Foreign and Defense Policy

Spring 2012 Ms Wynne

Facing the World:

Foreign policy includes the techniques and strategies used to achieve external goals, as well as the goals themselves. Some of the techniques used in carrying out foreign policy include: 1. diplomacy, the process by which states carry on political relations through peaceful means. 2. economic aid, assistance to other nations in the form of grants, loans, or credits to purchase goods. 3. technical assistance, sending experts with technical skills in agriculture, engineering, or business to aid other nations. 4. Military intervention is another, slightly dierent tactic. The foreign policy process in the U.S. usually starts with the president.

National Security Policy:

A major goal of foreign policy is national security; that is, the protection of the independence and political and economic integrity of the United States. Defense policy is a subset of national security policy that includes the direction of the scale and size of the American armed forces. Defense policy considers the types of armed forces we need, how many wars we need to be prepared to ght simultaneously, and the type of weaponry that will be required. The defense policy process starts with military leaders or the secretary of defense; Congress has great inuence on this policymaking.

Diplomacy:
Diplomacy refers to the seNling of disputes between nations by peaceful methods. It is a set of negotiating techniques, which may or may not be successful. For example, the aNempt to negotiate a seNlement between Israel and its Arab neighborsincluding the Palestinians has made apparent progress at times. At other times, negotiations have come to a stop. The failure of diplomacy can be seen in Israels war with Hezbollah during the summer of 2006. The question of whether to negotiate with leaders such as Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, the president of Iran, became an issue in the 2008 presidential election.

Morality versus Reality in Foreign Policy

The development of foreign policy begins with the view a country and its leaders have of the world and how it operates.
1. Moral Idealism: sees nations as normally willing to cooperate and agree on moral standards. This view leads to support for international organizations such as the League of Nations, proposed by President Woodrow Wilson (19131921), and the United Nations. It also is evident in such U.S. efforts as the Peace Corps. 2. Political Realism: This competing model of foreign policy sees each nation acting to maximize its own interest regardless of moral principles. Political realism supports a strong military and a willingness to make deals with dictators. 3. American Foreign PolicyA Mixture of Both. Every president has based his foreign policy on both of these principles, though some have tended to stress one or the other. George W. Bushs belief that a democratic Iraq could make the Middle East a less threatening place is an example of moral idealism. The administrations willingness to support Pakistan, despite the fact that it is a dictatorship and has recently developed nuclear weapons, is an example of political realism: Pakistans location is strategic for U.S. operations in Afghanistan.

Challenges in World Politics

The Emergence of Terrorism. Terrorism has a long history with rebels and dissident groups, but in the last 20 years it has posed a greater threat to the daily lives of citizens worldwide. 1. Terrorism and Regional Strife. Terrorism is a key weapon in regional strife. Examples include the terrorism used by Palestinian nationalists and by the Chechen rebels in Russia. 2. September 11. The al Qaeda group, led by Osama bin Laden, appears to have been motivated by the stationing of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia following the First Gulf War with Iraq and by American support of Israel. The wellcoordinated attacks by terrorists upon the United States were planned to demoralize the American people. The al Qaeda network wanted the American people to convince our leaders to withdraw our troops from the Middle East

 Bombings in Madrid and London. In March 2004, terrorists carried out ten synchronized bombings on trains in Madrid that killed 191 people and wounded over 2000. In July 2005, terrorists carried out synchronized bombings of the London Underground and bus network, killing 52 and wounding hundreds. In the summer of 2006, British authorities foiled a plot to bring down ten planes scheduled to leave Londons Heathrow Airport for the U.S. December 25 2009 a man attempted to blow up a plane in the U.S.

The War on Terrorism

President Bush has heightened airport security, approved greater domestic surveillance, increased military funding, and sent U.S. troops into two wars.
1.!Military Responses. The first military campaign was against al Qaeda in Afghanistan, with the goal of removing the Taliban government from power. (The Taliban were closely aligned with al Qaeda.) The U.S. and a coalition of allies and anti-Taliban rebels within Afghanistan succeeded in ousting the Taliban and supported the creation of a new regime. The second military campaign was directed against Saddam Hussein in Iraq. 2.!A New Kind of War. The unique challenge of terrorism prompted a new policy from President Bush: a doctrine of Preemptive war in which military action could be carried out in anticipation of threats and waged, if necessary, without allies. Critics have said that such a policy is reminiscent of the actions of dictators and that by adopting such a doctrine, the U.S. would not be able to criticize other invading nations.

Wars in Iraq
Saddam Husseins invasion of the sheikdom of Kuwait was the clearest case of international aggression since World War II.
The Persian GulfThe First Gulf War. (1990-1991) The United States set up a defensive line in Saudi Arabia at the request of that nation. After half a year to prepare, and after obtaining a U.N. resolution authorizing force, the U.S.-led coalition initiated a month-long bombing campaign against Iraq followed by an invasion. Kuwait was freed but the coalition forces did not go on to conquer Baghdad, and as a result Husseins regime survived. U.N. weapons inspectors sought to find and eliminate any weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, but in 1999, Iraq placed such obstacles in the path of the inspectors that they withdrew from the country.

The Persian GulfThe Second Gulf War. After September 11, 2001 Bush referred to Iraq, Iran, and North Korea as part of an Axis of evil in the world and called for a Regime change in Iraq. Failing to convince the U.N. to enforce its resolutions, Bush took unilateral action and, supported by 35 coalition nations, invaded Iraq. The Iraqi army collapsed quickly and in effect disbanded itselfsoldiers took off their uniforms and went home. While the smaller force was sufficient to defeat the Iraqi army, it proved too small to maintain order in Iraq during the occupation. Saddam Husseins capture did nothing to quell the insurgent resistance movement.

Occupied Iraq
Iraq is made up of three main ethno-religious groups: the Shiite Arabs, the Sunni Arabs, and the Kurds. The Kurds had been functioning as an American-sponsored independent state since the First Gulf War and were overjoyed by the invasion. The Shiites were glad that Hussein, who supported murder of Shiites, was gone, but they were deeply skeptical of the occupation. The Sunnis had controlled the government under Hussein and many considered the occupation a disaster.

Ethnic/Religious Groups in Iraq

Global Attitudes Toward the U.S. Have Become Less Favorable in the Iraqi War Era

The Insurgency. An American-led Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) governed Iraq until the establishment of an Iraqi interim government. When they disbanded the Iraqi army, hundreds of thousands of well-armed young men, largely Sunnis, no longer had jobs and many held resentment toward the United States. A guerrilla insurgency arose against the United States and British troops. While coalition forces were able to maintain control of the country, they suffered monthly casualties. The Threat of Civil War. Establishing a stable government in Iraq is a challenge, especially because the Sunnis, who were formerly in power, are now fighting against the coalition to prevent the Shiites from being in political control. By 2007, it was clear that al Qaeda terrorist cells were also participating in the insurgency. After the bombing of the al Askari mosque in February 2006, the Sunni and Shiite insurgents began to attack each other. Shiite militia sought to force Sunni civilians out of various Iraqi towns and Sunni insurgents responded, leaving protection of Sunni citizens to the United States forces.

Opposition to the War. By 2006, sources indicated that Bushs reasons for considering Iraq a threat to U.S. security possession of weapons of mass destruction and links to al Qaedawere untrue. Many also pointed to the administrations incompetence in conducting the war. By late 2006, polls indicated that about two-thirds of Americans would like to see an end to the war a sentiment clearly expressed in the 2006 elections. Further, a March 2007 poll of Iraqis revealed that more than three-quarters opposed the presence of U.S. forces in their country. A bipartisan commission established by Congress recommended that the U.S. launch a diplomatic offensive to involve Iraqs neighbors to help stabilize the country and draw down the number of U.S. forces in Iraq. President Bush did not accept these recommendations and in January 2007, announce a surge in troop strength. Winding down operations. Combat troops have been withdrawn.

Who Makes Foreign Policy?

Constitutional authority Edwin S. Corwin has observed that the Constitutions stance on the foreign policy process creates an invitation to struggle between the president and the legislature.
Constitutional Powers of the President. War Powers. As commander in chief of the armed forces, the president has very extensive powers. Presidents have used this authority broadly to involve the U.S. in 125 undeclared wars since the time of George Washington. Treaties and Executive Agreements. The president has the authority to make treaties, though they require the approval of two-thirds of the Senate. The president also makes executive agreements, which dont require Senate approval, with leaders of other countries. Other Constitutional Powers. The president appoints ambassadors and decides whether to recognize other governments as legitimate.

Informal Techniques of Presidential Leadership. In addition to the constitutional powers, the president also has informal techniques to develop foreign policy. These techniques include access to information from experts within the executive branch. As legislative leader, the president can influence the budgetary constraints in all areas of appropriations, including economic aid, military aid, and humanitarian aid. The president can also build public support for presidential programs and commit the nation to courses of action from which it would be very difficult to back down (even if Congress wished to).

Other Sources of Foreign Policymaking. While the president has considerable influence on the making of foreign policy, there are additional sources of foreign policymaking within the executive branch.
!1.!The Department of State. (Hillary Clinton)This department is responsible for the daily operation of foreign policy. Every country that the United States officially recognizes receives State Department officials who maintain an office in the country. These officials gather information and advise the president on the development of social, political, and economic conditions within their countries and on how events could affect the United States. !2.!The National Security Council. This groupconsisting of the president, vice president, secretaries of state and defense, the director of emergency planning, and sometimes the director of the CIA and chair of the joint chiefs of staffwas created to aid the president in integrating foreign and defense policy. Presidents have used this council in varying ways to suit their individual agendas.

The Intelligence Community. This consists of the forty-plus government agencies or bureaus that engage in intelligence activities, information gathering, and policy development. These agencies are:
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)this is the key ocial member National Security Agency (NSA) Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) Oces within the Department of Defense Bureau of Intelligence and Research in the Department of State Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Army intelligence Air Force intelligence Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) Department of Energy Directorate of Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection in the Department of Homeland Security Oce of the Director of National Intelligence

Covert Actions. These actions are carried out in secret and the American public rarely finds out about them. They may include attempts to overthrow foreign governments. In the 1970s, following scandalous revelations, Congress cut back on the CIAs ability to conduct such activities. The agency has since won back much of its freedom of action. Criticisms of the Intelligence Community. In addition to the discovery that one of its agents was spying on behalf of a foreign power and the failure to detect the nuclear arsenals of India and Pakistan, the failure to anticipate 9/11 was a serious problem. Because of the threat of terrorism, intelligence budgets have been increased. In 2004, the bipartisan 9/11 commission called for a new intelligence czar to oversee the entire intelligence community. The Department of Defense. This department was created in 1947 to consolidate all American military establishments under the control of a single entity.

Congress Balances the Presidency

The War Powers Resolution of 1973. After the War in Vietnam, Congress sought to restrain the presidents ability to unilaterally commit forces to combat with the War Powers Resolution (1973). Presidents since, however, have frequently chosen not to consult Congress before committing troops, creating a situation in which Congress does not dare recall them. The Power of the Purse. The president may order certain actions to be taken, but that decision cannot be executed unless it is funded by Congress. Congress can exert power by denying presidential requests for military assistance to certain groups (such as Angolan rebels) or for new weapons (like the B-1 bomber) if Congress does not support the action or weapon in question. Many questioned whether the new Democratic Congress in 2007 would use its funding power to bring an end to the Iraq War.

The Pentagon

Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy

Elite and Mass Opinion
Both presidents and elites try to influence that subset of the public that has a strong interest in foreign policy, the attentive public.

The Military-Industrial Complex

The Major Foreign Policy Themes

The United States has not always had the same goals or objectives in foreign policy. Part of the reason for the different goals and objectives has been the differing levels of power of the United States in relation to other countries. As the United States became more powerful it began to take a different role in world events and this led to different goals and objectives. The following themes of United States foreign policy have influenced the actions of the government and in many cases the actions of the rest of the world.

 The Formative Years: Avoiding Entanglements. In the formative years of the U.S., under the Articles of Confederation, foreign policy was nonexistent. Under Washington and Jefferson, the goal was to Steer clear of permanent alliances and stay out of European affairs. On its own continent, however, the U.S. was decidedly expansionist.

1. The Monroe Doctrine. The Monroe Doctrine claimed a role for the United States as the protector of the Western Hemisphere, stating that if foreign countries did not interfere here, the U.S. would not meddle in European affairs. It was a formal articulation of the isolationist foreign policy that continued throughout the 1800s. 2. The Spanish-American War and World War I. These wars brought about a dramatic change in the foreign policy of the United States. For the first time the United States became an important player in international affairs. After Word War I, however, the United States returned to a policy of isolationism.

Europe During the Cold War

 The Era of Internationalism. This era began the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. After World War II, only the U.S. emerged with its economy intact, and only the U.S. came out holding operational nuclear weapons.

1. The Cold War. The alliance formed by the United States and the Soviet Union during World War II was short-lived. Because of their contrasting economic and political systems, the United States and the Soviet Union became major adversaries. The Soviet Union created an area of influence that became known as the Soviet bloc. Winston Churchill proclaimed the Soviets had placed An iron curtain between the countries of Eastern Europe and Western Europe. 2. Containment Policy. Containment was the U.S. foreign policy that addressed this new threat from the USSR. Expressed in the Truman Doctrine, this policy sought to stop the spread of Soviet power by containing it within existing limits. To this end, the U.S. also joined with other nations in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). See Figure 15-2 for Cold War Europe.

 Superpower Relations. Soviet and American troops never met in battle during the Cold War; several wars took place with nations allied to the superpowers, however. In 1950, communist North Korea attempted to conquer noncommunist South Korea. The United States entered the war to prevent a South Korean defeat. When North Korea was on the brink of collapse, China entered on the North Korean side to preserve that nation. The result was a draw, with the pre-war status-quo maintained. (highlight current situation) Vietnam was also divided into a communist north and a noncommunist south. Communist rebels in the South (the Viet Cong) supported by the North threatened the South Vietnam government, and U.S. president Lyndon Johnson introduced U.S. ground troops. North Vietnam then committed its regular army. Controversy over the war in the United States reached a fever pitch and in the 1970s the United States began withdrawing its troops. A peace agreement in 1973 allowed the U.S. to leave completely, but in 1975 South Vietnam fell to the North. (U.S. lost this war)

 The Cuban Missile Crisis. The most dangerous nuclear

confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union took place in 1962 when the Soviet Union stationed missiles in Cuba to ward off an American invasion. After tense negotiations, the weapons were withdrawn and the United States promised not to attack Cuba and to remove some missiles located near the Soviet border in Turkey. A Period of Detente. Detente, or a relaxation of tensions, began to develop in the early 1970s as both sides realized that a nuclear war meant mutually assured destruction. Although there were still significant problems between the superpowers, relations were rarely openly hostile. Significant strides were taken to limit the use of nuclear weapons. In 1972, the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I) went into effect.

The Reagan-Bush Years. President Reagan took a hard line

against the Soviet Union during his first term, proposing the strategic defense initiative (SDI), or Star Wars in 1983. The SDI was designed to serve as a space-based defense against enemy missiles. After the fall of the Soviet Union in George H. W. Bushs presidency, another major treaty limiting strategic weapons (STARTthe Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) was signed with Russia and three other Soviet successor states.

 The Dissolution of the Soviet Union. This began in 1989 with the fall of the Berlin Wall, the last bastion of the iron curtain. Shortly thereafter, the Baltic republics separated from the Soviet Union. The USSR was formally dissolved in December 1991, leaving fifteen independent nations to grapple with the major social, economic, and political problems in the 1990s and today. See Figure 15-3 for post-Soviet Europe. Although Russian President Vladimir Putin spoke in terms of reform, his recent actions reveal a disturbing resemblance to those of his Soviet predecessors.

Vietnam
Early Period Armed Intervention 19641973

Lessons From Vietnam

No clear goals. Did not understand the political aspects of the war. Did not understand the nature of guerilla warfare. They were impatient with the war and were unwilling to devote unending resources to winning it. Did not have the public support.

Europe After the Fall of the Soviet Union