Hamza Hayauddin Anthropology of Medicine Diana Brown

Nazar: The Evil Eye in Pakistan

Talisman From Arabic

[tilasm], and the Greek telein meaning to initiate into the mysteries an

object intended to bring fortune and protection to its possessor. Finding its forms among gems, stones, statues, coins, images, pendants, rings, or even words of power or shadow, at almost every stage of human history, we have sought the assistance of such devices to protect us from evil influences. Arcane objects with alpha-numeric or symbolic designs incorporated into them are even now, widely employed and accepted as mystical wards. Contemporary religions and spiritual practices implement manners of iconography into their beliefs and artifacts, oftentimes an evolution or adaptation of a previously preserved symbol. One of such images is a wide-spread metaphor which has become so pervasive in the global village that a manifestation of it can be found [in some form] in almost every region of the world, shrouded in commodity fetishism yet instantly recognizable Nazar Boncugu [Turkish] The Evil Eye bead. I. The exact nature of this Evil Eye phenomena varies based on culture, history, and region1; some treating it as a curse bestowed upon the fortunate by the malevolent gaze of ones occult evil eye. In Infections and Inequalities, more specifically, in the chapter Sending Sickness, Paul Farmer presents a case of Sida or Jealousy Sickness which his interviewee Diudonn affirms, observing sida is a jealousy sickness with Farmer then commenting on the transmissibility of the illness, explaining that it can be sent to others, both inadvertently and with malevolent intent [174-178]. According to Farmers description, Sida is the result of jealousy present in the social dynamics of the Haitians. This jealousy due to various disparities in an unhealthy society [identical to the situation Farmer presents] can fester into a cancerous syndrome in which individuals maliciously wish ill upon their societal filial brethren due to an uncontrollable sense of deprivation. In this context, Sida is very much unlike Nazar [although both deal with the idea of gaze] in that Sida is generally a jealousy sickness involving various acts of

In its most simplistic understanding, the concept of the Evil Eye is a belief that envy elicited by the [good] luck of fortuitous individuals may result in their undoing [misfortune]. From such common origin, each culture then nurtures its own rendition of this phenomenon.

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sorcery Farmers interviewee describes it as siblings shooting one another [176], whereas Nazar is a syndrome resulting from the onset and harboring of envious sentiments2 oftentimes unknowingly. To understand this subtlety however, one must appreciate the delicacy of language, leading to a posited definition of the terms jealousy and envy3. Jealousy is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary4 as zeal or vehemence of feeling against some person or thing: anger, wrath, indignation along with in respect of success or advantage: fear of losing some good through the rivalry of another; resentment or ill-will towards another on account of advantage or superiority, possible or actual on his part; envy, grudge. Envys definition is Without notion of malevolence. Desire to equal another in achievement or excellence; emulation, supplemented with a longing for the advantages enjoyed by another person. From the dictionary definitions alone, one can argue Res ipsa loquitur but to truly appreciate the intricacies of their distinction, a more holistic approach is needed, especially when these terms [better understood as phenomena] are viewed within a cultural context where they have very real consequences5. Stemming from the French jalousie, and Low Latin zelosus [zealous], the connotation behind the word is emulation, ardour, and zeal with a subtle connotation implying boiling or fermenting. Jealousy, as an emotion, finds its technical and literal manifestation in negative thoughts, feelings of insecurity, fear, and anxiety [due to anticipation of loss]; a combination of primarily anger, sadness, and disgust. Conceptions of jealousy vary as there are two primary schools of thought associated with its comprehension those who believe it a universal emotion and the latter, who understand it as a social construct, claiming it as a culture-specific phenomenon [Salovey 144]. According to Peter Goldie jealousy is an emotion whose effects frequently get out of control [2000, 228]. Unfortunately, science suffers from the same superiority paradigm under which Biomedicine has placed itself 6 and the scientific explanations and definitions of Jealousy are overwhelmingly lackluster, with the greater majority focusing on a triad between a jealous individual, a partner [mate], and a third party rival; describing jealousy as a reaction to threatening stimuli. While these criteria are shared across the field, there is very little consensus on a tangible definition. Contemporary [lay] linguistics on the other hand treats jealousy and envy as synonyms, provoking Lloyd to observe the following in reference to the trend:

This is to some extent a generalized view as not every case of Sida is grounded in virulent intent, just as individuals have found themselves ensorcelled due to spiteful Nazar. Such occurrences are not commonplace however and the previously presented descriptions are accepted as the general norm, which for the sake of this specific case, will be maintained.
3

Contrary to contemporary linguistics, the two are not synonymous, nor are they interchangeable.

I invoke this particular source as it is valued among the greater accepted lexicons of the English language and an internationally recognized text.
5

Outside the semantics of English classrooms.

A belief in absolutes, understanding what is chemically proven and accepted.

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"The terms are used indiscriminately in such popular 'feelgood' books as Nancy Friday's Jealousy, where the expression 'jealousy' applies to a broad range of passions, from envy to lust and greed. While this kind of usage blurs the boundaries between categories that are intellectually valuable and psychologically justifiable, such confusion is understandable in that historical explorations of the term indicate that these boundaries have long posed problems. Margot Grzywacz's fascinating etymological survey of the word in Romance and Germanic Languages asserts, indeed, that the concept was one of those that proved to be the most difficult to express in language and was therefore among the last to find an unambiguous term. Classical Latin used invidia, without strictly differentiating between envy and jealousy. It was not until the postclassical era that Latin borrowed the late and poetic Greek word zelotypia and the associated adjective zelosus. It is from this adjective that are derived French jaloux, Provencal gelos, Italian geloso, and Spanish celoso. [1995, 4]

Resultantly, it is not difficult to understand why there is so little definitive primary source research done on Nazar, as a holistic approach would require resources far outside the scope of a single organization. Jealousy can be viewed as a more self-indulgent emotion, often a byproduct of structural violence as it is the organizations and infrastructure of certain societies that ripen conditions within which disparities are not only possible but imminent and indiscreet. Due to this, the object of jealousy is witnessed in broad light and a fishbowl effect ensues. The key to understanding this is that jealousy is a more individualized and charged emotion, which is born of inherent inadequacies within a system. The individual oftentimes feels victimized or spiteful towards others and an almost mercenary attitude is a frequent result. Envy on the other hand, is viewed as an emotion that occurs when a person lacks anothers [perceived] superior quality, achievement, or possession and either desires it or wishes that the other lacked it [Parrot, 908]. Envy, according to scholars, can derive from a sense of low self-esteem, resulting from an upward social comparison threatening ones self image. Another must possess something of value to the envier, with particular intensity observed when the object of envy [person] is perceived as similar to the envier due to the underlying suggestion tat the envier themselves could just as well had been the possessor of the desired object [Elster, 53]. Envy, in its most simplistic understanding, is the pain caused by the another individual possessing an item that they themselves are without. In Rhetoric, Aristotle defined envy [phthonos] as the pain caused by the good fortune of others [Bailey]. An important distinction to be made here is that oftentimes, envy is used in reference to schaudenfraud7. This is not an accurate representation as commonly, the emotion is an unconscious response and the individual feels shame, guilt, and even disgust at their own attitude, finding their envy to be something reprehensible. Gerrod Parrot distinguishes

Pleasure in the misery of another [German].

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certain criteria specific to jealousy and envy respectively: Jealousy involves fear of loss, suspicion or anger regarding betrayal, low self-esteem and sorrow due to loss, uncertainty, loneliness, and distrust. Envy then involves feelings of inferiority, longing, resentment of circumstances, and ill-will towards envied person often accompanied by guilt about these feelings8 [1993, 906-920]. Most angst associated with envy is directed towards the fates but it finds its manifestation in the focus of envy whereas in jealousy, the resentment is targeted at the object of desire. Envy is a subconscious phenomenon whereas jealousy is an active emotion. The most common cause of the Evil Eye is said to be envy, with the envious individual casting it unintentionally. Depending on cultures, the effects of the eye9 upon victims varies, ranging from an affliction of illfortune to disease, and even death. Alan Dundes studied this phenomenon extensively across cultures and found a commonality the evil caused is typically manifested in desiccation dehydration, withering, and drying; a cure then being related to moisture, upon which he elaborates in his essay Wet and Dry: The Evil Eye. Classically, belief can be traced to sources including Aristophanes, Athenaeus, Plutarch, and Socrates [an individual truly thought to possess evil eyes reasoning for his impressive support base]. The earliest recollection of the evil eye seems to be attributed to the Mesopotamians inscriptions upon cuneiform tablets, with some scholars suggesting that they may have originated in the Upper Paleolithic Era [Nazar Boncugu]. Its belief is strongest in the Middle East, Africa, the Mediterranean, and South Asia, although there are also prominent instances of it in Europe, notably the Celtic regions. The belief in the Evil Eye is generally agreed to be found in Islamic doctrine, based upon the Quranic Sura And from the evil of the envier when he envies [Al-Falaq, 5] and Hadith The influence of an evil eye is a fact [Sahih Muslim, Book 26, 5427 CRCC]. The idea of the evil eye in this sense ties back to envy and overlooking from want. It is customary among Muslims to ward off the eye by proclaiming MashaAllah10 as opposed to directly expressing appreciation for something of beauty or fortune, so as to invoke the blessings of God upon the object. Along with this are various folk beliefs from non-Islamic sources, employing primarily the use of talismans as wards. Ideas of envious

A key distinction as it is the guilt regarding said ill-will [which oftentimes is subconscious] that is relevant to the social dynamic.
9

It is worth mentioning that the individual casting the eye has no malicious intent [generally], resulting in the term evil [a connotation implying intentionally cursing one] is misrepresenting. A better etymology would be found in old English overlooking the implication that a gaze has remained focused on a coveted object for an inappropriate duration. Some still hold however that it is brought forth by the sin of envy.
10

God has willed it [Arabic].

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gazes exist among the Filipino11, Ashkenazi Jews12 and in the Aegean lands where fair eyes are a rare commodity; the result is a stigma associated with green eyes as they are believed to bestow a curse13 [Daniels, 1273]. Wards for this curse have manifested themselves primarily in talismanic form. The class of these artifacts is referred to as apotropaic14 meaning turn away; suggesting their use being the deflection of harm. The most

commonly utilized and widely recognized talisman is the Nazar Boncugu the evil eye bead. A series of discs or orbs of concentric blue and white circles, working their way into the shape of an eye; usually a blue fragment of glass with the eye in the middle. The idea of this unstaring eye is to counter the magicks at play and bend or reflect the malicious gaze back to the sorcerer. It is not unusual to see this image then employed in the designing of the khamsa a hand shaped amulet with origins in the Middle East. Interestingly enough, Muslims refer to it as the hand of Fatimah [daughter of the Prophet(Pbuh)] whereas Jews understand it to be the hand of Miriam [sister of Moses]. This duality serves to demonstrate the seemingly universal theme of this phenomenon whether we call it Sida, Aynhoren, or Nazar, the general idea of an evil eye remains unchanged [save minor details].

II.15 The theme of this essay is to apply the generalized idea of the Evil Eye to a specific case study, the Pakistani one, in hopes of being able to understand a limitedly specific yet microcosmic model of the concept that we have entitled envy sickness
16

Pakistan, a land tormented by a plagued history of martial law, sectarian hatred, corrupt dictatorships, inefficient bureaucracies, feudal warlords, religious extremism, and structural violence en masse. Since 1947, the population has endured the assassinations of three heads of states, four instances of Martial Law, and three military takeovers, one of which left the country severely crippled in terms of religious institutions17. Due to the shaky political
11

Usog Aynhoreh

12

13

Invariably a result of individuals from cultures unfamiliar with the evil eye [Europeans, Americans] transgressing local customs prohibiting staring at or praising the beauty of children [or others in general].
14

Prophylactic, Protective [Greek].

15

There will be a slight lack of scholarly texts here as insufficient research has been done on Nazar, therefore much of the information provided will be from personal knowledge and empirical experiences.
16

As disambiguation regarding Jealousy at this point is inappropriate. The distinctions clearly being demarcated.
17

The implementation of Sharia [and the Hudood Ordinance Act] and empowerment of religious extremists by General Zia-ul-Haqs Islamization of Pakistan [1979].

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history, much of the secularity of nation [intended at creation] has diminished with the country becoming an Islamic republic. Due to this, the country has found itself mired in religiosity and because of its significant presence for much of Pakistans history, the culture itself has molded around this idea, giving the sociocultural conditions of most Pakistani areas subtle yet severe Islamist undertones. This coupled with Pakistans history in the subcontinent the Mughal Empire, British rule, and the partition with India, has lead to a very unique cultural melting pot in which Persian, South-East Asian18, and even Arabian tendencies have entrenched their influence into the roots of society, creating an amalgamation which incorporates aspects of each but adopts none of them directly. The result of this medley is Pakistani culture. A second point of importance when considering the Pakistani case is that not only is the country itself a combination of influences ranging from Yunan [Greece] to Mongolia, but within the country, there are four provinces which are nations in and of themselves. Each province: Sindh, Balochistan, the Punjab, and the North-West Frontier are in their own right, relatively sovereign19 regions with their own cultures, beliefs, religious practices [variations in Islam]. As such, behavior and ideologies will change drastically depending on the region one is pursuing for study. This essay then will focus on the North-West Frontier, a province sharing its border with Afghanistan [from which much of its culture is derived]. The primary language of the region is Pushto a derivative of Farsi [Persian] and much of the concepts will be described using the vocabulary and orthography of that dialect. Is noteworthy to understand that the idea of the evil eye and envy sickness exists across cultures, changing moreso in its treatment than the nature of its illness. It is understood to be a social illness, one that does not easily find roots in biomedicine20. By social illness, we mean that it finds its roots more in a social power dynamic than in pathogenic vector. The evil eye plays upon the various relationships individuals create within a given society and using those ley lines, it can affect a great number of people very quickly. To this end, it is less about treatment or cure21 and more appropriate to discuss as a system which affects connection people share. The envy comes from the heart of the envier and affects the life of the envied. To this end, it is compulsory that those two individuals resolve the evil eye [that has been cast upon the relationship] by themselves. In the Frontier, Nazar means vision, a direct derivative of ideas regarding the evil eye. It is commonly understood that Nazar can be cast upon any individual by another, and oftentimes if not always, with the absence of malicious intent. A passing stranger can transmit it to another and it is just as common for it to be cast by a family

18

India primarily. The feudal system is still very much in effect in most regions. Due in great part to insufficient literature on the topic. Although those too will be discussed for sake of a holistic approach.

19

20

21

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member who adores the individual. Reasons for the transmission of the evil eye are subjective and personal, in some cases even arbitrary but generally involve appreciation in the absence of gratitude22. The Frontier is a very religious portion of Pakistan, far behind on the progressive spectrum when compared to other provinces. Much of the area has feudal lords in power and rampant fundamentalism. To this end, the practice of Islam has become less about the religion in itself and more about its assimilation into an established culture. Many of the traditions therefore are common practices among the Muslim world but there are some which are localized to that specific region. It is a widespread belief among the scholarly [and Muslim] community that the Islam does speak of the evil eye and as such, the phenomenon is a very real one with religious groundings. To understand Nazar to this extent, one must understand the ideas present in the Quran, specifically, Hasad23. Due to the nature of archaic Arabic, it is impossible to provide a single definition for any word as oftentimes, it has a great many and very differing definitions24. The term used primarily is Hasad and this term, quite dangerously, brings the two aforementioned concepts of jealousy and envy back to light25. The primary origin of the concept of envy/jealousy in the Quran is the Surah Falaq in which it states: In the Name of God, the Lord of mercy, the Conveyor of mercy, Say: I take refuge with the Lord of the Daybreak, From the evil of what he has created, From the evil of darkness when it gathers, From the evil of those who blow on knots, From the evil of an envier when they envy. Quran It is noteworthy however that the concept of Hasad has three stages: the natural human quality of envy [where man is excused and not at fault], acting according to the demands of envy [in essence, jealousy], and opposing the demands of jealousy [upon this stage, the individual are laudable and reward-worthy]. As such, these stages are to some extent variations in definitions and serve to separate envy from jealousy. The primary sin of jealousy however is its breaking of two fundamental tenets of Islam: gratitude towards God26 and the command by the Prophet [Pbuh] to love for ones brother that which they would love for themselves.

22

A concept primarily founded in religion and especially so in Islam. Arabic: Jealousy.

23

24

In Ancient Arabia, upon the unveiling of the Quran, it was understood that the text could be interpreted and understood in at least 7 different ways.
25

It worth reiterating that these two are distinguished personally and that the literature on their actual differences was insufficient, especially moreso in Arabic.
26

With jealousy being an ungrateful act.

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In the Frontier then, Nazar is thought to be brought on primarily by the lack of appreciation for God when appreciating anything else27. The eye is cast most often by individuals who forget to praise God whilst praising one of His creations. Typically, this thanks is attributed by uttering the phrase MashaAllah [God has willed it]. This is the primary social dynamic at play as one who is known to forget to speak the phrase is seen as one that is more likely to cast Nazar upon others [due more to absentmindedness than malice]. In the culture, there are specific individuals more susceptible to Nazar and the work of Brian Spooner, while not specifically catering to this particular region, makes a mention of some of then in Arabs and Iran28, providing an analysis of the types of vulnerabilities associated with the evil eye in Muslim societies: In the case of personalization, the suspected vehicle of the influence of the evil eye is invariably a person who is in some measure an outsider in the immediate group and could in some way be tempted to envy. Therefore, persons with obvious physical or economic defects are especially suspected, whereas pregnant women and small children are the most vulnerable [80]. Along with this it is to note that those of beauty 29 are vulnerable as well, along with those whom are initiated in rites of passage acts. This belief accounts directly then for a great many instances in my life where others have believed30 our family to be victims of Nazar. My mothers thyroid cancer was thought by a great portion of our family to have been brought on by the envious gaze of another due to her progressive nature, confidence, and empowered lifestyle. My case of Hepatitis A in 2005 was attributed to many of the same factors, with suspicions cast towards possible schoolmates. The idea behind these beliefs then is that others who envy [inadvertently] the fortune of our family [having four children, frequent foreign postings, liberal/progressive mindsets] cast the evil eye upon us. It is for this reason then that my mother refused to allow a relative of ours to keep a picture of just our family as she believed that it would attract the Nazar of others. Preventative measures also account for then, the refusal of various family members to visit certain people, their logic being: that individual doesnt say MashaAllah and will therefore cast Nazar upon us. Interestingly enough, this phenomenon can also be brought on my unbounded adoration. Spooner comments on this when he provides an example of Persia: it is said that The loving eye is more dangerous than the evil eye. This warns of the dangers of, for example, the doting glance of a mother. I am inclined to interpret this as an extension of the concept of the evil eye. An outsider envies, an insider dotes. Both attitudes are forms of undue attention [79].

27

As all things are created by God. Within Maloneys The Evil Eye.

28

29

The notion can also be entertained that this is one of the reasons for the hijab [veil] to prevent the evil eye from gazing upon those of beauty.
30

I myself am uncertain of my personal belief in this phenomenon and prefer to stay nonaligned until better educated.

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There are two forms of Nazar-matay31: Preventatives - those practices that are believed to ward off Nazar before it can afflict an individual whilst and Curatives - attempts to remove the Nazar once it has been applied. The former, in the Frontier, consists of three primary actions: amulets with Quranic verses contained within them; the recitation of Ayat-ul-Kursi32, followed by blowing on those to be protected [so as to spread the words and will onto them]; and remembrance by individuals [and reminders by others] to say MashaAllah so as to invoke Gods good fortune. Those measures taken after affliction by Nazar involve two primary acts, with the third being a less common but still widespread practice: amulets to purge the taint; recitation of the Manzil33 daily for the duration of the Nazar; and finding the individual responsible for the gaze and having them remove it via Ghusl34- the person washes themselves and then washes the face, head, hands, and feet of those whom they have afflicted. There are other practices amongst various groups as well but the aforementioned are the most widespread and commonly accepted measures taken against Nazar. It can be argued [and by most scholars of this phenomenon, it is accepted] that Nazar is a social process accounting for the complexes within dynamics that exist in a given society. It involves the empowerment and loss of power in relation to certain individuals and above all, emphasizes the need for gratitude and humility. It is not uncommon for an individual to let slip from their mind thankfulness and when this actions is seen by others within the family, they hasten to utter MashaAllah lest they attract the evil eye for forgetting God. The mention of God is only relevant because the society and culture in question here is a religious one. Similarly founded behaviors can be found practiced in almost every country in the world. In the West, children are reminded not to talk to strangers, primarily due to the fact that such behavior can endanger them. Strangers in Pakistan can cast Nazar upon children, who are expecially vulnerable to it and results in the older family members hastily reciting verses and blowing upon their young. This protectionism is not limited to simply this society and is practiced at great lengths by the vast majority of people. Nazar seems to be more of an issue of social responsibility. Individuals understanding the structure of a society and potential violence associated with it, and attempting to rid the society of this taint. description of these societal dynamics in The Evil Eye: Pregnant women are susceptible , and may particularly be affected by the envious looks of a barren womanwomen in general are more susceptible than men, and this is more true in the parts of South Asia where the sex roles are strongly contrasted. Women may be affected either by an envious stranger or by a lovers attentive looksAnyone in the
31

Maloney provides a relevant

Pushto: Gaze-breaker Believed to be the verses of warding and protection.

32

33

A compendium of verses from the Quran thought to purify the spirit and banish evil influences.
34

Urdu: Ablution

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process of eating is susceptible A hungry look at someones food may make the eater sick or give him diarrhea. Therefore, a poor or hungry person should not see one eating, nor should one eat in the presence of others without giving them some of the food35 Anything with something enviable is susceptible [105-09].

At the heart of this illness is social responsibility and that becomes its cure. It is not uncommon in Pakistan to have an individual come to one who is suffering Nazar and apologize for casting it upon them, acknowledging that they envied and seeking to make reparations. Nazar is a structural illness, brought on by want within a society. It is for this reason that those societies with structural inadequacies witness it the most. This does not however limit it to said regions. It merely finds its presence in differing forms within various networks.

Authors Note: I would like to emphasize my regret at the lack of time provided to adequately pursue this topic and have every intention of developing upon my work in the future. It is one of great importance to me and I am certain, given more time, that I could further upon this so as to make a meaningful impact on behalf of an underrepresented yet widespread phenomenon. I would like to thank Professor Diana Brown for entertaining this notion, encouraging research within such a field, and supporting me in general, without which, my interest in this field would not be nurtured in the way that it has been.

Primary Sources

Articles Elster, J. Envy in social life. R. J. Zeckhauser (Ed.), Strategy and choices [49-82]. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Limberis, Vasiliki. The Eyes Infected by Evil: Basil of Caesarea's Homily. The Harvard Theological Review, Vol.84, No.2. [163184]. April 1991. Parrot, W.G. & Smith, R.H. Distinguishing the experiences of envy and jealousy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 906-920. 1993.

Books Abdul-Haleem, M.A.S. Quran. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2004. Buss, D.M. The Dangerous Passion: Why Jealousy is as Necessary as Love and Sex. New York: Free Press. 2000 Dundes, Alan. The Evil Eye: A Casebook. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 1992.
35

A textbook example of social responsibility. A Western analogy then would be the act of not displaying something that others are not in possession of without an intention to share it.

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Elworthy, Frederick Thomas. Evil Eye - The Origins and Practices of Superstition. Grand Rapids: Kessinger, 2003. Farmer, Paul. Infections and Inequalities: The Modern Plagues. University of California Press. 2001. Gamache, Henri. Terrors of the Evil Eye Exposed. Raymond Publishing, 1946. Goldie, Peter. The Emotions, A Philosophical Exploration. Oxford University Press. 2000. Lloyd, R. Closer & Closer Apart: Jealousy in Literature. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 1995. Maloney, Clarence. The Evil Eye. New York: Columbia University Press. 1976 Salovey, Peter. Psychology of jealousy and envy. New York: Guilford Publishers, 1991. Stevens, Phillips. Jr. "Evil Eye," in The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal edited by Gordon Stein. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. 1996

Dictionaries/Encylopediae Jealousy Def. 1, 4.b. The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. Jealousy Online Etymology Dictionary. 5 May 2009 <http://www.etymonline.com/index.php? search=jealousy&searchmode=none> Envy Def. 4.a, b. The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. Envy An universal etymological English dictionary. Bailey, Nathan. 1737. Daniels, Cora Lynn, et al., eds, Encyclopdia of Superstitions, Folklore, and the Occult Sciences of the World (Volume III) Univ. Press of the Pacific, Honolulu

Websites CRCC: Center For Muslim-Jewish Engagement: Resources: Religious Texts. USC - University of Southern California. 3 May 2009 <http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/muslim/> Nazar Boncugu - The Evil Eye Bead. Turkish. 3 May 2009. <http://www.nazarboncugu.com/>

Empirical Data

Internet Forums Buzzvine 1 May 2009. <http://www.buzzvines.com/node/1957> Paklinks - 2 May 2009. <http://www.paklinks.com/gs/all-views/298293-nazar-evil-eye.html>

Telephone Conversations Mal de Ojo - San Francisco Bardo Training Center. Nazar Lubna Hayauddin, a cultural perspective.

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Email Communication Evil Eye Catherine Yrodewood

Movies Contemporary References Congo36. Marshall, Frank. Paramount Pictures. 1995. The Evil Eye. Melford, George. Paramount Pictures. 1917. The Lord of the Rings: Trilogy37. Jackman, Peter. New Line Cinema. 2001. 2002. 2003.

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Based on Michael Crichtons Congo [novel] Based on J.R.R Tolkiens The Lord of the Rings trilogy [novel]

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