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CHAPTER 1
1.1 ANIMAL TISSUE
GENERAL VIEW
1. Many similar cells that perform a specific function = tissue
2. Latin world: tissue = weave
3. Combination of various tissues make up functional units called organs
4. Group of organs work together as organ systems
5. Tissue may be held together by a sticky extracellular matrix that coats
the cells/ weaves them together in a fabric or fibers.
ANIMALS TISSUES

1. Four major categories of animal tissue:

a.
b.
c.
d.

a.

Epithelial tissue
Muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Nervous tissue
Epithelial Tissue

i. Occurs as sheets of closely tightly packed cells

ii. Generally, covers outside the body, lines organs and cavities
within the body.
iii. As a barrier protecting against mechanical injury, invasive
microorganisms and fluid loss.

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Types
Simple
squamous
epithelium

Structure
1.
Single layer of
cells attached to the
basement membrane
cells are thin and
flattened with central
nucleus.
2.
When viewed
from the surface,
they are polygonalshape with
tessellated or nontessellated margins.
3.
Proteins bridges
join the adjacent cells
together.

Simple
cuboidal
epithelium

1. Single layer of

Simple and
ciliated
columnar
epithelium

1. Columnar shape with

Pseudostratifi
ed epithelium

cuboidal shaped cells.

2. Possesses a central
spherical nucleus.

oval nucleus near its

basal end.
2. Apical surface may
have cilia or
microvilli.
3. Cells are usually
associated with
goblet cells.
4. Relatively large
amount of cytoplasm.
1. Epithelium consists of
only one layer of cells
with all the cells
attached at one end
to the basement
membrane.
2. Not all cells have a
free surface.
3. Nuclei of cells are
found at different
levels giving a

Location
1.Lining the alveoli
of lungs,
Bowmans
capsule and the
Henle loop of the
kidney.
2.The epithelium
that forms the
inner lining of
blood vessels
and lymphatic
vessels is called
endothelium.

1.

Forms lining
of many ducts
such as salivary
and pancreatic
ducts, proximal
and distal
convoluted
tubules, salivary
and thyroid
glands.
1. Lines the uterus,
oviducts,
digestive tract.

1. Lining the
trachea and
bronchus.

Functions
1.
As a barrier,
regulating
movement of
substances across it.
2.The thin wall permits
diffusion. E.g. of
gases across
alveolus.
3.Protects the
underlying tissues.
The smooth linings in
blood vessels reduce
friction of blood
flowing through it. It
forms mesenteries to
support the viscera.
1.
Secretion,
absorption and
protection.

1.
Mechanical
support and
protection.

1.
Goblet cells
secrete mucus as
lubricant and trap
dust particles and
microbes.
2.Cilia in ciliated
epithelium move
fluids to the pharynx
for swallowing.

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Stratified
squamous
epithelium

Compound
stratified
cuboidal
Stratified
columnar
Transitional

b.

multilayered
appearance.
4. Apical surface may
have cilia.
1.Consists of several
layers of cells.
2.The cells attached to
the basement
membrane form the
germinative and can
divide mitotically to
produce new cells.
3.
The new cells are
cuboid in shape but
become flattened to
form squamous
epithelium at the
surface.
1.
Consist of 2 or 3
layers of cuboidal
cells.
1.
Consists of
several layers of
columnar cells.
1.
Consists of 3-4
layers of cells.
2.
The cells are able
to modify their shape
under different
conditions.

1.
Epithelium
found in the
esophagus nonkeratinised
2.Where the skin is
subjected to
abrasion and
friction becomes
thick and
keratinised.
3.The outer layer
consists of dead
cells.

1.
Protective layer
in areas of higher
friction.

1.

1.

Transport

1.
Salivary
gland ducts

1.

Transport

1.
2.

1.
Allows
stretching of the
bladder.
2.
Barrier against
urine flowing out into
the surrounding
tissues.

Sweat ducts

Ureters
bladders

Muscle Tissue

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i. Composed of long cells called muscle fibers

ii. Capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses
iii. Muscle contraction accounts for most of energy-consuming cellular work

in active animals
iv. Three types of muscle tissues (vertebrate); skeletal muscle, cardiac
muscle, smooth muscle.
Skeletal Muscle:
-

attached to the bones by tendons

responsible for voluntary movements
consist of bundles of long cells called fibers
also called striated muscle (because the arrangement of
contractile units, or sarcomeres, gives the cells a striped
(striated) appearance
Cardiac Muscle:

forms the contractile wall of the heart/ pump the blood

carries out the unconscious task of contraction of the heart
muscle fibers branch and interconnect via intercalated disk
(relay signals from cell to cell during heart beat)
Smooth Muscle:

lacks striations
found in the walls of the digestive tract, urinary bladder,
arteries and other internal organs
move the walls of the internal organs (stomach)
contract slowly but remain longer
responsible for involuntary body activities

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Comparison of the three types of muscles:

Smooth muscles

Cardiac muscles

Sarcomere

No

Yes

Skeletal
muscles(striated
muscles)
Yes

Cell surface
membrane
(sarcolemma)
Cross striations

Present as a thin
membrane.

Present

Present

absent

Present

Present

Branching of
muscles fibres.
Nucleus

None

Yes

None

One, centrally
located

One, centrally
located

Sarcoplasmic
reticulum
Intercalated
discs

None

Present

Absent

Present

Multinucleated
(syncytium),
nuclei peripherally
located beneath
sarcolemma.
Present.
Well-developed
Absent

Types of nerve
fibres to
muscle.
Contraction

Autonomic

Autonomic

Motor

slow, rhythmic,
can Continue for
long periods
without fatigue
Involuntary
muscles. Impulses
from central
nervous system
not essential for
contraction.

Moderately rapid
and powerful, with
rests between
contractions.
Involuntary
muscles. Myogenic
but rate of
contraction can be
controlled by
autonomic nervous
system.
Wall of heart

Rapid, powerful,
not sustained.

Cylinder shaped
single nucleus;
cross-striations;
intercalated discs;
branching of

Long cylinder
shaped; many
peripheral nuclei.

Control of
contraction

Location

Distinctive
features of
muscle cells.

Lining alimentary
canal, blood
vessels, and ducts
of urino-genital
system.
Spindle shaped;
no crossstriations; one
nucleus.

Voluntary
muscles.
Neurogenic,
contracts only in
response to
impulses from
motor nerves.
Attached to
skeleton.

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muscle fibres.

c.

Connective Tissue

i. Involved in structure and support.

ii. Derived from mesoderm
iii. Two types of tissues;
Connective tissue proper:
Areolar/loose connective tissue, adipose, dense connective tissue/
fibrous connective tissue, reticular connective tissue
Specialized connective tissues:
Bone, cartilage, and blood
Connective tissue proper:

Areolar/ loose connective tissue:

Found at places that connect epithelium to other tissues,
beneath the dermis layer, underneath the epithelial tissue
Component of mucus membranes found in the digestive,
respiratory, reproductive and urinary system
Surrounds the blood vessel and nerves
Pliable, mesh-like tissue with a fluid matrix
Contains two cell types: fibroblast cells (secrete strong
fibrous proteins and proteoglycans as an extracellular

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matrix), macrophages (amoeboid cells, engulfing bacteria

and the debris of dead cell by phagocytosis)
Contains three types of fibers: Collagenous fibers (made of
collagen, bundles of fibrils, none elastic), Elastic fibers
( made of elastin, stretchable), Reticular fibers ( contains
one or more fibers, very thin and branch, form a tightly
woven fabric)
Function: to cushion and protect body organs, holding the
internal organs together and in correct placement
Adipose:
composed of adipocytes
located beneath the skin and around internal organs
Function: store energy in the form of fat, cushion the body
or internal organ, provides insulation from heat and cold
Divided into lobes by small blood vessels
Dense connective tissue/fibrous connective tissue:
main matrix element: collagen fibers
between collagen fibers are rows of fibroblast, fiberforming cells (manufacture the fibers)
form strong, rope-like structures such as tendons (attach
skeletal muscle to bones) and ligaments (connect bones to
bones at joints)
ligaments more stretchy and contain more elastic fibers
two types of tissue:
1. Dense regular connective tissue:
Provides strong connection between different
tissues
2. Dense irregular connective tissue:
Not arranged in parallel bundles and
comprises a large portion of the dermal tissue
Reticular connective tissue:
has a network of reticular fibers (fine type III collagen)
form a soft skeleton (stroma)
synthesized by special fibroblast (reticular cells)
resembles areolar connective tissues but the only fibers in
its matrix are reticular fibers
Function: to support lymphoid organs (lymph nodes, red
bone marrow, thymus and spleen)

Specialized connective tissue:

Cartilage:
- abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery
matrix made of a substance (chondroitin sulfate: a proteincarbohydrate complex)
- chondrocytes secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate and
responsible for maintenance of the matrix
- chondroblasts = precursors of chondrocytes

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is avascular or without blood vessels and nerve

Location: nose, ears and intervertebral discs.
Function: flexible support
Three types of cartilage:
1. Hyaline cartilage
Most abundant
Greek: hyalos = glass
Found lining bones in joints (covers the
ends of the bone), form embryonic
skeleton (nose, trachea)
2. Elastic cartilage
Yellow cartilage
Keep tubes permanently open
Contains elastic bundles (elastin)
scattered throughout the matrix
Found in the pinne of ears, several
tubes (auditory(Eustachian) tubes,
larynx and epiglottis
3. Fibrocartilage
White cartilage
Found in areas requiring tough support/
great tensile strength. E.g. invertebral
disc, sites connecting tendons,
ligaments to bones
Function: shock absorber

Bone:
- mineralized connective tissue
- osteoblast deposit a matrix of collagen
- calcium, magnesium and phosphate ions combine and
harden within matrix mineral hydroxyapatite
- unit of bones: osteons (concentric layers of mineralized
matrix deposited around a central canal containing blood
vessels and nerves)
- Bone disease:
1. Rickets children,deficiency of vitamin D
prevents calcium absorption from intestines
2. Osteomalacia adults, deficiency of vitamin
D, bones do not calcify properly
3. Osteoporosis decreasing bone mass, lack of
calcium in body
- Function of bones:
1. Give body shape and provide framework for
support
2. Protect the internal organs
3. Provide surfaces for attachment of skeletal
muscle to enable movement
4. Act as a reservoir for calcium and phosphorus
5. Site for blood cell production in the bone
marrow

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6. Acid-Base Balance Bone buffers the blood

against excessive pH changes by absorbing or
releasing alkaline salts
7. Detoxification bone tissue can also store
heavy metals and other foreign elements,
removing them from the blood and reducing
their effects on other tissues
Bone structure:
1. Macrostructure
i.
Not uniformly solid material,
some spaces between its hard
elements
2. Compact bone
i.
The hard outer layer (minimal
gaps and spaces)
ii.
The smooth, white and solid
appearance
iii.
Also referred as dense bone/
cortical bone
3. Osteon
i.
Predominant structure in
compact bone
ii.
A haversian canal in the centre,
surrounded by lamellae
iii.
Osteocytes are interspersed
iv.
The osteocytes are connected by
canaliculi (enabling transport of
nutrients
4. Cellular structure
i.
Osteoblast: immature bone cells
cover all available bone surfaces and
function as a barrier for certain ions.
ii.
Osteocytes:
originate from osteoblast
migrated into and become trapped
and surrounded by bone matrix
(mature bone cells),
the spaces they occupy are known
as lacunae
Function: formation of bone
(varying degrees), matrix
maintenance and calcium
homeostasis
Also act as mechano-sensory
receptors regulating the bones
response to stress
iii. Osteoclast: bone cell that removes bone
tissue (removing bones mineralized
matrix bone resorption (together with

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osteoblast, controlling the amount of bone

tissue)
5. Matrix
i.
Major constituent of bone,
surrounding the cells.
ii.
Two part:

The inorganic:
crystalline mineral salts + calcium
= hydroxyapatite; Laid down as
unmineralized osteoid (manufacture
by osteoblast); For mineralization:
osteoblast secrete vesicles
containing alkaline phosphatase

The organic: collagen

Blood

Component

Extensive extracellular matrix

The matrix is called plasma. Component of plasma
and their function:

Water

Percent
90%

Plasma protein

6-8%

Food substances

1%

Enzymes hormones

Variable

Mineral salts

0.8-1%

Excretory wastes

Variable

Function
1.
As a solvent and transport
medium.
1.Act as buffer, helps to maintain
blood pH.
2.Fibrinogen and prothrombin needed
for blood clotting.
3.Serum albumin helps to maintain
osmotic pressure of the blood.
4.Most antibodies produced by
lymphocytes are gamma proteins.
1.
Glucose, amino acids,
cholesterol and other lipids.
1.Takes part in metabolism e.g.
enzyme catalase.
2.Hormone insulin, adrenaline.
1.To regulate solute potential and pH
level e.g. ions.
2. Na+, K+, CI-, HCO3-, PO43-.Ca2+ needed
for blood clotting.
1. Urea, ceratinine, uric acid, a little
NH4+.

Suspended in the plasma are erythrocytes (red

blood cells carry oxygen), leukocytes (white blood cells
defense against viruses, bacteria and other invaders),
platelets (blood clotting)

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Structure and function of blood cells:

Cell type
Erythrocyte

Number of
Lifespan of
cell per mm3 mature cell
5,000,000 in
120 days
adult blood
destroyed by
the
macrophages
in liver &
spleen.

Granulolocyte 4000-6000
s:
a) neutrophils
(70% of
leucocytes)

Very shortlived (6
hours a few
days)

Size and
structure
Diameter 7-8
m and about
2 um thick.
Biconcave,
disc shape.
Mature
mammalian
erythrocytes
do not have a
nucleus and
organelles.
Space inside
the
erythrocyte is
packed with
haemoglobin
(90%) of
enzymes and
some
inorganic ions.
Cell is covered
by a thin,
elastic cell
surface
membrane.
Diameter 10
15 m.
Nucleus
contains 3, 4
or 5 lobes.
Cytoplasm
contains fine,
non-staining
granules.

Function
Erythrocytes
contain
haemoglobin
which
functions to
transport
oxygen and
some carbon
dioxide. Act as
buffers and
help to
maintain the
pH of the
blood.

Neutrophils
are
phagocytes.
Migrate by
amoeboid
movement
through the
cells between
capillary walls
to the infected
areas of the
body.
Engulf
microorganis
ms e.g.
bacteria by
phagocytosis
and destroy
them.

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b) Eosinophils 100 450

(1.5%)
(increase
during allergic
reaction)

Several days

Diameter 1015 m.
Nucleus
contains 2 or 3
lobes.
Cytoplasm
contains fairly
large granules
which can
stain red with
the acid dye
eosin.

Help to control
allergic
responses e.g.
they secrete
enzymes to
inactivate
histamines.
Eosinophils
are cytotoxic
cells and
release
hydrolytic
enzymes to
digest some
parasitic
worms.

basophils
(0.5%)

50-100

1-2 years

A
granulocytes:
lymphocytes

1500 - 2500

Several
month to
years

Diameter 14
16 m.
Nucleus
contains 2 or
is S-shaped.
Cytoplasm
contains fewer
but larger
granules
which stain
blue with basic
dyes e.g.
methylene
blue.
Diameter 9-16
m; smallest
cells in the
leucocytes.
Round nucleus
occupies a
large portion
of the cell and
a small
amount of
non-granular
cytoplasm at
the periphery.

Basophils
secrete
histamine
which is
involved in
inflammation
and allergic
reactions.
They also
secrete
heparln which
helps to
prevent blood
clotting.
Several types
of
lymphocytes
are
responsible
for specific
immune
responses.Blymphocytes
produce
antibodies to
destroy the
antigens or
neutralize
toxins. Tlymphocytes
attack and
destroy
infected cells.

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monocytes
(4%)

200 - 800

Few days in
the blood
and several
months or
years in the
connective
tissues.

Diameter 16
20 m.
Largest of the
leucocytes.
Nucleus is
large and
kidneyshaped.
Cytoplasm is
non-granular.

Platelets
(thrombocyte
s)

250 000-400
000

8-12 days

About 3 m in
size.
Irregularly
shaped
membranebound cell
fragments,
nusually
lacking nuclei.

Monocytes
spend only a
few days in
the blood.
They then
leave the
blood and
migrate to the
tissues and
mature to
become
macrophages.
Macrophages
are large,
phagocytic
cells that
engulf
antigens e.g.
bacteria that
enter the
body. They
also engulf
and destroy
dead and
damaged cells
of the body.
Important in
the process of
blood clotting.

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d.

Nervous tissue

i. Function: transmit nerve signals that help control body activities

ii. Sense stimuli and transmit signals from one part of the animal to
another
iii. Functional unit: neuron (nerve cell)
iv. A neuron consist of:
Cell body
Dendrites: transmit impulse from their tips toward the rest
of the neuron
Axon: transmit impulses toward another neuron or toward
an effector

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EXERCISE

1. Tissue that may form a continuous layer of cells covering a body surface
or lining a body cavity is
A. connective.
B. epithelial.
C. muscular.
D. nervous.

[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

2.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Muscle that is striated and involuntary is

connective.
smooth.
skeletal.
cardiac.

3.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Osteocytes are most likely to be found in

cartilage.
bone.
lungs.
blood.

4.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Select the best reason why collagen fibers are abundant in tendons.
Abrasion
Contractility
Protection
Strength

5.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Which of the following is a function of adipose tissue?

Stores nutrients and oxygen
Cushions internal organs
Provides for elasticity of organs
Secretion

[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

[AS/OCT 2006/BIO200]

[AS/OCT 2006/BIO200]

6. Epithelium located in the ducts of glands would most likely be

A. simple columnar.
B. simple cuboidal.

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C. simple squamous.
D. stratified squamous.
7.
A.
B.
C.
D.

The contractile elements in muscle tissue are

myofibrils.
elastic.
collagen.
lacunae.

[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

8.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Which of the following connects bones to one another?

Tendons
Smooth fibers
Synovial membranes
Ligaments

9.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Cartilage is different from bone in that cartilage

is rich in nerves.
contains veins.
has a matrix that is composed of collagen.
contains arteries.

10.Which of the following is a function of adipose tissue?

A. Stores nutrients and oxygen
B. Cushions internal organs
C. Provides for elasticity of organs
D. Secretion

[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

11.What is the function of sensory neurons?

A. Conduct impulses between neuron and central nervous system.
B. Conduct impulses out of central nervous system toward muscles and
glands.
C. Send impulses from sensory receptors to central nervous system.
D. Integrate information.

[AS/APR 2008/BIO200]

12. Adipose tissue is a specialized form of loose connective tissues that

store fat in adipose cells. Which of the following INCORRECTLY describe the
adipose tissue?
A. Adipose tissue pads and insulates the body and stores fuel as fat
molecules.
B. It provides a considerable energy reserve.
C. Act as a shock absorber.
D. The fat droplets make adipose tissue a strong yet flexible support
material.
[AS/APR 2008/BIO200]

13. Describe briefly the structure, functions and the distribution (main
locations) of the following tissues:
i. bone
ii. loose connective tissue

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iii. simple cuboidal epithelium

iv. pseudostratified epithelium

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(12 marks)
[AS/APR 2006/BIO200]

i.

14.Explain how the structures of the following tissues are suited to their
functions.
Skeletal muscle

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ii.

Transitional epithelium

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(8 marks)
[AS/OCT 2006/BIO200]

15.Explain briefly the structure, function and the distribution of the

following tissues:
i. cartilage
ii. smooth muscle
iii. cuboidal epithelium

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(9 marks)
[AS/APR 2007/BIO200]

16. List and describe the functions of four (4) different types of epithelial
tissues. (8 marks)

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[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

17. Describe the differences between the three (3) types of muscle tissue.
(6 marks)

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[AS/OCT 2007/BIO200]

18. Explain the FOUR types of animal's primary tissues. (8 marks)

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[AS/APR 2008/BIO200]

Epithelial tissue

Simple epithelium squamous, cuboidal, ciliated,

pseudostratified epithelium

Stratified epithelium
[Structure, function and location of each tissues]
~Campbell,Reece (2008), 8th edition, Benjamin Cummings (Pg:856)
Muscle tissue

Smooth muscle

Skeletal muscle

Cardiac muscle
[Structure, function and location of each tissues]
~Campbell,Reece (2008), 8th edition, Benjamin Cummings (Pg:858)
Connective tissue

Connective tissue proper

i. Loose connective tissue areolar
ii. Regular and irregular dense connective tissue
iii. Elastic connective tissue
iv. Reticular connective tissue
v. Adipose tissue

Special connective tissue

i. cartilage;hyaline, yellow elastic, and white fibrous cartilage
ii. bone; spongy and compact bone
iii. blood; blood composition and general function of blood
[Structure, function and location of each tissues]
~Campbell,Reece (2008), 8th edition, Benjamin Cummings (Pg:857)
Nerve tissue

Sensory neurons

Motor neurons

Association neurons
[Structure, function and location of each tissues]
~Campbell,Reece (2008), 8th edition, Benjamin Cummings (Pg:858-859)

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