( th' The "'al uator ",I\s from ,he entire ""[!e of ",..hi""", tech
nique' """'" ,h .. be>l ,uit ,lie particular "".I .. t""'. And the ""a/uator pla), >1\)' 0(
,,;0, ""pe of "'aI"",,,,,, .nd improwrr"'nt_relatf'd rob th .. fi , the local "",d>,
The .ppr<>a<h "'Iu;"" , ubst."ti.1 oolia)' of ti"", :>nd relOOr' b), 011 partidp.anl>.
boIh fo< coorJocti np the .,-.I ... ioo and the fo!lov. _throoglr ,
The a_h i< [!earN lO m.ximiLin; e\'.hi,,"'" impa., It fit , well "'ith '''Y
Jlfincipio 0( Ind" ,",".I. ore """" liliely to ..... ""nd. \'lI."'. and u!< the
of an ."Iu .. ioo if the)' .. '''''' in,.oh'od in the <nterpri"" A.
PaIt"" (1997) "'Y,."by >cti ... ly in"o!"ing ",imary intende<l u""'- the " .. 1._ i,
U!<'n ,n use. prepari ng the ground,,'on for ... , and re infordng ,lie intendod
utility of , .. "".1" .. ""," Ip. 11). The approach ,ng'8" "'l <oolder> to d"errn i..,
the ",'oI tllIt""," I""J'O'<' :>nd prorodu"" . nd u"" t" " i,,-o!,.me'lt to promot. the
.'" of It ",I"" more reali Slic _" to 'talehoJd<, j"'O],..,,,,,,OI than
oorne ",be, .,h"OC3CY 'ppro .. d"". R,,", th.., to re", h .nd ... ort with all
sul,hoId< .. , Patton' . approach w'on. conere .. ly ",11. "pre",n"';". g'oup
of u"' .. , The approach <mpha>izes ,'lIILIeS cl" if",,,,,,,,, :rod "'tend, do .. 1y to 000_
",,,ual d),n:lIllic . It m.)" ",locti,..,ly .'" all)' and all reb ..,t "'aI"""",, procellS.I."" frndinE' f,om diff,rent S<IUfCeS. Frnally, the .pproach "res .. , tIr,
..,N to meel all """'''''' ,,:mdards for " ,.1 ... ;00,.
p,tton "'" the main limlt",ion 0( the 'JI!>IOOCh to be turno,'", 0( ;',",-od u""' ,
R.plac ....,nt u,.". may requi re that the progrnm ",'aI ... "", be
may he """"SlII)' ' 0 ",suin or the p<ospe<1. for .,'oIu","'" imp><'" B.t if
("OIl .00 d<<3i1 01 delay ,he jItO<"e>' , Further. til< 'JIPfOJICh ... ms to to. , .. 1_
rrerIDI< to corruptioo b), U>ef glOOl". "...., they ore '" moch rorrtrol "'",.
who' ... iU be kdod ", the G"'''joo, odd.",.,.j, til< """OOd, .mployN. and the
informati"" obtained, S .... OokIers "'itt. "",,"ict> of in""," may iOltM><OJlfiat.ly
infl"""". the " ,. 1 ... """ F..- ".mpl<. they may inappropri", ly limit the ",'a/u .. "'"
'0 >u"'" of the iml'M .. t que>tioM, It may .00 he oImo>1 imp"',ible to
"'!'f"",ntal il'< u,.". to "" ,uff",knt rommit""' .. ofti"., and .. fe_
[!liard; to <n,u" "" <lhicoJ. dwl proc<" of data <oIJection. and u"' , More-
",'e< . ff""iv< imple"",n"ltion of ' his "PPro.><h "Gui re, , <ompe' en' .
ooofideot " ':>1"",,,, who "'" 'PI'"""h .. y ,ilu"i"" fl<xibly "it""'t
"""" prof<S.!iooa) <tvId>rd>. Str""l' of ""pori"ion .. os""t .... and to" " ',Iu_
>t", mu" I"""'" perti .. in !he l ull "np< of qu""'itoti",, ,00 q":>Iil>ti,,, .,.,,1 .. _
tion """hoJ,. "ro<ll' <omm"nk"i"" and polilicoJ stilk. and wocli np kOO\\bll'" of
>II appIic:>ble.1>iX!.1rtls fo< <",I"",iOll'. Unfon"n"ely . IlOl m:lIl)' e,'oJu""",re suf_
r"i"",ly Inli...d and "I'<""n,,," to ""'" !he", ",,,nfemen" .
The UliliL>lion_i>a>ed 'pproa<:h to "':>Iu,,,,,,, mndude. ,hi. <h,.-' , di"""ion
of """ ... 'geIXW,,,h' oc,",y "I'PfO"'o",. The fool "I'PfO"'hes <ooc'"tmte 011
",'oJu"ion an in"ru me nt of """iaj iu", and mode>ly ",wi r.ooor in
fin<l illg. Ihot ofte n "", '''*"goou 00 oontra.di"OfJ" All foul "I'PfO"'hes promote
",ili"""", of ,",'oI,'e"",'" of .taI;eIIoIder .
Of the ":.riel)' of "v.lu"i"" 'pproa<:hes 11ta( """l'f'<i " uring the W o(ul)'. ni""
can be kkfl(ifi ed as the and ""'" lor con(inoed "'" and ,Je,." .
opme nt be)'ond to" )"., 2(1)1 To" orh<r I) 'pproa<:o", oJ", "arying
of but I rhose io t1ti, ion to loc", on I to to< the most
promi>iog 'pproocl><., The "'in!" of to"", opproocl><. appear .. TobI< I. The)' ...
li"ed in oro",- of """It. II>< c"'<goo .. of Imf>l0,,,,,,,,otlAcrounlability. Soci.aI
MiionlAd,,,-'3<)'. ,00 Qu<"iooio'MothoJ .,',1"""00 'pproa<:""" The "'"
b.o>al 00 !he Joi nt Commi tte<' Pm"""" 1:,,,1.,,,,,," S,u",u,,,j, and ,..<f< deli,',," by Ihe
,utilor a 'P"'iaI to !he 5",..Jo"] .
All oi"" of the approocl><' earneO "v..,11 of Vel)' Good. ""'I" Amedi
tation. "' .. judged Gcol ",.-<raII' The Ulilization_Bosed and Cho"'_
C.nteled "I'PfO"'he. =<1,'0<1 ,"'i np. m lhe ,,:mdar", "", ofUtility. wtUk
the ikei,ioolA:""n"l>ili ly """roacll ,..'"' ju<iged ElIlknl in p""'isions fo<
A""racy. The rnting of Good in (he M"uI3<Y are, fo< the auto""." Moo it"'_
insfV:>Iu<-Addeed and informatioo u\ed: in its narrow
>pOe" of appli,ation. the 'pproa<:h f>I"";o" tecllnically ""'00 information. The
ooml'""",,'eiy lower ralings !'iWII to !he Acrreditali"" :.pproaoh """It from its
labor i ",ensi ,.< and <xpensi,'" its , u""l"il>ilit)' to ronfli<t of i nt,,,,,,, its ","""Ii""".
on ",If_report> and brief .ite . i.its: and it> i., ul", "",,= to indef><oo<n(
...... , :>Iu.,oons. Ne",nhel= the disti""tly Amffic .. :lIld 1"'''-a5i,'' ."".di",ion
'pproa<:h ;, , nt"",dled, .-Ill "'ho "'" " "'" """ IS! to il in the ""' ..
of "'''no .. id, nti fied ill thi. chapt<r. Tile Coo,u"",,_Ori.nIN approacll oJ",
des<-r'.-<S its spociaI pIao<. wi'" it> enlfNsi. 00 independenl os"""""'" of rl<"eJopOO
prod""t> >r><J "",k .. , Whil< the 'pproa<:h i. not <'P""i:>ll y """Ibbl, (0 inte,nal
.,../U"ioos for iml""'"meot il .. , ..,h .pprooche. '" ou tsider.
e.pen "n thai i>'omo. import""t when prodlK" >lid ""',ices :If< put up lot-
dj,,,,ou,,,,,ion,
The C= Study appro.><h score" "'phi npl)' "",II. "on,idonng that it i, focu",d
oo.se ofa pankul", te<hniq ... An od.rIod OOnu, i. tlta!" catI be ompI<>yN 00 it>
o ... n Of as 0/>11)' of tbe other "PI''''"'''''''' A, ""ntioned pR"lOU>Iy.
the o"mocratio o"liberati," .""""",h" new.nd 'W.r< to be for t""inp
.00 fu nb<, do\.loptTlffit. Enally. tb< Con"""'ti"i" .ppro><h i, ,
mainly qU, litati;" 'JIIII"N"h to .,..Iu",ion that 'y,,,,,,,,,,,,,,I!}' in1<,-.,1I
parti .. to help roodoc' both the diw'l"''" .nd <."w"p.nt sIaF> of "ai",,,ion. An
in >ll the ni .. approorhe> , .mm.",ed in Table 1 00d0 .. .11 fo< tb< futu," appIi_
"",ion and furtb<r ..,,.k>pment of .I"'mati,, JIfO:IIram "" aiuatHln "I'Pf"""'be<.
The I"" half of the 1If' <e nt ury .. w ron.idetable ""'do!,,,,,,,,t of prog,am ",',I""'ion
_"""he>.!n thi, ,h'I""', 22 ident,f>al approorhe, ""'" proof>l .. j<OOoe,aiu._
q """ion"'method'-<JI"i."tod '" a/u",ion>. im prO\ """,,,t! ""oontabi Ii t)' _Ofie n ted
"".Iu"i.,... . nd social mi"ion/.,I\ oc""y " alu,,,ion . Apon from
the",,, amonp ttl< _11<, .. i."",.,inply baJaoced <r-"''' lor ",Io>-"""".:lnd
iu"i<;" Clearly, ttl< 'JIIII"N"b<, are a orientatioo to ,,...hoIder
in'ol,."",nt and the "'" ofm,ltipl' methods.
WII<n romp..-.d to prof .... ionaI stan<bnls f", JIfO:IIrnn ,,alu",ion,. the hest
>ppr"""tl<, "" doci ,ionl"""ountallility. uti liLOtion t.ased, d ient -u"",,,,d. c"",."",,_
ori<nted. ".s< ..ooy. democnl,k ..,Iiberat;" . ("""rueti,",,. accreditatioo . nd oot_
oon-.<-> """"tOfiop. Whii< H"",", .00 (Cha[o:'-'" n tll,. "01, "",) democr>tie
delib<.-.ti,. appro""h i. ""w and in thei, "iew uttll'i:lll . it h .. many "I."",n" of.
000 00, . ffti,, " 'ai ",,,ioo appro.><h and merit> study. furt be, de\.loprnent. and trial.
The wont .. " w ... foond to b< tb< polit.,..l)' cootrolled. puOlie relati"",. >c"",nt_
abilit), lespeciaIl)' po),ment 1' "" ult. darifieation and p'ogrnm the<ry_
bo><d _lies. The mI 1<11 in the middi<, A entl".1 :.nail'oj, of ttl< .ppro>o<b<.
has ' mpon."t implielliioru fOf ",ai.:lIOfs. tho>< "",, train " al """,,,.
roocem<d with be"", "oncept> and ,nd tho>< in pro-
JIfO:II".m .,..,"",ion.
A m.jor eoo,ict.ration for tb< practiti""'-'l" i. ,hat ",'ai"", ,,,, ""y '.''''<lnl<r coo_
sidembl< d,ffi", I, i" il tb<i, rr<ptions 01 the study bei np under,., .. diffe, I,om
tl-.o>e of thei, dl<nts .nd ... di.""",. F""I""ntl),. die"" .. ."t pr>!i'kai ly .,h."ta_
[!<OIl ' <Iud)' pe,lormed. ,.-hii< the " , 1"",,,, w,,"" to condu" q""'ioml",,,hod,_
",iented ..00 ... ,h .. 0110..- him Of he, to "pk>i' the rnethodoI""ies in ... hieh he
Of ..... ""oed. MOfeQ\ ..... "dion"" usuall), w.nt "ai""'-<JrtenteJ <ludi .. ' hat
" 'ill II<lp tbern Jetermi., ,II< reL1til< me"t> and worth of pr",,""". '"
od'...,lI<l' ,,'aiuation, ,h.t "'iii gI," tb<m ,oic. in the i",",,, tll" aff",t them. Jf""ai_
ua'on ipoore ttl< liUl), eoofliet> in PU'I""">. the Jlf"!'Jam ",a/u. tion ;, probably
000med to fo,l. At ... ,,ai .... ion, ""t> .. . ",-alu""" m",t be "'nl), to ttl< i,
('"n for til< ,tndy. as .. tho 'hat are held by the dl<n' and the or"'"
.ndi, o"" . Furttl<, . the " '.Iu",,,, sIIooid od\ i", in"oI,'eJ poni .. of
I""'-i"'" "",fl ie" in ttl< ,,''''uatkJo', PU' POS'" and ,,,,,"Id. at to. ""poti_
"'e , romroon .""""tall,Hnp of tbe " 'a/u,,,ion', PufJ'O'< and the 0M'"Of'liate
.' L_
o __ ",_. ". ,-.... ....
'.1' .... ""' ! ..... " .. 11 c..-y __ ......... OJ
'pproach, h aJ "",,,,,, should >Iso "'FIl lall)' inlorm panidp.n" in ' hei, <I' , I .. ,io." of
,110 ",lected "PI"'=h', logic. ratiooole_ pro ... :lIld I"tl.II,. Thi. "'ill .nh.ne< "" .
holde,,' NOpOfatioo and NMlnleti," "'" of findings.
E ... I"", ion 1""1'''''''' ,hooi<l .ff<cti,,ly :>ddre<. ,ho l<rm.nt m'" , 00
<Io""I<II"""n' of new p<O:IIflIm ,,'aJLIlIIioo .... _ Trainer> 'OOuld dif<'ctiy "'ach
'hm ,,"de nts .boot ,nd inc""mgly sop/>i"k",ed p<O:IIram .... I,atioo
'l'P"oocllo . Wheo ,,"""" .. <1e",ly undor".nd the approoche> . nd I"0"ided they
know "'hen :lIld how ' 0 apply ""'m 11>01 "ill be in posi' ion to d;><,rn
'W''''''Oe' "'" n .rth and wbich are not
For !he theore,ici.., . ' mai" poi nl i. 'hot ,110 __ lin. Oal. inh.,,"t
:lIld "",alnes= In ,110 of tho pollticaJl)' oriell,ed studi ..-. that
'lIoy..-e ,"I .. rabl, to <onfiicts ofin1<"" ,nd rna)' mi<lead >Il .udi,""e into de,"I
opi"g >n "nlou nJed.pernap. ' ITOn<OU . of. meri,.nd wonb.
The m.in ",,*",m 'Oe q"">tioo" method. -ori<n,ed st, d;'" i, that '''y ofte n
addres, que"ioo. ' hot are too naITOW '0 ,uM"'" lull ' '''''<rT>e0l' of meri, aJWJ
..-orth. How,,''''. ;t i ...., thai 11>0.., 1)'1"" of "ud;'" compel< f.HIf_
obi)' ..-ith iml"0I'<lTl"n""",oontobilil)' . orientN ",'aJu",ioo "ooi", .nd social
stoo;., in til< .ffidency of ...,thodoI"1'y .mployed. Impro"".
"",nt!ocrountability. oo.n"'d "00;' . wilh , .. ir , o .. ,,,,nt,,,,ion 00 """;, and worth,
unden"e. "'0' .mbi,;oo ...... . lor it i. "irtually impoiIlle to full y and ""'"G"" "
oc:dl}' .. "'" >Ill' ul,i"",,,, v.-orth, Such >II ach i,,.men' requi",
onU"",;',.,.. infall ibilit)'. ,n en" iron.....,t. ""d.n u"'l",,"ioned.
1..- ".1 ... ba><. N"erthole,,. the .".mp' '0 addre .. 'I"""ioo< of meri,
.nd .. orth is """,tiaI for , .. ",h .oc<men' of "", .... 1 . FiIUlly_ the .0d.1
mi"ioNod"ococy " ud;'. :lIe '0 ho appiaoo,d for their q""" 1.,.- '"Gu,,)' .. "",II ..
.. ."Ilene. in P""!!""'" being stooied_ 'Thry mOOei ,hei, m;"';'" by '0
IJl.1te ",':>I,at'oo, pani<"ip-atory. demoe",'" en"'<pri. Unfortunately_ m:lII)'
",end "",h .'opian 'JlIl<O"'Oe'. The ... are "I"'i:>l ly "''''' plible to bin.
:lIld they face pn>etbl ron",.in" in . nd .mpov.-erins
.taleOOjde".
For the ......... ioo prof"'i"" i""lf. the 'Hie ... of pl"1'mlTl ""aI.atioo
Ulwi<""oreo the importance 01 ,,:lIld.,J, and Prof.uionol .. aOOard
...., needed to mainrain oorui''''OI' ly high hel 0( in .,,'" of ,he ,'oriou.
_"",he<. .ppro><lie '" enh.lI<ffl enl."",. " y , .. ir >Iud,,,,
to prol.uiooal ... nd"d, lor ""aI."ioo .nd obtai n inde[l<nJ,n' rel';"I" of ""'i,
.,-.I.",ions_

,. A 1<>< .. d<-. 0.""-" ..... ,.. ""mil "' .... 0/..",1, '-<I .. __ "". !kat_
"""'''..,...II, """",........,, ..... _ . 000;I.u.., 1 '"" "",,,,, ,I< .," .. ' 0/,....,
r .. roo, ...,n, w,;po.! , _ 0/3 ! ! ... , .... _. , ..... " 0/"_ , .. I. , _
"", , ........ , "' ..... """_ 0/ ....
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