+ MODEL

ARTICLE IN PRESS
JBR-06468; No of Pages 10

Journal of Business Research xx (2007) xxx – xxx

Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption:

An alternative perspective from our animal companions☆
Ronald Paul Hill a,⁎, Jeannie Gaines b , R. Mark Wilson b
a
Villanova School of Business, Villanova University, 800 Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA 19085, United States
b
College of Business, University of South Florida St. Petersburg, 140 Seventh Avenue South, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States
Received 1 January 2006; received in revised form 1 August 2006; accepted 1 November 2006

Abstract

This article explores the intimate relationships between pet owners and their animal companions from the extended-self and sacred
consumption perspectives using a unique method that Morris Holbrook inspires. The article opens with a brief introduction that includes a
summary of the relevant literature. A description of the study's protocol follows. The article then covers five thematic categories that result from
the investigation. The analysis of text from the consumer essays and a few precious photographs bring life to the case reports. The close provides
implications for consumer-behavior scholarship and marketing practice in a variety of intra- and inter-species domains.
© 2007 Published by Elsevier Inc.

Keywords: Consumer-behavior; Animal companions; Extended-self; Sacred consumption

Dogs are not our whole life, but they make our lives whole.
Roger Caras
The belief that living a dog's life is some form of inhumane
punishment or a lower form of existence has changed
dramatically over recent decades. As Mendelson (1998, p. S3)
aptly states, “No longer is Fido or Fifi just an animal that sits by
the kitchen table waiting for scraps of food. Now, the household
pet has worked its way up the family tree, in some cases even
winning a coveted seat at the dinner table.” The consumer-
behavior literature is replete with theoretical and empirical
research that shows the positive impact consumption may have
on our quality of life (e.g., Ahuvia, 2005), and the acquisition,
utilization, and disposition of animal companions is an
outstanding example. In fact, these classic descriptors of the
consumer-behavior process may fail to capture the tenderness
and intimacy of such relationships (Holbrook et al., 2001).
☆
The authors thank Morris Holbrook for his inspirational work on beloved
nonhuman animals. The authors dedicate this article to our three cherished
friends who lived a dog's life with great joy.
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ronald.hill@villanova.edu (R.P. Hill),
jgaines@stpt.usf.edu (J. Gaines), mwilson@stpt.usf.edu (R.M. Wilson).
0148-2963/$ - see front matter © 2007 Published by Elsevier Inc.
doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009
The enormity of this consumption phenomenon is expressed
by several telling statistics. For instance, almost one-third of
U.S. households (32%) own at least one dog (Geissler, 2003),
and they eagerly spend $36 billion annually to ensure the
physical and emotional well-being of their pets (Dorsey, 2003).
Approximately three-fourths of these consumers are willing to
take on additional debt to provide adequately for these animal
companions (Gardyn, 2001). Over one-third of dog consumers
celebrate their pets' birthdays, and an equivalent number take
their animal companions on vacation (Dorsey, 2003). More
extraordinarily, a majority of pet consumers verbally express
their love to their nonhuman friends daily, and nearly one-
fourth receive most of their physical affection and attention
from their pets (Fetto, 2002).
1. Extended-self
The consumer behavior concept of the extended-self pro-
vides a ready theoretical context for comprehending the con-
sumption relationship between pet owners and their animal
companions. Belk (1988, p. 139) provides a simple way of
elucidating this construct: “A key to understanding what
possessions mean is recognizing that, knowingly or unknow-
ingly, intentionally or unintentionally, we regard our possessions

Please cite this article as: Hill RP et al. Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption: An alternative perspective from our animal companions.
J Bus Res (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
2 R.P. Hill et al. / Journal of Business Research xx (2007) xxx–xxx
as parts of ourselves.” Awide range of investigations follows this
initial article, demonstrating that consumers assimilate a diverse
collection of products into their self-definitions as a way to
signal admirable aspects of their personhood to themselves as
well as others (LaTour et al., 2003; Tian and Belk 2005). Animal
companions, especially dogs and cats, represent shared con-
sumption experiences that rise to this level.
Hirschman (1994) and Endenburg et al. (1994) find that
consumers buy pets to satisfy social needs. The domestication of
animals has more to do with our desires for companionship with
other species than for protection or other utilitarian purposes.
Pets such as dogs may play the role of friend or intimate partner,
providing unconditional and nonjudgmental fondness for their
owners. Given selective breeding over the past 12,000 years,
dogs have features such as short noses, curly tails, large brown
eyes, and miniature sizes that imbue them with childlike char-
acteristics that bring out maternal and paternal instincts among
their adult owners.
2. Sacred consumption
The research of Holbrook et al. (2001) eschews the extended-
self paradigm as a path to understanding our mutually-beneficial
exchange relationships with animal companions. Their primary
concern is that some scholars might use this concept as a means
to various ends such as the enhancement of self-identity, failing
to recognize that the intimate bonds between parties are ends in
and of themselves. Nonetheless, Belk (1988, p. 155) reinforces
this long-term viewpoint that the attitude of pet owners is, “Love
me, love my dog.” Therefore, the extended-self includes the
possibility that inter-species love involves a fusion of identities,
allowing for a deep-seated commitment in time and effort that
greatly impacts the emotional fulfillment of both pet owners and
their animal companions (Ahuvia, 2005).
Taken together, the work of these scholars suggests that the
relationship between human and nonhuman animals is an
experience that transcends the ordinary consumer-behavior do-
main of possessions/possessors to that of sacred and spiritual
consumption (Holbrook et al., 2001). As a result, a true
portrayal of the pet-owner/animal-companion nexus requires an
among-species perspective that allows the “voice” of each party
to resonate throughout the investigative process. The market-
ing-practitioner trade press advocates such a sophisticated
approach to consumer research involving product development
for domestic animals like dogs (McLean, 2004). The academic
community echoes this refrain, suggesting an emphasis on
“caregivers' projections, expectations, and desires” (Holbrook
et al., 2001, p. 4).
3. Research direction and method
This investigation uses and reports a unique way of capturing
the shared consumptive lives of beloved pets with their owners,
relying on a combination of the extended-self/sacred consump-
tion paradigms. This study, like Holbrook et al. (2001), uses
personal self-reflection to uncover the underlying meanings of
consumer-behavior experiences. Holbrook (1997) recommends
Please cite this article as: Hill RP et al. Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption: An alternative perspective from our animal companions.
J Bus Res (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009
modifications to research practice in order to properly under-
stand consumption activities and outcomes from the perspective
of our beloved pets. He uses many hours of nonparticipant
observation to craft a likely description of a cat's musings about
a classic film with Audrey Hepburn where her feline companion
plays a pivotal role (Holbrook, 1998).
The present study's examination of canine consumption
begins similarly to Holbrook et al. (2001) whereby the three
principal investigators provide in-depth essays that chronicle the
entire lifecycles of their beloved dogs, each of whom was an
integral part of the owner's lived experiences from the pet's birth,
through puppyhood, until death. This approach involves the use
of several preserved items such as photographs, collars and
leashes, chew toys, and ashes as remains to stimulate thoughts,
feelings, and emotions. The study develops each testimony in-
dependently and projects the voice and spirit of the particular
animal so that the anthropomorphic style of the storyteller is
reflective of each dog's individual personality, behavior, and
expressions.
This form of discovery is consistent with the reflections of
Van Mannen (1995) in describing ethnographic reports as
storytelling institutions that blur the demarcation between
science and literature. As a consequence of the liberation from
typical stylistic restrictions, a wide variety of modes of pre-
sentation are available such as impressionist tales, dramatic
ethnography, and creative nonfiction. The primary goal is to
represent the lived experiences of an unfamiliar population in
ways that allow others to see, hear, and feel what a different
existence may be like (Van Mannen, 1988). This approach
concentrates attention on a series of important and critical
events in the lives of cultural members that define their rela-
tionships with others, often using some form of internal
monologue to express the subjective reality they experience
(Agar, 1995).
The analysis of these canine life histories treats them as texts
and subjects the texts to scrutiny that is becoming increasingly
common in consumer research (Hill, 2001, 2002). The first step
involves creating an understanding of the totality of the
consumptive lives of each dog from its own perspective. The
second step requires summarizing these findings for each story
with an emphasis on contextually-based information within the
particular essay. The third stage involves developing interrelated
themes that depict particular aspects of the consumer behavior of
canines across beloved pets and notable situations. The fourth
stage requires examining relationships among the themes to
develop a comprehensive understanding of the entire consumer
lifecycle of these animal companions. The next section presents
results as thematic categories.
4. Canine consumptive world
The essays—written by middle-aged adults from different
areas of the U.S., all with histories of long-term animal–human
relationships—reveal a series of interrelated thematic categories
that capture the various consumer-behavior activities of animal
companions. The categories include initial engagement and se-
lection decision; early adjustment and relationship development;
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.P. Hill et al. / Journal of Business Research xx (2007) xxx–xxx
permanent bond and loving intimacy; special events and life
transitions; and parting as such sweet sorrow. The order of
presentation is purposeful, and their telling moves from one to the
next as the essays naturally unfold. Each theme employs excerpts
from their life histories to exemplify intended meanings (Fig. 1
offers photographic support). After discussing themes, examples,
and implications for creating a deeper understanding of beloved
pets, the closing section explores serving pets through goods and
services with suggestions for conducting lifecycle consumer-
behavior research.
4.1. Initial engagement and selection decision
The earliest existences of these dogs occur in their families-
of-origin, as they begin the exploration of their own capabilities
within the external world. Their relationships with their siblings
are both cooperative and competitive. They often engage in fun
and playful activities, nipping and wrestling with one another
before settling down for extended periods of sleep. However,
these (potential) animal companions are in a real life-transforming
contest with their brothers and sisters that influences their ultimate
fate. Humans parade them one-by-one before collections of other
humans who are searching for the right nonhumans to join them.
The canine winners of these high-stakes competitions believe that
these initial engagements reveal positive differences between
Fig. 1. Photographic exemplars of themes.
Please cite this article as: Hill RP et al. Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption: An alternative perspective from our animal companions.
J Bus Res (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009
3
themselves and their brethren and that such revelations are part of
the basis for their selection as beloved pets.
Consider the following excerpts from the histories of Buddy
and Beau. The musings from the former describe the context in
which such introductions take place, while those from the latter
provide a glimpse into the significance of good first impressions:
More importantly, we get new visitors on a regular basis.
The routine usually follows the same pattern. They come in
with the house people and stare at us while making cooing
noises. Then someone smiles widely and the children shriek
as we are placed on the floor near them. The adults call out
to us as if they want us to do something special, but we have
no idea what they mean. The kids often rush over and grab
us from behind so we bite them with our developing teeth to
get them to stop. (Buddy)
Whoops, here comes fresh blood through the door—a very tall
boy with dark hair and a girl with a nice smile. They're coming
over my way. They're making baby sounds in my direction. I
think that's a good sign. The crate door opens and I leap into
the girl's arms and start licking her face. She laughs and rubs
my back. The boy reaches into the back of the crate and lifts my
sister out. She just lies in his arms and shivers. At this rate,
she'll be at Puppy Love the rest of her life! (Beau)
The selection decision follows a similar pattern of events and
is an outgrowth of winning the competition for the right to
acquire status as a beloved animal companion. However, be-
coming a chosen one is not without its drawbacks. Chosen ones
are removed from the warmth and security of their original
domiciles without warning and plunged into an outside world in
which they have limited knowledge or experience. This change
in their proverbial cages leads to a fear of the unknown regarding
who will provide their care, where they will live, what treatment
they will receive, and what food and enjoyment they will
receive. The initiation into their new lives is abrupt and filled
with confusion about proper comportment. Of course, the
decision to select a particular dog does not guarantee that the
owners fully understand the implications of their new roles.
The excerpts below from the essays by Lincoln and Buddy
demonstrate the precarious nature of the dog/person intersection
during the consumer-behavior decision process. The first segment
describes the animal companion's trepidation as consumption
proceeds from engagement to selection. The second paragraph
reveals the lack of a meaningful connection even when selection
occurs.
It had been quite a day for me. Just this morning I was in a
cage at the animal shelter with my brother and sister. Three
people peeked into our cage; one person had long hair and the
other two were much smaller and moved around a lot. They
lifted us out onto the floor and we played for a few minutes;
the quicker small one wanted all of my family to go home
with them. The smaller one was shy and kept his distance, but
seemed to like me the best, probably because I'm moving a bit
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
4 R.P. Hill et al. / Journal of Business Research xx (2007) xxx–xxx
slowly today. The long haired one, the boss called Mommy,
picked me up. We left my brother and sister at the shelter and
drove away. Scary; I'd never been away from my family
before. I liked these people immediately, but what kind of a
situation was I getting into? (Lincoln)
After arriving at this strange new place, I am carried inside
by the mother. We walk into the living area, with me
deposited in the center of the room for everyone's amuse-
ment. Paul and PJ get down on all fours like my own
brothers and make playful gestures in my direction. We
chase each other in a most enjoyable manner until the
impulse to urinate develops. As I begin to relieve myself on
a spot of the rug with just the right scent, the father grabs the
scruff of my neck and rushes for the door! (Buddy)
4.2. Early adjustment and relationship development
The first few minutes, hours, and days of their lives together
represent a period of enormous adjustment for these canine com-
panions, as well as for their new human families. Each party is
unsure how to act around one another as normal routines give way
to abnormal circumstances. Lavish attention characterizes the
initiation to their new homes by pet owners who seek ways to
relate to a different species and to meet its needs. Some of the
activities resonate well with both sides of this exchange
Please cite this article as: Hill RP et al. Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption: An alternative perspective from our animal companions.
J Bus Res (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009
relationship, while others seem to cause considerable distress for
one or the other. Most interestingly, the sources of early rapture are
from play, exploration, and companionship. Difficulties tend to
occur with natural functions and rhythms that the change in venue
disturbs (such as urination, defecation, eating, and sleeping).
Beau and Lincoln provide apt chronicles of their early
adjustment to living in a human community. These animal
companions enjoy the frenzy of events that take place during
their introductions to their latest homes, but they experience
several difficulties in attempting to understand and navigate
new relationships with near strangers.
I wake up as the car stops, and we get out in the driveway of
a house with lots of grass. I squirm, and she puts me down
to run around and explore. There are all kinds of new smells
I can't make out. Then we go into the house—more new
smells, objects, and spaces. And then I discover the back-
yard is fenced, but it is so big it will take me forever to sniff
all of it! The boy and girl seem to want to hold me and talk
to me non-stop. I wonder if it will always be this way!?! I
like it, but I'm really tired and sleep overcomes me. (Beau)
After my long day with people, I was sleepy but not very
hungry. It was dark, everyone said goodnight, and I looked
around for my brother and sister so I could snuggle and
sleep. But when I looked around, all I saw was an irritating
ticking clock wrapped in a towel. I couldn't sleep like this;
so I expressed this fact to these people…. I awoke early, with
a headache and an upset stomach, when Mommy began to
fix breakfast. We went for a walk … and Mommy acted kind
of strange when she saw my feces. I didn't know if humans
are always like that or if it was just her. (Lincoln)
These early adjustments give way to developing relationships
between canines and humans, building from a new set of routines.
As the different groups begin to comprehend the basic needs of
each other, a distinct form of communication emerges that allows
for some consistency and continuity in their interactions. Much of
this progress centers on areas of original difficulty that are natural
functions. The most vexing issue that receives the greatest at-
tention involves elimination, and pet owners' celebrations of
success in this regard suggest a triumph over contamination to
their living quarters that results in great relief. Family members
begin to occupy specific roles with these animal companions that
signal their relative status within the family as well as the nature of
their connection to these beloved canines over time.
The following texts from Buddy and Beau show relationship
development, with a particular emphasis on coordinating elimi-
nation needs. The texts highlight clear connections between the
primary caregivers and their new puppies, and Beau seems to
enjoy real intimacy at a very early stage in his lifecycle.
I wander around, instinctively seeking a safe haven. My first
order of business is defecation, followed a few moments
later by urination. Mom gives mild encouragement through
the whole series of events and lets out a loud cheer when the
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.P. Hill et al. / Journal of Business Research xx (2007) xxx–xxx
process is complete. We return to the house and enter a
room with the most delicious smells! She goes immediately
to the cupboard and extracts two food sources that are mixed
together in a small bowl. Mom places it down on the floor
next to another container filled with water. I shuffle over to
see them more closely and start to eat heartily. (Buddy)
The next several weeks are spent with Mom (the girl) trying to
persuade me to tell her when I need to go outside to “potty”—
her word, not mine! She is home with me almost every day. She
and I sit on her bed with tons of books and papers surrounding
us. She is in school trying to become a professor of something.
She reads constantly and then writes stuff about what she reads.
Sometimes she reads what she's written out loud to me. I think
I'm there to make her take study breaks so that we can go out
and play. The tall boy with the dark hair comes over a lot and
plays ball with me in the back yard. (Beau)
4.3. Permanent bonds and loving intimacy
Over the weeks, months, and years, these canine companions
integrate fully as members of their human families. New
Please cite this article as: Hill RP et al. Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption: An alternative perspective from our animal companions.
J Bus Res (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009
5
routines develop into regular and seamless parts of their joint
schedules, meeting essential needs far beyond their earliest
intentions. Some of these activities require participation of the
whole family, serving as ways to solidify bonds among and
between humans and dogs. Thus, familial relationships grow ever
stronger as a consequence of striving to meet the daily require-
ments of the beloved pets. The best example of such bonding
occurs during the evening walk, a regular event that brings many
or all family members together for the benefit of their canines,
while simultaneously encouraging contact with each other as well
as with members of their larger human communities.
The excerpts from Buddy and Lincoln demonstrate the
integrative role played by daily walk-based togetherness. Buddy
describes the routine nature of this daily event in terms that
suggest its relative importance to creating permanent bonds
between himself and the rest of his family. Lincoln provides a
similar vignette, also revealing his leadership role in facilitating
connections between his human family and other people in their
neighborhood.
The evening walk is a proud tradition and occurs rain or shine!
There are times when Mom and I are alone, but Dad often
comes, and the children occasionally join us. We start out the
front door and usually turn to the left, walking past Digit's
house. If she and her mother are outside, they visit with us for a
few moments or take their walk as well. We round the corner
and walk up the street with me pulling Mom or Dad as hard as I
can toward various spots along the way. After relieving myself,
I try to stay out front as the lead animal in the pack. (Buddy)
I always enjoyed walking. One good thing about this outdoor
bathroom fixation of Mom and Dad was that I went for a lot of
walks. I liked to keep track of what went on in the neighbor-
hood. Every bush and every tree have evolving stories to tell to
those of us with keen senses of smell and investigatory natures.
I liked to greet animals during my walk. I always made it a
point to tell other male dogs what I thought of them. I was not
shy like Mom, Dad, Matt, and Dave. I don't know how many
conversations between them and the people I met on my walks
started with the question, “Is this your dog?” All of us were
quite friendly after I got these relationships started. (Lincoln)
These long-term commitments to one another grow and
mature into loving and intimate relationships between pet
owners and their animal companions. The general nature of these
connections is like that of a brother/son or sister/daughter, but
their characteristics tend to vary across individuals. Just as
family members occupy a variety of roles among each other,
their canine companions function in a number of capacities
depending upon the nature of their associations with adoptive
parents and siblings. Additionally, when their lives intersect with
extended family (such as grandparents), they easily assume
positions appropriate to their ages and longevity (such as
grandson or granddaughter). Taken together, these findings
show a long-lasting and loving intimacy that rivals any familial
bond for its integrity and strength.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
6 R.P. Hill et al. / Journal of Business Research xx (2007) xxx–xxx

The next two paragraphs reveal the depth and breadth of

several relationships among humans and their dogs. Lincoln
discusses each household member separately and explains the
deep-rooted nature of these connections, while Beau provides a
similar story that includes both sets of grandparents.

As I matured, I instinctively took on more roles in the

household. I became the official greeter of all visitors,
protector of family members (especially from other male
dogs), and companion-and-confidant to Mom, Dad, Matt,
and Dave. Mom's and my relationship grew deeper as the
years passed. In many ways, she was my primary provider,
and she grew personally as she accepted me and my dog
way of life. In turn, she earned my deep affection and
devotion. I greeted Dad at the door everyday because we
enjoyed doing stuff together. We liked the same games, and
he knew how to pat me just right. He used to talk to me
while he worked in the garage or in the yard; so we grew
very close. I still feel as though I communicate with Matt,
even from my grave. Only a few human beings are born
with the innate ability to communicate with animals without
speaking, and I am his special dog. Dave was originally the
shy one; I viewed shyness as a dog-lover waiting to happen.
I am proud to say that Dave also became my very close
friend and an avid dog-lover. (Lincoln)

Some good things also happened after we moved into the new
house. Grandmother and Granddad from Kentucky moved
into a condominium just a few blocks from our home. Mom
and I spent a lot of time at their place, where I was king of the
house. Grandmother spoiled me shamelessly, and I loved her
for it. JJ's parents also visited every year from up north, and I
was their special grand dog. Once while they were visiting,
Mom made linguine with white clam sauce. My Grandpa
wasn't crazy about it; so he put his plate on the floor in the
kitchen. Before they realized it, I had inhaled the entire plate
and was lying on the floor with all four legs sprawled in
different directions, totally unable to get up. Mom was im-
mediately concerned that I needed to go to the vet, but
everyone else was convulsed in laughter. The good news is
that the pasta eventually began to digest, and I became mobile
once again. And it was so, so good while I was eating it! After
that incident, one of my nicknames became “Noodles.”
(Beau)
4.4. Special events and life transitions
Given the ongoing, intimate, and long-lasting nature of
human/canine bonds, these animal companions occupy unique
places during special events and life transitions. From birthdays
to holiday events to other celebrations, beloved pets fully engage
in traditional activities and come to personify the essence of what
makes these times truly extraordinary. They are an essential part
of every aspect of festivities, including travel, gift-giving and
gift-receiving, and food preparation and feasting. Memories
from these times illustrate the ways in which canine companions
capture the positive energy and joy that gives meaning to such
gatherings. They are much more than passive observers who
occupy the sidelines in a state of inter-species confusion; instead,
they participate with unrestrained vigor that is childlike in its
intensity and duration.
The following material sheds light on the integral place of
animal companions in our secular celebrations of Christmas.
Beau tells his exciting story that includes travel to a new
state, and Lincoln explains his moniker as the Christmas-Spirit
Dog.
Days turned into weeks, weeks into months, and finally it
was Christmas vacation. Yea, time to take a car trip to
Kentucky again to visit Grandmother and Granddad! There
was even more cooking than before, and Grandmother and I
were now very tight. There was a big tree with lots of
presents (even for me), friends, family, laughter, hugs, and
SNOW! This was a new one for me. One morning, we woke
up and found that everything outside was white. When
Gerry took me out, I slipped and slid on the porch steps, and
the white stuff was extremely cold on my paws. I couldn't
believe they actually wanted me to do my thing under those
conditions! (Beau)

Please cite this article as: Hill RP et al. Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption: An alternative perspective from our animal companions.
J Bus Res (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
R.P. Hill et al. / Journal of Business Research xx (2007) xxx–xxx 7

My favorite time of the year was Christmas. The lights, the
music, the people, … the food … were all terrific. I enjoyed
every Christmas. The joy of wrapping-paper frenzy stirred
me up even as an old dog. They named me Lincoln, but
I always thought of myself as Christmas-Spirit Dog.
(Lincoln)
These beloved pets participate intimately in a number of
serious and difficult life transitions. Human children grow older
and more mature, leaving home to receive advanced training, to
pursue careers, or to start their families. Sometimes death or
divorce rips families apart, shattering the intimate bonds that
held them so closely together. Career changes by adult members
of the household lead to similar disruptions, causing the loss of
familiar settings, friends, and routines. While animal compa-
nions come to represent the love and excitement associated with
special events and celebrations in our lives, they also manifest
the fear, anxiety, and sadness experienced during difficult
transitions. Their innate empathy and emotional capacity allow
them to experience negative changes deeply and (sometimes)
permanently.
The excerpts below exhibit the stress and trauma that life
transitions can evoke in pet owners as well as in their canine
companions. Buddy absorbs the anxiety and trepidation around
him that come from a cross-country relocation, whereas Lincoln
struggles with the loss of his human brothers when they go off
to universities in other cities.
4.5. Parting as such sweet sorrow
As our families grow older and mature, so do our animal
companions. However, their movement through the various
stages of physical development and decline accelerates relative
to human beings. They respond gracefully to old age, slowing
down and sleeping more while continuing to maintain the
routines of their day-to-day lives in abbreviated form. Yet our
beloved pets still aspire to meet the needs and expectations of
their owners, even if this means occasionally rising above the
bodily limitations of advancing years and reacting to events
much like their younger selves. The recent country ballad
released by Toby Keith captures this eagerness: “I'm not as
good as I once was, but I'm as good once as I ever was” (Keith,
2005). Regardless, the march of time continues to reap its
damage, and our canine companions persist in their decline
despite the best of intentions.
The subsequent paragraphs depict the ravages of aging from
the perspectives of Lincoln and Beau. The former is resigned to
becoming an old dog and even finds some solace in his
advancing years to make this bitter pill easier to swallow. The
latter shows few outward signs of illness and seeks comfort in
the care received during his final days.
I guess I accepted old age, although I was certainly not
happy about it. My joints got stiff and sore, my walks
shorter and slower. I needed help getting into the car; my

One very eventful day, Mom begins packing up our belongings

in large boxes. Tension fills the air as Dad is preoccupied with
something I cannot understand. When he is home, I often sit by
his feet and rest while he works away on the computer.
However, now he just mopes around the house with a worried
expression on his face. The boys also seem agitated, as if the
moods of their parents were catching. A big truck pulls up to
the front of our house, and several large men come to our front
door. I bark at them for being strangers, but they come inside
anyway and pat me on the head…. When the last bits are
loaded, we walk around the house saying goodbye for a final
time. We drop Mom off at the airport, and the rest of us stay
with friends for a few more days. The disorientation continues
until I'm placed in my crate and carted off in a plane as well!
(Buddy)

The thing I liked the least was watching my family leave.

Not just leaving for a little while, like to work or to school,
or like some evenings when the guys and I would get to play
together without parents around. My sadness started when I
saw anyone packing a suitcase. My view was: stay or take
me with you. I think my saddest time was when Matt left for
College. My soul mate and I were a lot bigger and older that
day than when we met, and I guess it was time for him to
move on, but a little energy left me that day. When Dave left
two years later, I really slowed down. The hardest thing in
my life for me to accept was not seeing them every day.
These were my brothers. We grew up together. (Lincoln)

Please cite this article as: Hill RP et al. Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption: An alternative perspective from our animal companions.
J Bus Res (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009
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8 R.P. Hill et al. / Journal of Business Research xx (2007) xxx–xxx
naps were longer and deeper; and my eyesight and hearing
grew worse. People are kind to old dogs; but young dogs are
a nuisance to older dogs. People patted me and talked to me,
even though I could hardly hear them. I appreciated the
attention and enjoyed the pills covered with peanut butter.
These were all fine, but the steps going into and out of the
house got harder and harder for me to climb. I learned to use
the ramp Dad and Dave built for me, but the decline in my
mobility disturbed me. (Lincoln)
When we walked into our house under the bright lights, Mom
took one look at me with panic written all over her face. She
asked Liz if she saw that the whites of my eyes were yellow.
Liz agreed, and Mom immediately scooped me up and left for
the veterinarian's office. He examined me, confirmed the
jaundice, and said I would have to spend the night so that I
could have IV fluids with medicine in them. Mom and Liz
were crying when they left and said they would be back in the
morning. Dr. Brooks promised that he would take good care
of me. He put a needle in my leg and bandaged it, and his
helpers tried to make me comfortable. (Beau)
Of course this deterioration must eventually end in death,
and beloved pets and their owners cope with the conclusion to
these sacred exchange relationships in their own ways. Our
canine companions seem to understand when the end is near,
and they respond instinctively by closing down to their
surroundings. Their reactions to this imminent demise suggest
an acceptance of the natural finale to lives well lived. The range
of activities narrows to a handful of intimate moments with the
humans who have meant so much to them, rather than any
attempt to return to the routines that formerly marked their daily
existences. For their part, family members grasp these last
glimpses of consciousness as if they hope for reprieve from a
higher power. Our canine companions look upon this anxiety
and sadness with the utmost appreciation and with concern for
our welfare following their inevitable passing.
The last segments from our essays discuss the waning
moments in the lives of Buddy and Beau. The first segment
shows how Buddy comes to understand his approaching death
and acts on his appreciation for loved ones before taking a final
breath. The second segment reveals Beau's concern for a special
partner in life following death and also narrates the tender
ceremony of burial.
It finally dawns on me that my final moments with my
family on this earth are near. My Mom or Dad keep trying to
feed me various foods and medicines that are designed to
ease my suffering, but my realization causes me to refuse
their kindness and to accept my fate…. My last moments
arrive none too soon. Dad walks away from me to get
something he left inside as I look up at Mom and try to smile
to show her my gratitude for the years of friendship and love
that she has lavished on me. She seems to lack awareness of
my ultimate demise, as a shudder overtakes my body and as
my exhausted muscles finally relax. I hear her calling my
Please cite this article as: Hill RP et al. Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption: An alternative perspective from our animal companions.
J Bus Res (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009
name and then screaming for Dad to come outside, as her
image fades, and I leap from my body toward the bright light
that extends from the overcast sky. (Buddy)
I wanted to go off and explore my new world, but what about
Mom? So I hovered near the ceiling as they stitched up my
incision and wrapped me, or what used to be me, in Mom's
pink robe. It wasn't long until Mom and JJ came to the vet's
office to get me. As Mom talked with Dr. B., she was crying,
and even JJ looked distressed. Dr. B. took them in the back
and Mom picked me up, swaddled in her now-stained robe,
and carried me out to the car. She held me and talked to me all
the way home…. Mom unpacked one of Liz and Gerry's hand-
made baby blankets, wrapped me in it, and put nine of the
pink roses in the blanket with me. She gently placed me in a
plastic box, kissed me goodbye for the last time, and sealed it
shut. Mom was determined to have a “service”; so she, Liz,
Ann, Grandmother, Granddad, and JJ held hands while talking
about their favorite memories of me. Mom said a prayer, and
JJ took the box outside and covered the grave with dirt. (Beau)
5. Concluding thoughts
5.1. Truly knowing our beloved pets
This study employs a unique method to explore the con-
sumption experiences shared by pet owners and their animal
companions. The results include thematic categories with af-
firming excerpts. While some scholars may argue that our sample
fails to meet acceptable criteria for generalizing findings, the
parallel nature of the essays suggests that these owners experience
homogeneity in the ways beloved dogs are perceived, evaluated,
and loved. The analysis and resulting themes provide vivid de-
scriptions consistent with the alternative standard often applicable
in qualitative research studies (see Van Mannen, 1988, 1995).
Nonetheless, examining a more diverse group of dog lovers—
from different socioeconomic, cultural, geodemographic, and
family-composition subgroups—would enrich the five thematic
categories. Further, other species—for example, cats—potential-
ly interact with pet owners in unique ways, requiring their own
examinations.
An additional issue for more traditional consumer-behavior
researchers concerns giving voice to beloved pets. While no
one expects these dogs to answer questions or write their own
life histories, using an empathic and anthropomorphic style
may not resonate as truthful. On the other hand, limited options
exist under such circumstances. One disappointing alternative
might accept the inner lives of animals as unknown and
unknowable. But the relevant literature and the intensely
personal nature of these consumption experiences suggest an
intimate connection manifested in various forms of inter-
species communication. The pioneering work of Holbrook et al.
(2001) with family members who are also dogs or cats provides
rich detail about the many ways animal companions and their
owners co-consume each other as well as the larger world
around them.
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R.P. Hill et al. / Journal of Business Research xx (2007) xxx–xxx
Assuming that at least some portion of our stories is merely
projection of human thoughts and feelings onto these canines
hardly diminishes the applicability of a consumer-behavior
perspective. As caretakers and providers, loving owners fulfill
obligations to act on their pet's behalf to ensure a quality of life
that is consistent with other family members. Thus, human roles
and responsibilities with pets resemble those of parents who
must discern very complex wants and needs that evolve as the
mutual parent–child understanding grows over the years. The
extent to which dog devotees misrepresent the sadness or
sorrow, happiness or joy, manifested by their animal companions
is most probably a matter of over- or under-stating the relevant
feelings by a margin that reflects their own pain or pleasure.
Such errors may actually enrich our comprehension, given the
emotional resonance of shared consumption experience.
5.2. Satisfying their wants and needs
Many pet owners possess a solid grasp of the consumption
requirements and expectations of their animal companions.
Thus, firms with a mission to serve beloved pets may gain
market share and goodwill by using thematic categories such as
this research reveals in the development of new goods and
services. For example, initial engagement and selection
decisions reveal the well-intentioned yet naïve processes
owners employ in their earliest interactions with pets and in
selection protocols for their canine family members. Given the
long-term consequences of such decisions, breeders and other
pet suppliers would be wise to help their customers enact more
sophisticated purchasing strategies to ensure loving choices.
The second theme of early adjustment and relationship
development recounts initial attempts on both sides of this
sacred bond to integrate animal companions into their house-
holds. The excitement of this early period may exacerbate
emotional states associated with novel experiences, suggesting
the need for providers to help pet owners become aware of
typical adjustment issues and coping mechanisms for them-
selves and for their animal companions. Permanent friendships
and loving intimacy show that early trepidation gives way to
integration of beloved pets into their human families. These
bonds build from the establishment of regular schedules and
from forms of interaction that meet needs beyond owners'
original expectations. Pet suppliers may facilitate bonding,
trust, and intimacy by supporting the growth of new routines
and modes of inter-species communication.
The fourth theme of special events and life transitions
demonstrates how animal companions come to represent both
the best of times and the most difficult moments in our lives.
While some providers market a variety of goods and services
linking to positive occasions such as birthdays and holidays,
few help pets and their owners navigate difficult transitions such
as job changes, cross-country moves, and divorces. The final
theme expresses a particularly poignant example—namely,
parting as such sweet sorrow. This theme chronicles the aging
and final moments of a beloved pet's life. While health care
providers such as human/animal psychologists and veterinar-
ians recognize the important role dogs and cats play in our day-
Please cite this article as: Hill RP et al. Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption: An alternative perspective from our animal companions.
J Bus Res (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009
9
to-day worlds, their advice often fails to help owners grieve,
heal, and ultimately recover from such devastating losses.
Teaching pet owners how to recognize end-of-life situations and
how to develop their own natural mourning-and-coping
processes would take a real step forward.
5.3. Final remarks
The ultimate test for the value of any academic research
project is the extent to which the study impacts theory and/or
practice. Combining the extended-self paradigm with the sacred
consumption literature and providing exemplars based on the
integrated consumer lives of pet owners and their beloved
canines may have real influence on consumer-behavior
scholarship and its applications to the marketplace. Additionally,
the method employed here has implications for other domains as
well. Scholars focusing on elderly consumers might utilize such
essays to gain insights into sacred consumption events and
objects that help determine the quality of life in old age. Parents
have a primitive understanding with regard to children's
consumption needs in a fashion similar to the projections of
pet owners, suggesting the value of our research protocol in
another extended-self arena. Perhaps a combination of the
extended-self and sacred consumption paradigms, along with
postmodern methodologies, might provide additional insights
for the care and protection of all living beings, but especially for
three of the most vulnerable groups in our society—children, the
elderly, and beloved animal companions.
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Please cite this article as: Hill RP et al. Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption: An alternative perspective from our animal companions.
J Bus Res (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009