Chapter 13: Vectors and the Geometry of space

13.1: 3-dimensional coordinate systems. Points in 3-D coordinate sys-

tem
A point P is represented by a triple (a, b, c), or P(a, b, c).
a, b, c are the x-, y-, and z-coordinates of the point P.
In the 3-dimensional coordinate system, we have octants.
The rst octant has all coordinates (+). The other octants arent numbered.
Axes and Planes
In 3-D coordinate system the axes are:
The x-axis is set of all points (a, 0, 0) (only the x-coordinate can be non-
zero).
The y-axis is the set of all points (0, b, 0).
The z-axis is the set of all points (0, 0, c).
Several important planes are:
The xy-plane is the set of all points (a, b, 0) (all points with z-coordinate
0).
The xz-plane is the set of all points (a, 0, c).
The yz-plane is the set of all points (0, b, c).
Distance from planes
The magnitude of the x-coordinate of P(a, b, c) is the distance of the point P from
the yz-plane.
[b[ is the distance of P from the xz-plane, and [c[ is the distance of P from the
xy-plane.
Projections onto planes
For P(a, b, c), the projection of P onto the xy-plane is the point Q on the xy-plane
and closest to P. This point is Q(a, b, 0).
The projection of P onto the xz-plane is R(a, 0, c) and is the closest point on that
plane to P. The projection of P onto the yz-plane is S(0, b, c) and is the closest
point on that plane to P.
1
2
Example 1. Let P be the point P(2, 3, 5). Draw P, and nd the projection of
P onto each of the xy-, xz-, and yz-planes. What is the distance of P from each of
these planes?
Cartesian product The Cartesian product R
3
= RRR = (x, y, z) [ x, y, z
R is the set of all triples of real numbers. This corresponds to the set of points in
3-dimensional space.
The rst octant corresponds to the set of triples of positive reals.
Curves vs Surfaces In 2-D, the set of all points (a, b) satisfying an equation in x
and y is a curve.
In 3-D, the set of all points (a, b, c) satisfying an equation in 3 variables x, y, and
z is a surface.
We will often need to indicate whether this should be done in 2 or 3 dimensions.
Example 2. The equation x
2
+ y
2
= 25 gives rise to both a curve and a surface.
What are they?
Distance
For points P
1
(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and P
2
(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
) the distance between P
1
and P
2
is
[P
1
P
2
[ =
_
(x
2
x
1
)
2
+ (y
2
y
1
)
2
+ (z
2
z
1
)
2
.
Example 3. Find the distance between P(0, 7, 5) and Q(2, 2, 1).
Spheres
A sphere is the set of all points P(x, y, z) which are a xed distance r (the radius)
from a xed point C(h, k, l) (the center).
A sphere is an example of a surface, the equation of which is
(x h)
2
+ (y k)
2
+ (z l)
2
= r
2
.
Example 4. What surface has the equation x
2
+y
2
+z
2
4x + 6z = 12?
Example 5. What is the equation for a sphere which has a diameter with endpoints
(1, 4, 1) and (3, 0, 1)?
Example 6. What region is represented by the inequalities 4 (x 1)
2
+ (y
2)
2
+z
2
9 and z 0?
13.2: Vectors. Vectors A vector is a quantity that has magnitude (size) and
direction.
3
They are represented by arrows (directed line segments). The length of the arrow
should be proportional to the magnitude of the vector, and the arrow should point
in the direction of the vector.
Vectors are written several dierent ways: v or

v .
Displacement vectors Vectors talk about movement. If an object starts at point
A (initial point) and ends at B (terminal point), the displacement vector v is the
vector v =

AB.
A vector doesnt contain information about starting or end position, only direc-
tion and magnitude. Two displacement vectors can have the same magnitude and
direction.
Equal vectors
If v =

AB and u =

CD have the same magnitude and direction, then they are
equivalent/equal, written u = v.
The zero vector, denoted by 0, is the vector of magnitude 0. It does not need a
direction.
Adding vectors
Combine vectors the same way you combine displacements of an object/particle.
To add

AB and

BC we think about the total displacement of a particle moving
from A to B, and then to C; so the vector

AC.

AC is the sum of

AB and

BC, or

AC =

AB +

BC.
Adding vectors more generally To add general vectors u and v, reposition v
so that its tail (start) meets the tip (end) of the vector u.
u+v is the vector from the initial point of u to the terminal point of v, once they
are lined up correctly.
Vector addition is commutative: u +v = v +u
Scalar multiplication
We can also multiply a vector by a real number c, or a scalar.
(1) If c > 0 and v ,= 0 then cv is c times as long and has the same direction as
v.
(2) If c < 0 and v ,= 0 then cv is [c[v with the direction ipped.
(3) If c = 0 or v = 0, then cv = 0.
4
Vectors are parallel they are scalar multiples of each other
Vector subtraction
We can subtract too.
u v = u + (v) = u + (1v)
Representing vectors Represent vectors as triples a, b, c.
The meaning is that the displacement is by a in the x direction, b in the y direction,
and c in the z direction.
The vector v = a, b, c is the displacement vector when moving from the origin O
to the point P(a, b, c); so v =

OP.
Vector components, position vectors
a, b and c are the components of the vector a, b, c.
A dierent placement of a vector is a dierent representation. The position vector
of a point P is the representation of a vector from the origin O to point P.
If v has representation

AB for pts A(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) and B(x
2
, y
2
, z
2
), then v =

AB is
v = x
2
x
1
, y
2
y
1
, z
2
z
1
.
Length of a vector The length of v = a, b, c is [v[ =

a
2
+b
2
+c
2
.
In 2 dimensions, the length of v = a, b is [v[ =

a
2
+b
2
.
Vector operations using components
For u = x
1
, y
1
, z
1
and v = x
2
, y
2
, z
2
and c R
(1) u +v = x
1
+x
2
, y
1
+y
2
, z
1
+z
2

(2) u v = x
1
x
2
, y
1
y
2
, z
1
z
2

(3) cu = cx
1
, cy
1
, cz
1

V
n
is the set of all n-dimensional vectors v = x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
.
e.g. V
3
= x, y, z [ x, y, z, R.
Properties of vectors
For vectors a, b, c in V
n
and c, d R:
(1) a +b = b +a
(2) a + (b +c) = (a +b) +c
5
(3) a + 0 = a
(4) a + (a) = 0
(5) c(a +b) = ca +cb
(6) (c +d)a = ca +da
(7) (cd)a = c(da)
(8) 1a = a
Basis vectors The standard basis vectors for V
3
are i = 1, 0, 0, j = 0, 1, 0 and
k = 0, 0, 1.
Each of these has length 1, and direction of positive x-, y-, and z-axis respectively.
For V
2
, i = 1, 0 and j = 0, 1 are the standard basis vectors.
We can write any vector in V
3
as sum of scalar multiples of i, j, k.
Example 7. Write u = 2, 5, 1 and v = 0, 2,
1
2
in terms of i, j, and k What
is u 2v?.
Unit vectors Unit vectors are vectors of length 1, e.g. i, j, k.
If a ,= 0, then there is a unit vector
1
|a|
a whose direction is the same as a.
Example 8. Find a unit vector with the same direction as v = 4, 4, 2.
Application to physics Like vectors, a force has magnitude and direction. We
represent forces as vectors.
The resultant force is the sum of forces, calculated using the sum of vectors.
Example 9. Consider the vector v = i +3j 2k. Find a vector whose direction is
opposite to v, and whose length is 3.
Relation to trigonometry If you know the magnitude of a vector, and the di-
rection (in terms of an angle), what can you say about the components of the
vector?
Example 10. A man is on a raft that is moving due south at a speed of 15 mph.
He is facing northeast and walking at a speed of 2

2 mph. What is his speed

relative to the water?
13.3: The Dot Product. Dot product We use the dot product to multiply
two vectors.
The dot product of a = a
1
, a
2
, a
3
and b = b
1
, b
2
, b
3
is
a b = a
1
b
1
+a
2
b
2
+a
3
b
3
6
This is also know as the inner product or scalar product.
Note that this is a scalar, not a vector.
We can dene a dot product similarly for any V
n
.
Example 11. Compute
1
2
, 3, 4 4, 1, 1.
Example 12. Find the dot product of 2i + 3j +k and 3i j +k.
Properties of dot product
For vectors a, b, c in V
3
:
(1) a a = [a[
2
(2) a b = b a
(3) a (b +c) = a b +a c
(4) (ca) b = c(a b) = a (cb)
(5) 0 a = 0
If is the angle formed by a and b, then a b = [a[[b[ cos .
For parallel vectors a and b, note that = 0 or = .
For perpendicular/orthogonal vectors, we have a b = 0.
The dot product will be positive if the angle is acute, negative if the angle is
obtuse.
Example 13. What is the angle formed by the vectors i +j and i 2j?
Direction angles and cosines
The direction angles of a vector v = a, b, c , = 0 are the angles , , [0, ] that
lie between v and the positive x-, y-, and z-axis respectively.
The direction cosines of v = a, b, c are cos , cos , and cos .
(1) cos =
a
|v|
(2) cos =
b
|v|
(3) cos =
c
|v|
We can now rewrite v = [v[ cos , [v[ cos , [v[ cos .
Example 14. Consider the vector v = 3, 2, 2. What are the direction cosines
of v? What are the direction angles of v?
Vector projections
7
The vector projection of b onto a is
proj
a
b =
_
a b
[a[
_
a
[a[
=
a b
[a[
2
a
The vector projection of b onto a is a vector c parallel to a and such that b c is
perpendicular to a.
Scalar projections
The scalar projection of b onto a is
comp
a
b =
a b
[a[
The scalar projection of b onto a is the signed magnitude of the vector projection,
that is [b[ cos where is the angle between a and b.
Example 15. Find the scalar and vector projections of 3, 4 onto 2, 1.
In physics, the work done by a constant force F in moving an object along displace-
ment vector D is calculated by W = F D.
Example 16. A tall man is pushing a shopping cart at a 45 degree angle from
the oor. He is pushing with a force of 10 N, and moves the cart a distance of 20
meters. How much work has been done?
13.4: The Cross Product. Cross product The cross product of a = a
1
, a
2
, a
3

and b = b
1
, b
2
, b
3
is
a b = a
2
b
3
a
3
b
2
, a
3
b
1
a
1
b
3
, a
1
b
2
a
2
b
1

Note that this is a vector, unlike the dot product.

a b is (usually) nonzero.
Understanding the cross product
a b is perpendicular/orthogonal to a and b.
There is no cross-product in 2 dimensions (why?).
The cross product is the determinant
a b =

i j k
a
1
a
2
a
3
b
1
b
2
b
3

[a b[ = [a[[b[ sin
8
Graphical representation
The orientation of a b is determined by right-hand rule.
a and b are parallel if and only if a b = 0.
The length of a b is the area of the parallelogram with sides given by a and b.
Example 17. Find all possible cross products among i, j, and k.
This gives us examples of commutativity and associativity not holding.
If a, b, c are vectors and c a scalar:
(1) a b = b a
(2) (ca) b = c(a b) = a (cb)
(3) a (b +c) = a b +a c
(4) (a +b) c = a c +b c
(5) a (b c) = (a b) c
(6) a (b c) = (a c)b (a b)c
Example 18. Without computing anything, what will be the sign of the x-, y-,
and z-components of the vector 1, 2, 1 3, 2, 2?
Triple products
The scalar triple product of a, b, and c is
a (b c) =

a
1
a
2
a
3
b
1
b
2
b
3
c
1
c
2
c
3

The magnitude of the scalar triple product is the volume of the parallelepiped with
sides a, b, and c. That is V = [a (b c)[.
If this volume/triple product is 0, then the vectors are coplanar.
The vector triple product is a (b c).
Example 19. Find the scalar triple product of i j k, i +2j +k, and 3i +i +k.
Example 20. What is the volume of the parallelepiped dened by 2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2
and 2, 2, 2?
Example 21 (from homework). Find two unit vectors orthogonal to both 1, 1, 1
and 0, 4, 4.
Example 22. Find a unit vector orthogonal to both 0, 2, 3 and 0, 4, 6.
9
13.5: Equations of Lines and Planes. Lines
A 3-D line L is determined by a point on the line P
0
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) and the direction
of L, given as a vector v parallel to L.
Equations of vectors
Let P(x, y, z) be arbitrary on L, and r
0
and r be the position vectors of P
0
and P
(i.e. with representations

OP
0
and

OP respectively). Then there is a t such that
r = r
0
+tv.
This is called the vector equation for L. Each value of the parameter t gives the
position vector r of a point on L.
Parametric equations for a line
We can write the vector equation in component form: x, y, z = x
0
+ ta, y
0
+
tb, z
0
+tc.
Broken into components, we have 3 parametric equations for L:
(1) x = x
0
+at
(2) y = y
0
+bt
(3) z = z
0
+ct
Example 23. What are the vector and parametric equations for the line that
passes through the point (0, 2, 2) and is parallel to the vector 1, 2, 3?
Example 24. Find another point on the line.
Example 25. What are the vector and parametric equations for the line that
passes through the points A(1, 10, 4) and B(3, 2, 2)?
Components
When L is described with a direction vector v = a, b, c, we call the components
of v the direction numbers of L.
Any line will have many sets of direction numbers, since anything parallel to v can
be used instead.
If no direction number of L is 0, we can write a symmetric equation for L by
eliminating the parameter t:
x x
0
a
=
y y
0
b
=
z z
0
c
Example 26. Write a symmetric equation for the line that passes through the
point (0, 2, 2) and is parallel to the vector 1, 2, 3?
10
Example 27. Where does this line intersect the xz-plane?
Line segments
To get a line segment instead of a line, we restrict the values of the parameter t.
The line segment from r
0
to r
1
is given by
r(t) = (1 t)r
0
+tr
1
0 t 1
Lines or line segments are skew if they do not intersect.
Example 28. Do the lines L
1
and L
2
dened by the parametric equations
x = 1 +t y = 2 + 3t z = 4 t
and
x = 2s y = 3 +s z = 3 + 4s
intersect in a point, are they parallel, or are they skew?
Planes
A plane is determined by a point and the direction of a vector which is orthogonal
to the plane. Note that a single vector in the plane would not tell us which plane
it is.
The vector orthogonal to the plane is called the normal vector, n.
Equations of planes
If r
0
=

OP
0
is a xed position vector of a point on the plane, and r =

OP is an
arbitrary position vector of a point on the plane, then r r
0
=

P
0
P lies on the
plane and so is orthogonal to n. Then n (r r
0
) = 0.
The vector equation of a plane is either
n (r r
0
) = 0 or n r = n r
0
Scalar equations for planes
Let n = a, b, c, r = x, y, z, r
0
= x
0
, y
0
, z
0
. In terms of components, we get the
scalar equation of a plane:
a(x x
0
) +b(y y
0
) +c(z z
0
) = 0
This is the the scalar equation of the plane through P
0
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) with normal
vector n = a, b, c.
11
We can rewrite the equation of a plane by grouping the terms, and get the linear
equation:
ax +by +cz +d = 0
Two planes are parallel if and only if their normal vectors are parallel.
Two planes that are not parallel intersect in a line. The angle between two planes
is the acute angle formed by their normal vectors.
Example 29. What plane contains the point (2, 2, 2) and has normal vector
3, 1, 2? What are the intercepts of this plane?
Example 30. What plane contains the point (1, 0, 0) and is parallel to the plane
x y + 5z = 10?
Example 31. What plane contains the points (1, 1, 1), (2, 2, 2), and (3, 4, 5)?
Example 32. Find an equation for the line formed by the intersection of the planes
2x + 3y z = 1 and 4x y 2z = 2.
Distance from a point to a plane
The distance from a point P(x
1
, y
1
, z
1
) to the plane ax +by +c +d = 0 is given by
D =
[ax
1
+by
1
+cz
1
+d[

a
2
+b
2
+c
2
13.6: Cylinders and Quadratic Surfaces. 13.6: Cylinders and Quadratic
Surfaces
Tracings, rulings, and cylinders The tracings of a surface are the curves that
result when you intersect a surface with many given planes.
A cylinder is a type of surface dened to be the set of all lines (rulings) parallel to
a given line and passing through a given plane curve.
Example 33. x
2
+ y
2
= 25 denes a cylinder. It is the set of all lines parallel
to the line x = y = 0 and passing through a certain circle in the xy-plane. The
tracings of the surface in the planes z = k are circles.
Example 34. Graph the surface z = sin y.
Parabolic cylinders and quadratic surfaces A parabolic cylinder is a cylinder
made up of innitely many translated copies of a given parabola.
A quadratic surface is the graph of any 2
nd
degree equation in x, y, and z.
Types of quadratic surfaces
12
Ellipsoid
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
+
z
2
c
2
= 1
Traces are ellipses.
Elliptic Paraboloid
z
c
=
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
Traces are parabolas (vertically) and ellipses (horizontally).
Types of quadratic surfaces
Hyperbolic Paraboloid
z
c
=
x
2
a
2

y
2
b
2
Traces are parabolas (vertically) and hyperbolas (horizontally).
Cone
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
=
z
2
c
2
Traces are ellipses (horizontal), hyperbolas (vertical), and pairs of inter-
secting lines (vertical).
Types of quadratic surfaces
Hyperboloid of one sheet
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2

z
2
c
2
= 1
Traces are ellipses (horizontal) and hyperbolas (verical).
Hyperboloid of two sheets

x
2
a
2

y
2
b
2
+
z
2
c
2
= 1
Traces are ellipses (horizontal), nothing (horizontal), or hyperbolas (verti-
cal).
Example 35. Sketch traces of and classify the surface whose equation is 100x
4y
2
+ 25z
2
= 0.
Example 36. Classify and sketch the surface whose equation is 4x
2
+ 4y
2
+z
2

8x 16y + 2z + 17 = 0.
Review of chapter 13. Some review questions
Example 37. What is the distance between a plane and a line that does not
intersect that line?
Example 38. What is the distance between two parallel lines?
Example 39. What is the equation of a plane that contains two given lines?
Example 40. At what angle does a given line intersect a plane?
13
Chapter 14: Vector Functions
14.1: Vector Functions and Space Curves. Functions A function is any
method or rule for assigning to every element in the domain a single element in the
range.
If f is a function which takes real numbers as input, the domain of f is the set of
all values of t for which f(t) is dened (or exists).
The range of f is the set of all possible outputs of f, that is f(t) [ t R.
Vector functions A vector-valued function is a function whose domain is a set of
real numbers and whose range is a set of vectors.
If r is a vector function, we can write
r(t) = f(t), g(t), h(t)
where f, g, h are called the component functions of r.
Example 41. What is the domain of the function
r(t) =
_

t
2
11
t
,
t + 4
t + 12
, cot t
_
?
Limits The limit of a vector function is dened by the limits of the component
functions: when the individual limits exist, we dene
lim
ta
r(t) =
_
lim
ta
f(t), lim
ta
g(t), lim
ta
h(t)
_
.
A vector function r is continuous at a if lim
ta
r(t) = r(a).
Example 42. Compute lim
t1
r(t) where
r(t) =
_
t
2
+t 2
t
2
1
,
5

t 1,
1
t
_
.
Is this function continuous at 1?
Space curves If f, g, h are continuous real-valued functions on an interval I, then
the set C of all points (x, y, z) = (f(t), g(t), h(t)) for t I is called a space curve.
The functions f, g, h are called the parametric equations of C and t is called the
parameter.
A space curve is like the path of a particle whose position at time t is given by
(f(t), g(t), h(t)).
Example 43. Describe and draw the space curve given by the vector function
r(t) = cos t, sin t, t.
14
Example 44. Draw the space curve whose vector function is
r(t) = cos t, cos t, sin t
Parametrizing curves If we have an arbitrary space curve C, we often will want
to nd a vector equation which describes C. To do so is to parametrize C.
Example 45. Parametrize the curve which is the intersection of the cone z =
_
x
2
+y
2
and the plane z = y + 1.
Example 46. Parametrize the line passing through the points (4, 2, 3) and (0, 1, 2).
14.2: Derivatives and Integrals of Vector Functions. Derivatives of vec-
tor functions If r is a vector function, then the derivative of r is the vector function
dened by
r

(t) =
dr
dt
= lim
h0
r(t +h) r(t)
h
when this limit exists.
We call r

(t) the tangent vector to the curve C at the point P (the point whose
position vector is P). It tells you the direction of C at the point P.
Tangent lines, components of derivatives The tangent line to C at point P is
the line through P and parallel to r

(t).
The unit tangent vector is the unit vector whose direction is the same as r

(t), that
is T(t) =
r

(t)
|r

(t)|
.
Derivatives and components
If we write our vector function as r(t) = f(t), g(t), h(t), then we can also just take
derivatives in terms of components:
r

(t) = f

(t), g

(t), h

(t) = f

(t)i +g

(t)j +h

(t)k
We can also iterate our derivatives:
r

= (r

Example 47. Find the derivative of r(t) = (t

3
t)i + (te
t
)j + (cos t)k.
Example 48. Find the unit tangent vector and tangent line at the point where
t = 0.
Example 49. The curves r
1
(t) = 3t, t
2
+ t, t
3
and r
2
(t) = t
5
t, t, t
2
+ t
intersect at the origin (0, 0, 0). How could we nd their angle of intersection?
Properties of derivatives If u and v are dierentiable vector functions, c is a
scalar, and f is a real-valued function, then:
15
(1)
d
dt
(u(t) +v(t)) = u

(t) +v

(t)
(2)
d
dt
(cu(t)) = cu

(t)
(3)
d
dt
(f(t)u(t)) = f

(t)u(t) +f(t)u

(t)
(4)
d
dt
(u(t) v(t)) = u

(t) v(t) +u(t) v

(t)
(5)
d
dt
(u(t) v(t)) = u

(t) v(t) +u(t) v

(t)
(6)
d
dt
(u(f(t))) = f

(t)u

(f(t))
Integrals
The denite integral of a continuous vector function
r(t) = f(t), g(t), h(t)
can be dened similarly, in terms of the integrals of the components:
_
b
a
r(t)dt =
_
_
b
a
f(t)dt
_
i +
_
_
b
a
g(t)dt
_
j +
_
_
b
a
h(t)dt
_
k
Example 50. Compute
_
2
0
((cos t)i + (e
t
)j + (t
2
+ 1)k)dt
14.3:Arc Length and Curvature. Curve length If a space curve has vector
equation r(t) = f(t), g(t), h(t) for a t b and f

, g

, h

are all continuous on

this interval, the length of the curve

is given by
L =
_
b
a
_
[f

(t)]
2
+ [g

(t)]
2
+ [h

(t)]
2
dt
=
_
b
a

_
dx
dt
_
2
+
_
dy
dt
_
2
+
_
dz
dt
_
2
dt
*If the curve never retraces its steps or backtracks.
Simpler statement of curve length Note that both of these forms could be
rewritten as
L =
_
b
a
[r

(t)[dt
It is useful to note that the length of a curve is independent of the parametrization
used to describe the curve.
Example 51. Find length of curve
r(t) = cos t, sin t, t
for 0 t 4.
Example 52. Find length of curve
r(t) =
_
2t, t
2
,
1
3
t
3
_
16
for 0 t 1.
Arc length function If a space curve is given by a vector function r(t) = f(t), g(t), h(t)
for a t b and f

, g

, h

are all continuous on this interval, the arc length function

s is dened as
s(t) =
_
t
a
[r

(u)[du
=
_
t
a
_
[f

(u)]
2
+ [g

(u)]
2
+ [h

(u)]
2
du
The function s tells us the length of the curve r between a and t.
Using the fundamental theorem of calculus, we have
ds
dt
= [r

(t)[
Sometimes we can parametrize a curve with respect to arc length. This will often
just require a substitution for t, using s(t).
Example 53. Reparametrize
r(t) = cos t, sin t, t
with respect to arc length from (1, 0, 0) in the direction of increasing t.
Example 54. Reparametrize the curve
r(t) = 2ti + (1 3t)j + (5 + 4t)k
with respect to arc length measured from t = 0 in the direction of increasing t.
Smooth curves A parametrization r(t) is called smooth on an interval I if r

(t) ,= 0
on I.
A curve is smooth if it has a smooth parametrization.
If T is the unit tangent vector, the curvature of a curve is
=

dT
ds

.
Rewriting curvature Note that is expressed in terms of arc length. A more
useful form is
=

dT/dt
ds/dt

.
Expressed as a function, we can write (t) =
[T

(t)[
|r

(t)|
.
17
Another useful form of the curvature is
(t) =
[r

(t) r

(t)[
[r

(t)[
3
Example 55. Find the curvature of the circle
r(t) = 5 cos t, 5 sin t, 0.
Example 56. Find the curvature of the curve given by
r(t) = t, t
2
, t
3
.
Normal and binormal vectors
The principal unit normal vector is
N(t) =
T

(t)
[T

(t)[
.
This vector is orthogonal to the unit tangent vector T(t).
The binormal vector is B(t) = T(t) N(t) and is perpendicular to both T and N.
Example 57. Find the unit normal and binormal vectors for the curve
r(t) = cos t, sin t, t
both for arbitrary t and at the point given by t = .
Example 58. Find the unit normal and binormal vectors for the curve
r(t) = t, 5, ln cos t
for arbitrary t (/2, /2) and at the point given by t = 0.
Normal and osculating plane Since the vectors N and B are not parallel, they
determine a plane at any point P on the curve. This is called the normal plane of
C at P
The plane determined by N and T is called the osculating plane of C at P.
Osculating circle
The osculating circle of C at P is the circle that lies in the osculating plane of C
at P, has the same tangent as C at P, lies on the concave side of C and has radius
= 1/.
The osculating circle is the circle whose behavior most resembles that of C, in that
they share the same tangent and normal vectors, and have the same curvature at
the point P.
Example 59. Consider the parabola in the xy-plane given by y =
1
2
x
2
. Find the
osculating circle of the parabola at the point (1,
1
2
).
18
14.4: Motion in Space: Velocity and Acceleration. Particles in space
If r(t) describes the position of a particle in space at time t, then the velocity vector
at time t is given by v(t) = r

(t).
The speed of the particle at time t is the magnitude of the velocity vector, that is
[v(t)[ = [r

(t)[ =
ds
dt
.
The acceleration of the particle is dened as a(t) = v

(t) = r

(t).
Example 60. A particles position at any time t 0 is given by r(t) = ti+t
2
j+t
3
k.
Find the velocity, acceleration, and speed of the particle for arbitrary t and for t = 1.
Example 61. A particles position at any time t 0 is given by r(t) = 5 cos ti +
5 sin tj +tk. Find the velocity, acceleration, and speed of the particle for arbitrary
t and for t = .
Recovering velocity and position Using integrals, we can recover velocity from
acceleration. That is,
v(t) = v(t
0
) +
_
t
t0
a(u)du
In addition, we can recover position from velocity, using
r(t) = r(t
0
) +
_
t
t0
v(u)du
Example 62. A particle starts at position r(0) = 1, 0, 0 with velocity v(0) =
i j +k. Its acceleration is given by the function a(t) = 4ti +6tj +k. Find vector
equations for its velocity and position at any time t.
Components of acceleration
If r(t) describes the path of a particle, it is always true that the acceleration a(t)
at a xed point lies in the osculating plane at that point (the plane determined by
T and N).
So we can decompose acceleration into two components: one in the direction of the
tangent, and one in the direction of the normal vector.
Decomposing acceleration If v is the speed of the particle, then a = v

T+v
2
N.
We call a
T
= v

and a
N
= v
2
the tangential component and normal component of
acceleration.
19
Two useful simplications are:
a
T
=
r

(t) r

(t)
[r

(t)[
a
N
=
[r

(t) r

(t)
[r

(t)[
.
Example 63. Find the tangential and normal components of acceleration for a
particle whose position is given by r(t) = 1, t, t
2
.
Example 64. Find the tangential and normal components of acceleration for a
particle whose position is given by r(t) = t
2
, cos t, sin t.
Chapter 15: Partial Derivatives
15.1: Functions of Several Variables. Functions of two variables
A function f of two variables is a rule assigning to pairs (x, y) of real numbers a
unique real number f(x, y).
The domain is a subset of R R = R
2
, and the range is a subset of R.
We will often write z = f(x, y). In this notation, we say x and y are independent
variables, while z is the dependent variables.
Example 65. Sketch the domains and ranges of the functions
f(x, y) =
_
x
2
y
g(x, y) = e
xy
Graphing functions
If f is a function of two variables whose domain is D, then the graph of f is the set
of all points (x, y, z) such that z = f(x, y) and (x, y) D.
In other words, the graph is the set of all points (x, y, f(x, y)).
A function of the form f(x, y) = ax +by +c is called a linear function. The graph
of a linear function is a plane.
Example 66. Sketch the function f(x, y) = x
2
+y
2
.
Level curves
The level curves of a function f of two variables are the curves with equations
f(x, y) = k for some constant k (in the range of f).
A level curve can be thought of as the set of (x, y) in the domain of f for which f
takes a given xed value.
20
Real world level curves include contour lines (topographical maps), isothermals
(temperature), isobars (pressure), isobaths (depth), . . .
Example 67. Sketch the level curves of the function f(x, y) = x
2
+ 9y
2
.
Functions of 3 variables
A function f of three variables is a rule assigning to ordered triples (x, y, z) of real
numbers in the domain D a unique real number f(x, y, z).
Example 68. Find the domain and range of f(x, y, z) =
_
25 x
2
y
2
z
2
.
Visualizing functions of 3 variables
Note that it is very hard to visualize a function f of 3 variables, since the graph of
f lives in 4 dimensional space.
However, we can at least visualize the level surfaces of f, that is the surfaces with
equations f(x, y, z) = k for xed k in the range.
Example 69. What are the level surfaces of f(x, y, z) = x +y +z?
Functions of n real variables
A function f of n variables is a rule assigning to ordered triples (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) of real
numbers in the domain D R
n
a unique real number z = f(x
1
, . . . , x
n
).
Since we can identify R
n
with V
n
, we can also think about a function of n real
variables x
1
, . . . , x
n
as a function of a single vector variable x = x
1
, . . . , x
n
.
15.2: Limits and Continuity. Limits of functions of 2 variables
If f is a function of two variables with domain D including points arbitrarily close
to (a, b), then the limit of f(x, y) as (x, y) approaches (a, b) is dened to be
lim
(x,y)(a,b)
f(x, y) = L
if for every > 0, there is a > 0 such that if (x, y) D and 0 <
_
(x a)
2
+ (y b)
2
<
, then [f(x, y) L[ < .
Example 70. If f(x, y) = x
2
+y
2
x, what is lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f(x, y)?
Another way to think about limits
Explained another way, the limit of f(x, y) as (x, y) (a, b) is dened to be the
common limit of f along any curve passing through (a, b).
So if f(x, y) L
1
as (x, y) (a, b) along a path C
1
, but f(x, y) L
2
as (x, y)
(a, b) along C
2
(and L
1
,= L
2
), then the limit does not exist.
21
Example 71. If f(x, y) =
x
2
y
2
x
2
+y
2
, what is lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f(x, y)?
Continuity
A function f of two variables is continuous at (a, b) if
lim
(x,y)(a,b)
f(x, y) = f(a, b).
A function f is continuous on D if f is continuous at every point (a, b) D.
Examples of continuous functions
A function f of two variables is called a polynomial if it is a sum of terms of the
form ax
m
y
n
for nonnegative integers m, n.
As with polynomials of 1 variable, polynomials are continuous.
A function f of two variables is called a rational function if it has the form f(x, y) =
g(x, y)/h(x, y) where g and h are polynomials.
As with rational functions of 1 variable, rational functions are continuous when they
are dened.
Example 72. Let f(x, y) = x
3
y
2
8xy
3
+2x
2
y
2
+xy +1. At what points is it
continuous? Find lim
(x,y)(1,1)
f(x, y).
Example 73. Let f(x, y) =
xy
x
2
y
2
. At what points is it continuous? Find
lim
(x,y)(2,1)
f(x, y) and lim
(x,y)(0,0)
f(x, y).
Example 74. Let f(x, y) =
tan(x+y)
ln(x
2
+y
2
+1)
. At what points is f continuous?
Limits and continuity for other types of functions
Limits and continuity are dened analogously for functions of 3 (and n) variables:
If f is a function with domain D R
n
, then the limit of f(x)
as x approaches a is dened to be
L = lim
xa
f(x)
if for every > 0, there is a > 0 such that [f(x) L[ < whenever x D and
0 < [x a[ < .
A function f of n real variables is said to be continuous at a if f(a) = lim
xa
f(x).
Now limits and continuity look just like for functions of 1 real variable.
Example 75. Show that lim
(x,y)(0,0)
xy
x
2
+y
2
does not exist.
Example 76. Show that lim
(x,y)(0,0)
xy
4
x
2
+y
8
does not exist.
22
15.3: Partial Derivatives. Partial derivative of a function with respect
to x
If f is a function of two variables x and y, we can x y and think of f as a function
only of x: that is g(x) = f(x, b). If the function g has a derivative, we can think of
this as a derivative of f as well, in a certain sense.
The partial derivative of f with respect to x at (a, b) is
f
x
(a, b) = g

(a) where g(x) = f(x, b).

Or equivalently:
f
x
(a, b) = lim
h0
f(a +h, b) f(a, b)
h
Partial derivative of a function with respect to y
Dene similarly the partial derivative of f with respect to y at (a, b) to be
f
y
(a, b) = lim
h0
f(a, b +h) f(a, b)
h
= g

(b)
where g(y) = f(a, y).
So more generally, we can think of the partial derivatives as the functions dened
by
f
x
(x, y) = lim
h0
f(x +h, y) f(x, y)
h
f
y
(x, y) = lim
h0
f(x, y +h) f(x, y)
h
Calculating partial derivatives
Other ways to denote the partial derivatives of a function z = f(x, y) include:
f
x
(x, y) = f
x
=
f
x
=

x
f(x, y) = f
1
= D
1
f = D
x
f
f
y
(x, y) = f
y
=
f
y
=

y
f(x, y) = f
2
= D
2
f = D
y
f
Calculating partial derivatives:
To nd f
x
, treat y as a constant and dierentiate with respect to x.
To nd f
y
, treat x as a constant and dierentiate with respect to y.
Example 77. Let f(x, y) = x
3
y
4
+ 3x
2
y
2
2x + 3y + 1. Calculate f
x
and f
y
.
Example 78. Let f(x, y) = e
xy
sin(x +y) ln(x
2
y
3
). Calculate f
x
and f
y
.
23
Visualizing partial derivatives Partial derivatives give us tangents along the
curves we get taking a xed trace.
Alternatively, they say how fast f is changing as we vary x or y only.
Example 79. Interpret the meaning of f
x
(1, 1) and f
y
(1, 1) where f(x, y) = x
2
+y
2
.
Implicit dierentiation
Sometimes a function f(x, y) is dened implicitly by an equation in x, y, z. In
this case, often the best way to calculate partial derivatives is through implicit
dierentiation.
Example 80. Use implicit dierentiation to nd z/x and z/y where
y
3
z +x
2
ln y = xz
Example 81. Use implicit dierentiation to nd z/x and z/y where
e
z
= x +y +xyz
Partial derivatives of functions of many variables
We dene partial derivatives for functions of more than 2 variables analogously.
For example, if u = f(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) is a function of n variables, then we can write
any of
u
x
i
=
f
x
i
= f
xi
= f
i
= D
i
f
to mean
lim
h0
f(x
1
, . . . , x
i1
, x
i
+h, x
i+1
, . . . , x
n
) f(x
1
, . . . , x
i
, . . . , x
n
)
h
.
We can calculate f
xi
by treating every other variable as a constant and dierenti-
ating with respect to x
i
.
Iterating partial derivatives
We can also iterate partial derivatives. If we want to take the partial derivative of
f
x
with respect to x, we might write:
(f
x
)
x
= f
xx
= f
11
=

x
_
f
x
_
=

2
f
x
2
=

2
z
x
2
or if we wish to take the partial derivative of f
x
with respect to y we might write:
(f
x
)
y
= f
xy
= f
12
=

y
_
f
x
_
=

2
f
yx
=

2
z
yx
Example 82. Find all second partial derivatives of
f(x, y) = sin(xy) cos(xy)
24
An important theorem (due to Clairaut) states: If f
xy
and f
yx
are both dened
and continuous on a disk D containing (a, b), then f
xy
(a, b) = f
yx
(a, b).
We often use equations including partial derivatives, known as partial dierential
equations. For example, PDEs can be used to express laws or properties in physics.
One well known PDE is Laplaces equation:

2
u
x
2
+

2
u
y
2
= 0
A solution to this equation is called a harmonic function.
Another famous PDE is the wave equation

2
u
t
2
= a
2

2
u
x
2
where u is a function of x and t, and a is a constant.
Example 83. Show that u(x, t) = cos(3x + 2t) satises the wave equation.
Example 84. Is either of the functions u = yx
2
xy
2
or u = e
x
sin y e
y
sin x a
solution to Laplaces equation?
15.4: Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations. Tangent plane
Consider a surface S with equation z = f(x, y), where f has continuous rst partial
derivatives. Let C
1
be the trace of the surface in the plane x = a and let C
2
be the
trace of the surface in the plane y = b.
Then if T
1
and T
2
are the tangent lines to the curves at the point P(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
), the
tangent plane to the surface S at the point P is the plane containing both tangent
lines T
1
and T
2
.
Equation of tangent plane
Actually, the tangent plane contains the tangent line along any curve C lying on
the surface S and passing through P.
The equation of the tangent plane to the surface z = f(x, y) at the point P(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)
is given by:
z z
0
= f
x
(x
0
, y
0
)(x x
0
) +f
y
(x
0
, y
0
)(y y
0
).
Example 85. Find the tangent plane to the surface z = x
2
2y
2
at the point
(1, 1, 1).
Example 86. Find the tangent plane to the surface z = sin(x
3
+y
2
) at the point
(1, 1, 0).
Linear approximations
25
We can use the tangent plane to approximate a function near a point. If z =
ax + by + c is the equation of the tangent plane to a surface at P(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
), then
the function
L(x, y) = f(x
0
, y
0
) +f
x
(x
0
, y
0
)(x x
0
) +f
y
(x
0
, y
0
)(y y
0
)
is called the linearization of f at (x
0
, y
0
).
We say that
f(x, y) f(x
0
, y
0
) +f
x
(x
0
, y
0
)(x x
0
) +f
y
(x
0
, y
0
)(y y
0
)
is the linear/tangent plane approximation of f at (x
0
, y
0
).
Example 87. Find the linearization L(x, y) of the function f(x, y) =
1
xy
at (2, 2).
Example 88. Linearly approximate the function f(x, y) =
x
2
y
2
x
2
+y
2
near (1, 1).
Increments
If x changes from a to a + x and y changes from b to b + y, then dene the
increment of z to be
z = f(a + x, b + y) f(a, b).
In other words, we consider how z changes as both independent variables change,
not just one.
Dierentiability
If z = f(x, y) then f is dierentiable at (a, b) if z can be written in the form
z = f
x
(a, b)x +f
y
(a, b)y +
1
x +
2
y
and
1
,
2
0 as (x, y) (0, 0).
A function is dierentiable at a point (a, b) when the tangent plane approximation
is very good near (a, b).
A better way to determine dierentiability is: If f
x
and f
y
both exist near (a, b)
and are continuous at (a, b), then f is dierentiable at (a, b).
The total dierential
If z = f(x, y) is dierentiable then we dene two new independent variables dx and
dy (essentially representing x and y).
The dierential dz, or the total dierential, is
dz = f
x
(x, y)dx +f
y
(x, y)dy =
z
x
dx +
z
y
dy
26
So we can think of our linear approximation from earlier as stating
f(x, y) f(a, b) +dz
Example 89. Show that z = 2xcos y y sin(x y) is dierentiable and nd the
total dierential.
Example 90. Where is z = xy ln(xy) dierentiable? Find the dierential of the
function.
Functions of many variables
If u = f(x
1
, . . . , x
n
), then the increment of u is
u = f(x
1
+ x
1
, . . . , x
n
+ x
n
) f(x
1
, . . . , x
n
).
The dierential du is dened in terms of the dierentials dx
1
, . . . , dx
n
by
du =
u
x
1
dx
1
+ +
u
x
n
dx
n
.
15.5: The Chain Rule. Chain rule, version 1 Let z = f(x, y) be a dieren-
tiable function of x and y, and let x = g(t) and y = h(t) be dierentiable functions
of t.
Then z is a dierentiable function of t and
dz
dt
=
f
x
dx
dt
+
f
y
dy
dt
Example 91. If z = cos(x y), where x = 2 ln t and y = t
3
, nd
dz
dt
.
Example 92. If z =
_
x
2
+y
2
, where x = cos t and y = sin t, nd
dz
dt
.
Chain rule, version 2 Let z = f(x, y) be a dierentiable function of x and y and
let x = g(s, t) and y = h(s, t) be dierentiable functions of s and t.
Then z is a function of s and t, and
z
s
=
z
x
x
s
+
z
y
y
s
and
z
t
=
z
x
x
t
+
z
y
y
t
Example 93. If z = x
2
y +y
2
x, where x = t and y = 1 t, then nd
z
s
and
z
t
.
Example 94. If z = e
x
e
y
, where x = s/t and y = t/s, then nd
z
s
and
z
t
.
27
Types of variables Recall that for a function z = f(x, y), we called x and y
independent variables and z the dependent variable.
Here, since x = g(s, t) and y = h(s, t), the real independent variables are s and t.
We call x and y intermediate variables, and z is still the dependent variable.
We can draw tree diagrams using all of our variables to help us remember how to
use the chain rule. (This will be especially helpful for functions of more than 2
variables.)
Chain rule, general version
Let u be a dierentiable function of n variables x
1
, . . . , x
n
and let each x
j
be a
dierentiable function of m variables t
1
, . . . , t
m
.
Then u is a function of t
1
, . . . , t
m
and for each i = 1, . . . m
u
t
i
=
u
x
1
x
1
t
i
+ +
u
x
n
x
n
t
i
.
Example 95. If f(x, y, z) = e
xy
sin(yz), where x = 3t
2
2su, y = s
3
+u
3
, and
z = st, then nd f/t.
Implicitly dened function
Before we dealt with equations which dene functions implicitly. The chain rule
gives us a more formal way to understand implicit dierentiation.
Consider the case of just to two variables. If some equation F(x, y) = 0 denes y
implicitly as a function of x, then the chain rule says that:
F
x
dx
dx
+
F
y
dy
dx
= 0.
Implicit dierentiation Rearranging we have
dy
dx
=
F
x
F
y
=
F
x
F
y
.
Theorem 0.1 (Implicit Function Theorem). If F is dened around (a, b) and
F(a, b) = 0, F
y
(a, b) ,= 0, and both F
x
and F
y
are continuous, then F(x, y) = 0
does in fact dene y as a function of x (near (a, b) at least).
Example 96. Find dy/dx, where

xy = 2 x
2
y.
Implicit dierentiation, more variables
28
Suppose that the equation F(x, y, z) = 0 denes z implicitly as a function of x and
y. Then
z
x
=
F
x
F
z
=
F
x
F
z
and
z
y
=
F
y
F
z
=
F
y
F
z
.
Again, the Implicit Function Theorem gives the conditions for when this is a valid
process.
Example 97. Find z/x and z/y, where x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= xyz.
15.6: Directional Derivatives and the Gradient Vector. 15.6: Directional
Derivatives and the Gradient Vector
Directional derivatives
Partial derivatives tell us the rate of change of z as we move in a specic direction
(either the direction of x or the direction of y). We can think of the direction of
movement through the point as the unit vector i or j.
The directional derivative of f at (x
0
, y
0
) in the direction of a unit vector u = a, b
is dened to be
D
u
f(x
0
, y
0
) = lim
h0
f(x
0
+ha, y
0
+hb) f(x
0
, y
0
)
h
Computing directional derivatives
In the case that f is a dierentiable function of x and y, then the directional
derivative of f in the direction of the unit vector u = a, b becomes
D
u
f(x, y) = f
x
(x, y)a +f
y
(x, y)b.
Example 98. Find the directional derivative of f(x, y) = sin(x + y) sin(x y)
at (

2
,

2
) in the direction of

2
2
,

2
2
.
Gradient
If f is a function of two variables, the gradient of f is the vector function f dened
to be
f(x, y) = f
x
(x, y), f
y
(x, y).
Now note that we can rewrite the directional derivative in the direction of u to be
D
u
f = f u.
29
Thought of another way, D
u
is the scalar projection of f onto u.
Example 99. If f(x, y) = x
4
y + x
2
cos y, then compute f and nd the rate of
change of f at (1, 0) in the direction of 2, 3.
Example 100. If f(x, y) = 2

x +y +xy, then compute f and nd the rate of

change of f at (1, 2) in the direction of 1, 2.
Functions of three variables
We can dene directional derivatives for functions of 3 (or more) variables analo-
gously:
The directional derivative of f at x = (x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) in the direction of a unit vector
u = a, b, c is
D
u
f(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) = lim
h0
f(x
0
+ha, y
0
+hb, z
0
+hc) f(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)
h
Or in terms of vectors
D
u
f(x) = lim
h0
f(x +hu) f(x)
h
Gradient and computing directional derivatives If f is a function of three
variables, the gradient of f is
f(x, y, z) = f
x
(x, y, z), f
y
(x, y, z), f
z
(x, y, z).
Once again we can rewrite the directional derivative as
D
u
f(x, y, z) = f(x, y, z) u
Example 101. Find the directional derivative of f(x, y, z) = e
x+y+z
ln(xyz) at
the point P(1, 1, 1) and in the direction of 1, 1, 1.
Maximizing rate of change
Recall that for two vectors a and b, the value of [a b[ will be maximized when a
and b have the same direction.
Theorem 0.2. If f is a dierentiable function (of 2 or 3 variables), then the
maximum value of of D
u
f(x) is equal to [f(x)[; this maximum value occurs when
u has the same direction as f(x).
Example 102. If f(x, y) = x
2
e
y
, in what direction is f changing fastest at the
point P(1, 0), and what is the maximum rate of change?
Example 103. If f(x, y, z) =
1
x
2
xyzz
3
, in what direction is f changing fastest
at the point (1, 0, 1) and what is the maximum rate of change of f?
30
Tangent planes and normal lines
Suppose that S is a surface with equation F(x, y, z) = k (in other words, it is a
level surface of a function of three variables), and let P(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) be an arbitrary
point on S. Let X be a curve on the surface S which passes through the point P
(and is parametrized by r s.t. r(t
0
) = x
0
, y
0
, z
0
).
The gradient vector at P, which is F(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) is perpendicular to the tangent
vector r

(t
0
), no matter what r was.
Tangent planes and normal lines
The tangent plane to the level surface F(x, y, z) = k at a point P(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) is
F
x
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)(x x
0
) +F
y
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)(y y
0
) +F
z
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)(z z
0
) = 0
The normal line to S at P is the line passing through P and with direction
F(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
). Symmetric equations for this line are
x x
0
F
x
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)
=
y y
0
F
y
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)
=
z z
0
F
z
(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)
Note that in the special case that our level surface is the graph of a function
f(x, y) = z, then this tangent plane equation gives rise to the earlier one we learned.
Example 104. Find equations for the tangent plane and normal line to the surface
xyz
3
x
2
z
2
2x = 10 at the point (2, 0, 3).
Example 105. Find equations for the tangent plane and normal line to the surface
e
x
e
y
= xye
2z
at the point (0, 0, 1).
15.7: Maximum and Minimum Values. Minimums of a function
A function f(x, y) is said to have a local maximum at (a, b) if there is a disk centered
at (a, b) such that for all (x, y) in the disk we have f(x, y) f(a, b).
In other words, the value of f(a, b) is at least as large as the value of f(x, y), as
long as we only look at (x, y) which are very close to (a, b).
In this case, the number f(a, b) is the local maximum value.
A function f(x, y) has a global maximum at (a, b) if f(x, y) f(a, b) for all (x, y)
(no matter where we look).
Maximums of a function
A function f(x, y) has a local minimum at (a, b) if f(x, y) f(a, b) for all (x, y)
near (a, b).
A function f(x, y) has a global minimum at (a, b) if f(x, y) f(a, b) for all (x, y).
31
We call the number f(a, b) the local (global) minimum value if f has a local (global)
minimum at (a, b).
Critical points
Like in calculus of a single variable, maximums and minimums are related to deriva-
tives.
If f has a local max or min at (a, b) and the f
x
(a, b) and f
y
(a, b) exist, then f
x
(a, b) =
f
y
(a, b) = 0.
In general, a critical point/stationary point is any point (a, b) such that f
x
(a, b) = 0
(or does not exist) and f
y
(a, b) = 0 (or does not exist).
But while every local max/min is at a critical point, it is not the case that all
critical points are local maximums or minimums!
Second derivative test
The second derivative tests give us a way to check this for sure.
If f
x
(a, b) = f
y
(a, b) = 0 and all the second partial derivatives of f are continuous
around (a, b), then let
D = D(a, b) = f
xx
(a, b)f
yy
(a, b) f
xy
(a, b)
2
.
Then:
If D > 0 and f
xx
(a, b) > 0, then f(a, b) is a local min.
If D > 0 and f
xx
(a, b) < 0, then f(a, b) is a local max.
If D < 0 then f(a, b) is neither a local max nor min; we call (a, b) a saddle
point.
(The graph of f will cross its tangent plane at a saddle point.)
Example 106. Find any local maximums, local minimums, and saddle points of
f(x, y) = 9 2x + 4y x
2
4y
2
.
Example 107. Find any local maximums, local minimums, and saddle points of
f(x, y) = e
4yx
2
y
2
.
Example 108. Find any local maximums, local minimums, and saddle points of
f(x, y) = y
2
x
2
.
Finding global maximums and minimums
A boundary point of a set X is a point which has distance 0 from X (there are
points of X arbitrarily close, that is).
A closed set is a set containing all of its boundary points.
32
A bounded set is a set contained within some disk. Equivalently, a set X is bounded
if it is contained within a box: there is a d such that for all (x, y) X, [x[ < d and
[y[ < d.
Finding global maximums and minimums
Theorem 0.3 (Extreme value theorem). If f is continuous on a closed and bounded
set D in R
2
, then f attains an absolute maximum (and absolute minimum) in D.
The global max/min must occur at either a critical point of f in D, or on the
boundary of D.
So to nd the global maximum, for instance:
(1) Evaluate f at all critical points of f in D.
(2) Find the extreme values of f on the boundary of D.
(3) The largest of the values found above is the global maximum.
Example 109. Find the global maximum and minimum values of f(x, y) = x
2

2xy + 2y on the rectangle D = (x, y) [ 0 x 3, 0 y 2.

Example 110. Find the global maximum and minimum values of f(x, y) = x
4
+
y
4
4xy on the rectangle D = (x, y) [ 0 x 3, 0 y 2.
Example 111. Find the global maximum and minimum values of f(x, y) = 2x
3
+y
4
on D = (x, y) [ x
2
+y
2
1.
15.8: Lagrange Multipliers. Functions subject to a constraint
In the last example from the previous section, we needed to maximize (and mini-
mize) the value of f(x, y) = 2x
3
+y
4
on the circle x
2
+y
2
= 1. In other words, we
are maximizing the function f, but subject to the constraint g(x, y) = x
2
+y
2
= 1.
How do you maximize a function f(x, y, z) subject to a constraint g(x, y, z) = k?
Functions subject to a constraint
The key observation is: if the maximum value of f, subject to the constraint
g(x, y, z) = k, is f(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) = c then the level surface f(x, y, z) = c is tangent to
the level surface g(x, y, z) = k and so their gradient vectors are parallel.
So if f has an extreme value, subject to the constraint g(x, y, z) = k, at P(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
)
then there is a number , called the Lagrange multiplier, such that
f(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) = g(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
).
Method of Lagrange multipliers
So if we want to maximize and minimize a function f subject to the constraint
g(x, y, z) = k (when a max/min do exist and g ,= 0):
33
(1) Find all points (x, y, z) and values of such that f(x, y, z) = g(x, y, z)
and g(x, y, z) = k.
(2) Evaluate and compare f at all of these points.
Example 112. Find the extreme values of f(x, y) = x
2
+2y
2
on the circle x
2
+y
2
=
1.
Example 113. Find the closest and farthest points on the sphere x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= 1
from the point (4, 2, 4).
A function subject to two simultaneous constraints
Suppose we are trying to maximize f(x, y, z) subject to the two constraints g(x, y, z) =
k
1
and h(x, y, z) = k
2
.
If f has an extreme value at P(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) (subject to the constraints) then there
are numbers and (again called the Lagrange multipliers) such that
f(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) = g(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
) +h(x
0
, y
0
, z
0
).
Example 114. Find the maximum value of the function f(x, y, z) = x + 2y + 3z
on the curve of intersection of the plane xy +z = 1 and the cylinder x
2
+y
2
= 1.
Example 115. Find the maximum value of the function f(x, y, z) = x+2y on the
curve of intersection of the plane x y +z = 1 and the cylinder y
2
+z
2
= 4.
Chapter 16: Multiple Integrals
16.1: Double Integrals over Rectangles. Double Riemann sums
Let R = [a, b] [c, d] and let S = (x, y, z) [ 0 z f(x, y), where f is non-
negative. Then the volume V of the solid is approximated by:
V
m

i=1
n

j=1
f(x

ij
, y

ij
)A
once we divide R into small rectangles of area A and pick sample points (x

ij
, y

ij
)
in each sub-rectangle.
This is called a double Riemann sum.
Double integrals and volume
The double integral of f over the rectangle R is
__
R
f(x, y)dA = lim
n.m
m

i=1
n

j=1
f(x

ij
, y

ij
)A
A function f is integrable if this limit exists.
34
For a function f which is non-negative, the actual volume of S is equal to this
double integral.
Example 116. Estimate the volume of the solid above the square R = [0, 2] [0, 2]
and below the surface z = 16x
2
2y
2
by dividing the rectangle into 4 equal squares
and using upper right corners as test points.
Example 117. Repeat the previous example with m = n = 4.
Midpoint rule
The Midpoint Rule for double integrals is just a special type of double Riemann
sums. It says that
__
R
f(x, y)dA
m

i=1
n

j=1
f(x
i
, y
j
)A
where x
i
and y
j
are the midpoints of the subdivisions of R.
Example 118. Estimate the volume of the solid between z = x + 2y
2
and above
the rectangle R = [0, 2] [0, 4] using the Midpoint Rule and m = n = 2. Compare
this to what you get using the lower right corners for sample points.
Average value of a function
Recall that the average value of a function of one variable can be calculated by:
f
ave
=
1
b a
_
b
a
f(x)dx
Similarly, the average value of a function of two variables can be calculated as:
f
ave
=
1
A(R)
__
R
f(x, y)dA
where A(R) is the area of the rectangle R.
Properties of double integrals
When we actually get to calculating integrals, we have several nice properties:
__
R
[f(x, y) +g(x, y)]dA =
__
R
f(x, y)dA+
__
R
g(x, y)dA
__
R
cf(x, y)dA = c
__
R
f(x, y)dA
If f(x, y) g(x, y) for all x, y then
__
R
f(x, y)dA
__
R
g(x, y)dA
35
16.2: Iterated Integrals. Iterated integrals
We can use the fundamental theorem of calculus to help with integration.
To calculate an integrated integral over the rectangle R = [a, b] [c, d], we use the
notation
_
b
a
_
d
c
f(x, y)dydx =
_
b
a
_
_
d
c
f(x, y)dy
_
dx
where A(x) =
_
d
c
f(x, y)dy means to integrate f as a function of y (treating x as a
constant) and
_
b
a
A(x)d(x) is self-explanatory.
Iterated integrals and double integrals
Theorem 0.4 (Fubinis theorem). If f is continuous on the rectangle [a, b] [c, d],
then
__
R
f(x, y)dA =
_
b
a
_
d
c
f(x, y)dydx =
_
d
c
_
b
a
f(x, y)dxdy
In particular, integration order does not matter.
A corollary of this is:
__
R
g(x)h(y)dA =
_
b
a
g(x)dx
_
d
c
h(y)dy
where R = [a, b] [c, d].
Example 119. Calculate the double integral
__
R
(1 + 4xy)dA
where R = [0, 1] [1, 3].
Example 120. Calculate the iterated integral
_
3
1
_
5
1
ln y
xy
dydx
Example 121. Calculate the double integral
__
R
x(y +x
2
)
4
dA
where R = [0, 1] [0, 1].
Example 122. Calculate the double integral
__
R
xy
2
x
2
+ 1
dA
where R = [0, 1] [3, 3].
36
Example 123. Find the average value of f(x, y) = x
2
y over the rectangle R =
[1, 1] [0, 5].
16.3: Double Integrals over General Regions. Dening double integrals
over other regions
If D is a bounded region, we can imagine D being contained in some rectangular
region R.
Then dene a function F by
F(x, y) =
_
f(x, y) if (x, y) is in D
0 otherwise
Then dene
__
D
f(x, y)dA =
__
R
F(x, y)dA
Types of bounded regions to consider
A region is of type I if it has the form
D = (x, y) [ a x b, g
1
(x) y g
2
(x)
for two continuous functions g
1
and g
2
.
A region is of type II if it has the form
D = (x, y) [ c y d, h
1
(y) x h
2
(y)
for two continuous functions h
1
and h
2
.
Calculating double integrals on regions of type I If f is continuous on a type
I region
D = (x, y) [ a x b, g
1
(x) y g
2
(x)
then
__
D
f(x, y)dA =
_
b
a
_
g2(x)
g1(x)
f(x, y)dydx
Calculating double integrals on regions of type II If f is continuous on a
type II region
D = (x, y) [ c y d, h
1
(y) x h
2
(y)
then
__
D
f(x, y)dA =
_
d
c
_
h2(y)
h1(y)
f(x, y)dxdy
Example 124. Evaluate
__
D
(x + 2y)dA where D is the region bounded by the
parabolas y = 2x
2
and y = 1 +x
2
.
37
Example 125. Evaluate
__
D
y
2
dA where D = (x, y) [ 1 y 1, y 2 x
y.
Example 126. Find the volume of the solid lying under the paraboloid z = x
2
+y
2
and above the region D in the xy-plane bounded by the line y = 2x and the parabola
y = x
2
.
Example 127. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the cylinder x
2
+y
2
= 1
and the planes y = z, x = 0, z = 0 in the rst octant.
Additional properties of integrals If D = D
1
D
2
and D
1
and D
2
overlap at
most on their boundaries, then
__
D
f(x, y)dA =
__
D1
f(x, y)dA+
__
D2
f(x, y)dA
Another straightforward property is that:
__
D
1dA = A(D)
Finally, if m f(x, y) M for all (x, y) D then
m A(D)
__
D
f(x, y)dA M A(D)
Example 128. Evaluate
__
D
xy dA where D = (x, y) [ x 0, y 0, 1 x
2
+y
2

4.
16.4: Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates. Converting to polar coor-
dinates
Some regions are easier to think about in polar coordinates rather than in rectan-
gular coordinates.
Recall the rules for converting between rectangular coordinates and polar coordi-
nates:
r
2
= x
2
+y
2
x = r cos
y = r sin
Integrating over polar rectangles
38
A polar rectangle has the form
R = (r, ) [ a r b, .
To integrate using polar coordinates (note the important dierence from the previ-
ous section):
__
D
f(x, y)dA =
_

_
b
a
f(r cos , r sin )r drd
When integrating using polar coordinates, remember your trig identities!
Example 129. Evaluate
__
D
xy dA where D = (x, y) [ x 0, y 0, 1 x
2
+y
2

4.
Example 130. Evaluate
__
R
(3x +4y
2
)dA where R is the region in the upper half-
plane bounded by the circles x
2
+y
2
= 1 and x
2
+y
2
= 4.
A more general region might have the form D = (r, ) [ , h
1
() r
h
2
().
To integrate over a region D as above:
__
D
f(x, y)dA =
_

_
h2()
h1()
f(r cos , r sin )r drd
Example 131. Find the volume of the solid that lies under the paraboloid z =
x
2
+y
2
above the xy-plane and inside the cylinder x
2
+y
2
= 2x.
Example 132. What is the area enclosed by one loop of the four-leaved rose
r = cos 2?
16.6: Triple Integrals. Triple Riemann sums
Let f(x, y, z) be dened on the box B = [a, b] [c, d] [r, s].
Subdivide B into l m n sub-boxes of volume V = xyz.
The triple Riemann sum is
l

i=1
m

j=1
n

k=1
f(x

ijk
, y

ijk
, z

ijk
)V
where each (x

ijk
, y

ijk
, z

ijk
) is a sample point from a sub-box.
Triple integrals
39
The triple integral of f on B is
___
B
f(x, y, z)dV = lim
l,m.n
l

i=1
m

j=1
n

k=1
f(x

ijk
, y

ijk
, z

ijk
)V
when this limit exists.
Theorem 0.5 (Fubinis theorem for triple integrals).
___
B
f(x, y, z)dV =
_
s
r
_
d
c
_
b
a
f(x, y, z) dx dy dz
More general regions
We can also extend these techniques to more general regions.
Type 1: E = (x, y, z) [ (x, y) D, u
1
(x, y) z u
2
(x, y) where D is the
projection of E onto the xy-plane.
Type 2: E = (x, y, z) [ (y, z) D, u
1
(y, z) x u
2
(y, z) where D is the
projection of E onto the xy-plane.
Type 3: E = (x, y, z) [ (x, z) D, u
1
(x, z) y u
2
(x, z) where D is the
projection of E onto the xy-plane.
Of course, now we might also have to think about the region D in some plane and
decide what type of region it is, as well.
Example 133. Evaluate
___
E
2z dV where E is the solid tetrahedron bounded by
the four planes x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and x+2y +z = 2. Is there more than one way
we can do this?
Example 134. Evaluate
___
E

x
2
+z
2
dV where E is the region bounded by the
paraboloid y = x
2
+z
2
and the plane y = 4.
Example 135. Evaluate
___
E
6xy dV where E lies under the plane z = 1 + x + y
and above the region in the xy-plane bounded by the curves y =

x, y = 0 and
x = 1.
16.7: Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates. Using cylindrical co-
ordinates
In cylindrical coordinates, a point P is represented by the ordered triple (r, , z)
where
x = r cos
y = r sin
z = z
40
Or to convert back:
r
2
= x
2
+y
2
tan =
y
x
z = z
Triple integrals in cylindrical coordinates
Suppose that
E = (x, y, z) [ (x, y) D, u
1
(x, y) z u
2
(x, y)
where D is given in polar coordinates by
D = (r, [ , h
1
() r h
2
().
If f is continuous on E, then
___
E
f(x, y, z)dV
=
_

_
h2()
h1()
_
u2(r cos ,r sin )
u1(r cos ,r sin )
f(r cos , r sin , z)r dz dr d
Example 136. Evaluate
_
2
2
_

4x
2

4x
2
_
2

x
2
+y
2
(x
2
+y
2
) dz dy dx
Example 137. Find the volume of the solid that is enclosed by the cone z =
_
x
2
+y
2
and the sphere x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= 4.
Example 138. Evaluate
___
E
_
x
2
+y
2
dV where E is the region that lies inside
the cylinder x
2
+y
2
= 16 and between the planes z = 5 and z = 4.
16.8: Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates. Using spherical coordi-
nates The spherical coordinates (, , ) of a point P in space can be found using
the conversions:
x = sin cos
y = sin sin
z = cos
Note that

2
= x
2
+y
2
+z
2
Integrating over spherical rectangular boxes
41
If E is the spherical wedge
E = (, , ) [ a b, , c d
then
___
E
f(x, y, z)dV
=
_
d
c
_

_
b
a
f( sin cos , sin sin , cos )
2
sin d d d
Example 139. Evaluate
___
B
e
(x
2
+y
2
+z
2
)
3/2
dV where B is the unit ball B = (x, y, z) [
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
1.
Example 140. Evaluate
___
E
z
2
dV where E is the solid hemisphere x
2
+y
2
+z
2

9, y 0.
Chapter 17 - Vector Calculus
17.1: Vector Fields. Vector elds Let D be a set in R
2
. A vector eld on
R
2
is a function F that assigns to each point (x, y) in D a 2-dimensional vector
F(x, y) = u, v.
We can write F in terms of its component functions P and Q:
F(x, y) = P(x, y)i +Q(x, y)j
We also call P and Q scalar elds.
Vector elds in R
3
Let E be a set in R
3
. A vector eld on R
3
is a function F that assigns to each point
(x, y, z) in E a 3-dimensional vector F(x, y, z) = u, v, w.
Say that a vector eld F is continuous if its component functions are continuous.
For convenience, we also write x = x, y, z and write F(x).
Example 141. F(x, y) = xi yj denes a vector eld. Sketch some of the vectors
F(x, y).
Example 142. Sketch the vector eld on R
3
given by F(x, y, z) = zk.
Example 143. Sketch the vector eld on R
2
given by F(x, y) = sin(x +y), x.
Examples of vector elds
A velocity eld is a vector eld V where each V(x, y, z) represents a velocity vector.
42
A gravitational eld is a vector eld F where each vector F(x, y, z) is a gravitational
force.
Similarly we can dene force elds and electric elds.
Recall that f(x, y) is a vector for each (x, y). Thus, f(x, y) is in fact a vector
eld, called a gradient vector eld.
Example 144. Find the gradient vector eld of f(x, y) = x
2
y y
3
.
Example 145. Find the gradient vector eld of f(x, y, z) =
_
x
2
+y
2
+z
2
.
Conservative vector elds
A vector eld F is called a conservative vector eld if it is the gradient of a scalar
function, that is if F = f for some function f.
We call f the potential function for F.
17.2: Line Integrals. Line integrals with respect to arc length
How do we integrate a function along a curve instead of an interval?
If f is dened on a smooth curve C given by r(t) = x(t)i +y(t)j for a t b, then
the line integral of f (with respect to arc length) along C is
_
C
f(x, y)ds = lim
n
n

i=1
f(x

i
, y

i
)s
i
when this limit exists.
s
i
is the length of a subarc from when we divide the curve C up.
More about line integrals
We can compute this using the following:
_
C
f(x, y)ds =
_
b
a
f(x(t), y(t))

_
dx
dt
_
2
+
_
dy
dt
_
2
dt
As when we learned about arc length, the parametrization used does not matter,
as long as it is nice.
If C is a piecewise-smooth curve, then we can break line integrals into multiple
parts
_
C
f(x, y)ds =
_
C1
f(x, y)ds +. . . +
_
Cn
f(x, y)ds.
43
Example 146. Evaluate
_
C
(2+x
2
y)ds, where C is the upper half of the unit circle
x
2
+y
2
= 1.
Example 147. Evaluate
_
C
2xds where C consists of the arc C
1
of the parabola
y = x
2
from (0, 0) to (1, 1) followed by the vertical line segment C
2
from (1, 1) to
(1, 2).
Line integrals with respect to x and y The line integrals of f along C with
respect to x and y are
_
C
f(x, y)dx = lim
n
n

i=1
f(x

i
, y

i
)x
i
=
_
b
a
f(x(t), y(t))x

(t)dt
_
C
f(x, y)dy = lim
n
n

i=1
f(x

i
, y

i
)y
i
=
_
b
a
f(x(t), y(t))y

(t)dt
Recall that a line segment connecting points r
0
and r
1
can be parametrized by
r(t) = (1 t)r
0
+tr
1
for 0 t 1.
Example 148. Evaluate
_
C
xe
y
dx where C is the arc of the curve x = e
y
from
(1, 0) to (e, 1).
Example 149. Evaluate
_
C
y
2
dx+xdy where C is the line segment from (5, 3)
to (0, 2).
Orientations
A parametrization of a curve C carries with it an orientation, or direction, corre-
sponding to the direction you move along C as t increases.
We can write C to mean the same curve as C with the opposite orientation.
Then _
C
f(x, y)dx =
_
C
f(x, y)dx
_
C
f(x, y)dy =
_
C
f(x, y)dy
_
C
f(x, y)ds =
_
C
f(x, y)ds
Line integrals and functions of 3 variables
If r(t) = x(t)i +y(t)j +z(t)k for a t b traces the smooth curve C, then the line
integral of f along C (with respect to arc length) is
_
C
f(x, y, z)ds =
_
b
a
f(x(t), y(t), z(t))

_
dx
dt
_
2
+
_
dy
dt
_
2
+
_
dz
dt
_
2
dt
44
We can also dene line integrals along C with respect to x, y, z.
More about line integrals
If we wanted to condense our line integrals to a more precise notation:
_
C
f(x, y, z)ds =
_
b
a
f(r(t)) [r

(t)[dt
Note that if the function f is the constant 1 everywhere, a line integral will give us
the length of the curve C.
Example 150. Evaluate
_
C
y sin z ds where C is the circular helix given by the
equations x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t, 0 t 2.
Example 151. Evaluate
_
C
x
2
y

z dz where C is the curve with parametrization

x = t
3
, y = t, z = t
2
for 0 t 1.
Line integrals of vector elds
Let F be a continuous vector eld dened on a smooth curve C given by a vector
function r(t) for a t b.
The line integral of F along C is
_
C
F dr =
_
b
a
F(r(t)) r

(t)dt =
_
C
F Tds
where T is the unit tangent vector.
Example 152. Find the work done by the force eld F(x, y) = x
2
i xyj in moving
a particle along the quarter circle r(t) = cos ti + sin tj for 0 t /2.
Example 153. Evaluate
_
C
F dr where F(x, y, z) = xyi +yzj +zxk and C is the
twisted cubic given by r(t) = t, t
2
, t
3
for 0 t 1.
Scalars and vectors
Note that there is a connection between line integrals of scalar and vector elds.
_
C
F dr =
_
C
Pdx +Qdy +Rdz
where F = Pi +Qj +Rk.
17.3: The Fundamental Theorem for Line Integrals. Fundamental the-
orem for line integrals Recall the fundamental theorem of calculus.
Let C be a smooth curve given by the vector function r(t), a t b.
45
Theorem 0.6. If f is a dierentiable function of 2 or 3 variables whose gradient
vector f is continuous on C, then
_
C
f dr = f(r(b)) f(r(a))
Example 154. Find
_
C
F dr where F = f, f(x, y) = 2x
2
+ y
2
xy, and C is
the curve from (1, 1) to (3, 2).
Example 155. Find
_
C
F dr where F(x, y) = 2x, 3y
2
and C is the quarter of
the unit circle in the rst quadrant, from (1, 0) to (0, 1). Note that F = f, where
f(x, y) = x
2
+y
3
.
Independence of path
If F is a continuous vector eld with domain D, we say that
_
C
F dr is independent
of path if
_
C1
F dr =
_
C2
F dr for any two paths C
1
and C
2
in D with the same
initial and terminal points.
In general, line integrals of vector elds will not be independent of path.
Line integrals of conservative vector elds are always independent of path.
Closed curves
A curve is closed if its terminal point and initial point coincide (not the same as a
set being closed).
Theorem 0.7.
_
C
F dr is independent of path in D if and only if
_
C
F dr = 0
for every closed path C in D.
Conservative vector elds
A region is called open if all of its points are interior points (not very close to the
boundary). The complement of an open set is a closed set.
A region is called connected if every pair of points in D is joined by a path lying in
D.
Theorem 0.8. If F is a vector eld that is continuous on an open connected region
D and
_
C
F dr is independent of path in D, then F is a conservative vector eld
on D; in other words, there is a function f such that F = f.
Determining when F is conservative
Recall from partial derivatives that f
xy
= f
yx
when both exist and are continuous.
Theorem 0.9. If F(x, y) = P(x, y)i +Q(x, y)j is a conservative vector eld, where
P and Q have continuous rst-order partial derivatives on a domain F, then we
have
P
y
=
Q
x
46
Simply connected regions
A simple curve is a curve that never intersects itself (besides the endpoints).
A simply-connected region is a connected region such that any region enclosed by
a simple curve is a part of D.
In other words, a simply-connected region is one where every loop can be shrunk
down to a point, and remain inside the region.
Theorem 0.10. Let F = Pi +Qj be a vector eld on an open simply-connected re-
gion F. If P and Q have continuous rst-order derivatives and P
y
= Q
x
everywhere
in D, then F is conservative.
Example 156. Decide whether or not F(x, y) = (xy)i +(x2)j is conservative.
Example 157. Determine whether or not the vector eld F(x, y) = (3 + 2xy)i +
(x
2
3y
2
)j is conservative.
Example 158. Find a function f such that F = f, where F(x, y) = (3 +2xy)i +
(x
2
3y
2
)j. Evaluate
_
C
F dr where C is the curve r(t) = e
t
sin ti +e
t
cos tj
Example 159. If F(x, y, z) = y
2
i +(2xy +e
3z
)j +3ye
3z
k, nd a function such that
f = F.
Example 160. Find a function f such that F = f, where F(x, y, z) = yzi +
xzj +(xy +2z)k, then compute
_
C
F dr where C is the line segment from (1, 0, 2)
to (4, 6, 3).
Example 161. Find a function f such that F = f, where F(x, y, z) = sin y i +
(xcos y + cos z)j (y sin z)k, then compute
_
C
F dr where C is given by r(t) =
sin t i +tj + 2tk for 0 t /2.
17.4: Greens Theorem. Notation for Greens Theorem
We use the convention that the positive orientation of a simple closed curve C
means a single counterclockwise traversal of C.
The positively orientated boundary curve of D can also be denoted by D.
We also use
_
to mean the line integral along the positive orientation of a closed
curve.
Greens Theorem
Theorem 0.11. Let C be a positively oriented, piecewise-smooth, simple closed
curve in the plane and let D be the region bounded by C. If P and Q have
continuous partial derivatives on an open region that contains D, then
_
C
Pdx +Qdy =
__
D
_
Q
x

P
y
_
dA
47
Example 162. Evaluate
_
C
x
4
dx+xy dy where C is the triangular curve consisting
of the line segments from (0, 0) to (1, 0), then to (0, 1), then back to (0, 0).
Example 163. Evaluate
_
C
(3y e
sin x
)dx + (7x +
_
y
4
+ 1)dy, where C is the
circle x
2
+y
2
= 9.
An Application of Greens Theorem
We can calculate the area of a region D by
A =
_
C
xdy =
_
C
ydx =
1
2
_
C
xdy ydx
Example 164. Find the area enclosed by the ellipse
x
2
a
2
+
y
2
b
2
= 1.
Example 165. Evaluate
_
C
y
2
dx + 3xydy where C is the boundary of the semi-
annular region D in the upper half plane between the circles x
2
+ y
2
= 1 and
x
2
+y
2
= 4.
Example 166. Use Greens Theorem to evaluate
_
C
Fdr where F(x, y) = y cos x
xy sin x, xy +xcos x and C is the triangle from (0, 0) to (0, 4) to (2, 0) to (0, 0).
Example 167. Use Greens Theorem to evaluate
_
C
Fdr where F(x, y) = y
2
sin x, x
2

2y cos x and C is the triangle from (0, 0) to (1, 0) to (0, 1) to (0, 0).
17.5: Curl and Divergence. Del operator Let F = Pi +Qj +Rk is a vector
eld on R
3
such that the partial derivatives of P, Q and R exist.
Dene a vector dierential operator (read del) as
= i

x
+j

y
+k

z
Note that this gives the same meaning to f as we would expect.
Since and F are both vectors, we can dene F and F.
Curl and divergence
The curl of F is the vector eld
curl F = F =
_
R
y

Q
z
_
i +
_
P
z

R
x
_
j +
_
Q
x

P
y
_
k
The divergence of F is a the function
div F = F =
P
x
+
Q
y
+
R
z
Some useful results about curl and divergence
48
Theorem 0.12. If F is a vector eld dened on all of R
3
whose component func-
tions have continuous partial derivatives and curl F = 0, then F is a conservative
vector eld.
Theorem 0.13. If F = Pi +Qj +Rk is a vector eld on R
3
and P, Q and R have
continuous second-order partial derivatives then
div curl F = 0
Example 168. Determine whether or not F(x, y, z) = y
2
z
3
i + 2xyz
3
j + 3xy
2
z
2
k
is conservative. If it is, nd an f such that F = f.
Example 169. Determine whether or not F(x, y, z) = 2xy cos(z)i + x
2
cos(z)j
x
2
y sin(z)k is conservative. If it is, nd an f such that F = f.
Example 170. Compute div F where F(x, y, z) = xzi +xyzj y
2
k.
Example 171. Consider F(x, y, z) = xzi + xyzj y
2
k. Can F be the curl of
another function?
Example 172. Determine whether or not F(x, y, z) = y
2
e
x
i + 2ye
x
j + (z + 1)e
z
k
is conservative. If it is, nd an f such that F = f. Evaluate
_
C
F dr where
r(t) = ti +t
3
j +t
5
k for 0 t 1.
Example 173. Determine whether or not F(x, y, z) = 2y
2
i 2xj 2z
2
k is con-
servative. If it is, nd an f such that F = f. Evaluate
_
C
F dr where r(t) =
(1 t)i +tj 3tk for 0 t 1.
Example 174. Determine whether or not F(x, y, z) = i + sin zj + y cos zk is con-
servative. If it is, nd an f such that F = f.
Greens Theorem restated in terms of curl and divergence
Theorem 0.14.
_
C
F dr =
__
D
(curl F) k dA
Theorem 0.15.
_
C
F n ds =
__
D
div F(x, y) dA
17.6: Parametric Surfaces and Their Areas. Parametric surfaces
Let r(u, v) = x(u, v)i +y(u, v)j +z(u, v)k be a vector-valued function dened on a
region D in the uv-plane.
The set S of points (x, y, z) R
3
such that x = x(u, v), y = y(u, v), and z = z(u, v)
for some (u, v) D is called a parametric surface.
We call x = x(u, v), y = y(u, v), and z = z(u, v) the parametric equations of S.
Parametrizing surfaces
49
Parametrizing a surface S means nding x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v).
One special type of surface is a surface of revolution:
Let S be the surface obtained by the rotation of the curve y = f(x) for a x b
about the x-axis, where f(x) 0.
S is parametrized by:
x = x y = f(x) cos z = f(x) sin
Example 175. Find a parametrization of the plane containing the points (1, 1, 1),
(2, 1, 2) and (3, 0, 1).
Example 176. Find a parametric representation of the sphere x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= 4.
Example 177. Parametrize the elliptic paraboloid z = x
2
+ 2y
2
.
Example 178. Find a parametrization of the surface generated by rotation the
curve y = sin x for 0 x 2 about the x-axis.
Example 179. Find a parametrization of the part of the cylinder y
2
+ z
2
= 16
lying between the planes x = 0 and x = 5.
Example 180. Parametrize the surface which is the top half of the cone z
2
=
4x
2
+ 4y
2
.
Tangent Planes
Let S be the surface traced out by the function
r(u, v) = x(u, v)i +y(u, v)j +z(u, v)k.
What is the equation for the tangent plane to S at a point P
0
= r(u
0
, v
0
)?
A plane is determined by a normal vector and a point. Or equivalently, a plane is
determined by two non-parallel vectors contained within the plane and a point.
Keeping u xed as u = u
0
we can nd one tangent vector in this plane:
r
v
=
x
v
(u
0
, v
0
)i +
y
v
(u
0
, v
0
)j +
z
v
(u
0
, v
0
)k
Keeping v xed as v = v
0
we can nd one tangent vector in this plane:
r
u
=
x
u
(u
0
, v
0
)i +
y
u
(u
0
, v
0
)j +
z
u
(u
0
, v
0
)k
Then r
u
r
v
gives a normal vector to the plane.
Of course this only makes sense if r
u
r
v
,= 0. So call S smooth if r
u
r
v
,= 0.
50
Example 181. Find the tangent plane to the surface with parametric equations
x = u
2
, y = v
2
and z = u + 2v at the point (1, 1, 3).
Example 182. Find the tangent plane to the surface given by r(u, v) = cos ui +
sin ucos vj + sin vk at u = v =

3
Surface Area
Suppose S is parametrized by (and covered exactly once by)
r(u, v) = x(u, v)i +y(u, v)j +z(u, v)k (u, v) D
Then the surface area of S is
A(S) =
__
D
[r
u
r
v
[dA
where
r
u
=
x
u
(u
0
, v
0
)i +
y
u
(u
0
, v
0
)j +
z
u
(u
0
, v
0
)k
and
r
v
=
x
v
(u
0
, v
0
)i +
y
v
(u
0
, v
0
)j +
z
v
(u
0
, v
0
)k
Surface area of the graph of a function A special type of surface is one which
is the graph of a function. These can be parametrized by
x = x y = y z = f(x, y)
The surface area of the graph of f above a region D is
A(S) =
__
D

1 +
_
z
x
_
2
+
_
z
y
_
2
dA
Example 183. Find the surface area of a sphere of radius 2.
Example 184. Find the surface area of the part of the paraboloid z = x
2
+ y
2
that lies under the plane z = 9.
Example 185. Find the surface area of the part of the plane 3x +2y +z = 6 that
lies in the rst octant.
Example 186. Find the surface area of the part of the sphere x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= 2
that lies between the planes z = 1 and z = 0.
51
17.7: Surface Integrals. Denition of surface integrals Let S be a surface
parametrized by the vector equation
r(u, v) = x(u, v)i +y(u, v)j +z(u, v)k (u, v) D
where D is a rectangle.
The surface integral of f over the surface S is dened to be
__
S
f(x, y, z) dS = lim
m,n
m

i=1
n

j=1
f(P

ij
)S
ij
where each P

ij
is a point in a patch of S and S
ij
is the surface area of that
patch.
Computing surface integrals To compute surface integrals, use
__
S
f(x, y, z) dS =
__
D
f(r(u, v))[r
u
r
v
[ dA
where
r
u
=
x
u
(u
0
, v
0
)i +
y
u
(u
0
, v
0
)j +
z
u
(u
0
, v
0
)k
r
v
=
x
v
(u
0
, v
0
)i +
y
v
(u
0
, v
0
)j +
z
v
(u
0
, v
0
)k
This works where D is any region, not just a rectangle.
Surfaces which are graphs of functions
If S is the graph of a function g(x, y), we can parametrize S using
x = x y = y z = g(x, y)
Then a surface integral over S becomes
__
S
f(x, y, z)dS =
__
D
f(x, y, g(x, y))

1 +
_
z
x
_
2
+
_
z
y
_
2
dA
It may also be convenient to think of S as the graph of g in a slightly dierent
way: either x = g(y, z) or y = g(x, z). These will give slightly dierent forms for
calculating surface integrals.
Example 187. Evaluate
__
S
x
2
dS where S is the unit sphere x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= 1.
Example 188. Evaluate
__
S
y dS where S is the surface z = x+y
2
for 0 x 1,
0 y 2.
Example 189. Evaluate
__
S
_
1 +x
2
+y
2
dS where S is parametrized by r(u, v) =
ucos v, usin v, v for 0 u 1 and 0 v .
52
Example 190. Evaluate
__
S
(xz+y) dS where S is the part of the plane x+2y+z = 2
that lies in the rst octant.
Oriented surfaces
Let S be a surface which has a tangent plane at every point (x, y, z) on S (excluding
the boundaries, perhaps).
Then there are two unit normal vectors one can pick at each point.
We say that S is oriented if it is possible to pick n at each point (x, y, z) in a way
such that n varies continuously over S.
The choice of n is called an orientation.
Picking orientations
If S is the graph of a function g, then we can pick an orientation by
n =

g
x
i
g
y
j +k
_
_
g
x
_
2
+
_
g
y
_
2
+ 1
If S is a smooth orientable surface then it has the natural orientation
n =
r
u
r
v
[r
u
r
v
[
If S is a closed surface (the boundary of a solid region), we make the convention
that the positive orientation points outwards.
Surface integrals of vector elds (ux) If F is a continuous vector eld dened
on an oriented surface S with unit normal vector n then the surface integral of F
over S is
__
S
F dS =
__
S
F n dS
This is also called the ux of F across S.
Computing ux
When S is parametrized by r(u, v), then this becomes
__
S
F dS =
__
D
F (r
u
r
v
) dA
53
When S is the graph of a function, this becomes:
__
S
F dS =
__
D
_
P
g
x
Q
g
y
+R
_
dA
Example 191. Evaluate
__
S
F dS where F(x, y, z) = yi + xj + zk and S is the
boundary of the solid region E enclosed by the paraboloid z = 1 x
2
y
2
and the
plane z = 0.
Example 192. Find the ux of the vector eld F(x, y, z) = zi +yj +xk across the
unit sphere x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= 1.
Example 193. Find the ux of the vector eld F(x, y, z) = yjzk where S consists
of the paraboloid y = x
2
+z
2
for 0 y 1 and the disk x
2
+z
2
1, y = 1.
Example 194. Find the ux of F(x, y, z) = x
2
i+y
2
j+z
2
k where S is the boundary
of the solid half-cylinder 0 z
_
1 y
2
, 0 x 2.
Example 195. Evaluate
__
S
FdS where F(x, y, z) = xi+yj+2zk and S is the part
of the paraboloid z = 4 x
2
y
2
that lies above the square 0 x 1, 0 y 1
and has upward orientation.
17.8: Stokes Theorem. Stokes Theorem
Theorem 0.16. Let S be an oriented piecewise-smooth surface that is bounded
by a simple, closed, piecewise-smooth boundary curve C with positive orientation.
Let F be a vector eld whose components have continuous partial derivatives on
an open region in R
3
containing S. Then
_
C
F dr =
__
S
curl F dS
Greens Theorem can be seen as a special case of Stokes Theorem.
Example 196. Evaluate
_
C
F dr where F(x, y, z) = y
2
i + xj + z
2
k and C is
the curve of intersection of the plane y +z = 2 and the cylinder x
2
+y
2
= 1 (C is
oriented to be counterclockwise as viewed from above).
Example 197. Compute
__
S
curl F dS where F(x, y, z) = xzi +yzj +xyk and S
is the part of the sphere x
2
+ y
2
+ z
2
= 4 that lies inside the cylinder x
2
+ y
2
= 1
and above the xy-plane (oriented upwards).
Example 198. Evaluate
__
S
curl F dS where F(x, y, z) = e
xy
i +e
xz
j +x
2
zk and S
is the half of the ellipsoid 4x
2
+y
2
+4z
2
= 4 that lies on the right of the xz-plane,
oriented in the direction of the positive y-axis.
Example 199. Evaluate
_
C
F dr where F(x, y, z) = e
x
i +e
x
k+e
z
k and C is the
boundary of the part of the plane 2x +y +2z = 2 in the rst octant. C is oriented
counterclockwise as viewed from above.
54
Example 200. Evaluate
__
S
curl F dS where F(x, y, z) = x
2
z
2
i +y
2
z
2
j+xyzk and
S is the part of the paraboloid z = x
2
+y
2
that lies inside the cylinder x
2
+y
2
= 4,
oriented upwards.
17.9: The Divergence Theorem. The Divergence Theorem
Theorem 0.17. Let E be a simple solid region with boundary surface S given with
positive (outward) orientation. Let F be a vector eld whose component functions
have continuous partial derivatives on an open region that contains E. Then
__
S
F dS =
___
E
div F dV
Example 201. Find the ux of the vector eld F(x, y, z) = zi +yj +xk over the
unit sphere x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= 1.
Example 202. Evaluate
__
S
F dS where F(x, y, z) = xyi +(y
2
+e
xz
2
)j +sin(xy)k
and S is the surface of the region E bounded by the parabolic cylinder z = 1 x
2
and the planes z = 0, y = 0, and y +z = 2.
Example 203. Evaluate
__
S
F dS where F(x, y, z) = xzi 2yj +3xk and S is the
sphere x
2
+y
2
+z
2
= 4, with outward orientation.
Example 204. Calculate the ux of F across S where F(x, y, z) = xzi +3yzj+z
2
k
and S is the surface of solid bounded by the cylinder x
2
+ y
2
= 1 and the planes
z = y + 1 and z = y 1.
Example 205. Calculate the ux of F across S where F(x, y, z) = x
2
yzi +x
2
yzj +
xyz
2
k and S is the surface of the box bounded by the coordinate planes and the
planes x = 3, y = 2, and z = 1.