Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
Effects of Aging
Progressive loss of elastic recoil of lungs due to elastin & collagen fiber changes Increased respiratory muscle workload due to calcification of soft tissues in chest wall Total lung capacity remains constant Increased residual lung volume result of changes in aging
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
Physical Assessment
Inspection: Symmetry of Chest Expansion Size of chest (barrel chest, pigeon chest, deformities, flail segment/paradoxical movement) Signs of Increased Respiratory Effort Changes in Skin Color (including nail beds) Clubbing of fingernails Include listening to patients speech Palpation Trachea slightly movable & quickly returns to midline after displacement Tactile fremitus transmission of vibration of air movement through chest wall during phonation (99 method) Thoracic excursion
Percussion: Resonant low-pitched hollow (normal lung sound) Hyperresonant louder & lower-pitched; presence of increased amount of air (emphysema, pneumothorax) Dull- thudlike Tympanic hollow (tension-pneumothorax) Flat soft high-pitched Auscultation:
Bronchial, bronchovesicular, vesicular
Adventitious Breath sounds: Stridor - High pitched crowing sound, usually heard on inspiration, indication of a tight upper airway Wheezing - Whistling sound, usually heard on expiration, indication of narrowing of lower airways (bronchospasm, edema, foreign material) Ronchi - Rattling sound, caused by mucus in larger airways Rales - Fine crackling sound, indication of fluid in the alveoli
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
Diagnostics
A. Chest X-ray (Chest radiography; Serial chest x-ray) Visualization of the chest, lungs, heart, large arteries, ribs, and diaphragm while standing in front of the machine Two views are usually taken:
1. Antero-posterior view - x-rays pass through the chest from the back 2. Lateral view - x-rays pass through the chest from one side to the other
Nursing Interventions:
1. Instruct client to hold his breath while x-ray is taken 2. Inform client that test is performed in the radiology
3.
department (in hospitals, mobile x-rays may be used) & the film plate may feel cold Instruct client to wear a hospital gown and remove all jewelries
2.
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
Cont(PFT)
3. Spirometry test measures airflow; client will breathe through a tight fitting mouthpiece and will have nose clips Nursing Interventions: Instruct client to: a. breathe into a mouthpiece that is connected to an instrument (spirometer) b. eat a light meal before the test c. not to smoke for 4 - 6 hours before the test d. stop using bronchodilators or inhaler medications 6-8hrs prior e. Inform client that temporary shortness of breath or lightheadedness may be felt
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
A decrease in peak flow indicates blocked or narrowed airways A significant fall in peak flow can signal the onset of a lung disease esp. when accompanied by persistent coughing, SOB, or wheezing PEFR measurements are not as accurate as the spirometry Nursing Interventions: o Inform client that repeated efforts may cause lightheadedness o Loosen any tight clothing that might restrict breathing o Sit up straight or stand while performing the tests o Instruct client on proper procedure to do this test: Breathe in as deeply as possible. Blow into the instrument's mouthpiece as hard and fast as possible. Do this 3 times, and record the highest flow rate
D. Throat Culture
Also known as throat swab culture a laboratory test to isolate and identify organisms that may cause infection in the throat; when throat infection is suspected, particularly strep throat back of the throat is swabbed with a sterile cotton swab near the tonsils Nursing Interventions:
Instruct client not to use antiseptic mouthwashes before the test Inform client that he may experience a gagging sensation when the back of the throat is swabbed Instruct to resist gagging and closing the mouth during procedure (test only takes a few seconds)
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
Cont(Bronchoscopy)
Nursing Interventions:
Inform client that spraying of local anesthesia will cause coughing at first, which will stop as the anesthetic begins to work Inform client that as the anesthesia wears off, the throat may be scratchy for several days Instruct client on NPO 6-12hrs prior (withhold ASA or Ibuprofen if client takes it on a regular basis or as ordered) Place client on NPO 1-2hrs after the procedure or until (+) for gag reflex
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
F. Sputum Culture
Sputum - secretion produced in the lungs and the bronchi; what comes up with deep coughing This mucus-like secretion may become infected, bloodstained, or contain abnormal cells that may lead to a diagnosis Nursing Interventions: Drinking a lot of water and other fluids the night before collection may help Perform back tapping or chest clapping on client to aid in loosening the sputum Instruct client on proper specimen collection Collect morning specimen Gargle with water only before specimen collection cough deeply and spit sputum in a sterile cup Send specimen to lab ASAP
G. Oximetry
measures oxygen concentration (%) in the blood used in the evaluation of various medical conditions affecting heart & lung functions most commonly used = pulse oximeters because they respond only to pulsations, such as those in pulsating capillaries of the area tested pulse oximeter works by passing a beam of red and infrared light through a pulsating capillary bed ratio of red to infrared blood light transmitted gives a measure of the oxygen saturation in the blood Principle: oxygenated blood is bright red while the deoxygenated blood is blue-purple Other types: intracardiac oximetry - blood that is within the heart or on whole blood that has been removed from the body More recently, using a similar technology to oxymetry, carbon dioxide levels can be measured at the skin as well
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
10
Pulmonary Tuberculosis
contagious bacterial infection that mainly involves the lungs, but may spread to other organs Cause: Mycobacterium tuberculosis Mode of transmission: inhalation of air droplets from a cough or sneeze of an infected person primary stage of the infection is usually asymptomatic
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
11
Mycobacterium tuberculosis Droplet inhalation Deposited into pulmonary parenchyma Immunocompetent individual Alveolar macrophage ingestion Activation of tubercle defenses Bacilli remains dormant In macrophages Infection is self-limited Primary tuberculosis Incomplete prophylaxis Complete prophylaxis Bacilli remain inactive Immunocompromised individual
PTB
Pathophysiology
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
12
High-risk individuals Elderly Infants Immunosuppressed (AIDS, chemotherapy, or antirejection medicines given after a organ transplant) Are in frequent contact with people who have the disease Live in crowded or unsanitary living conditions Have poor nutrition The appearance of drugresistant strains of TB
S/Sx Limited to minor cough Fever and night sweats Fatigue Unintentional weight loss Excessive sweating, especially at night Coughing up blood Phlegm-producing cough Wheezing Chest pain Breathing difficulty
Cont(PTB)
Dx: Chest x-ray seen on upper lobes (due to higher O2 concentration) Sputum cultures (Acid-Fast Stain) confirmatory test Empyema Tuberculin skin test (Mantoux Test) ID purified protein derivative (PPD) 48-72hrs interpretation (+) = 15mm induration (5mm for immunosuppressed clients) Bronchoscopy Thoracentesis (very rare occasions) Chest CT Scan Complications: Miliary TB - widespread dissemination of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from hematogenous spread Pleural Effusion collection of fluid in the pleural cavity Empyema purulent drainage It results from an untreated pleuralspace infection
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
13
Cont
Tx: Multi-drug therapy = to prevent development of resistance (RIPES) Rifampicin inhibits RNA synthesis of the bacilli Isoniazid remarkably potent to the bacilli; prophylaxis; given with Vit. B6 Pyrazinamide (PZA) inhibits cell growth Ethambutol inhibits cell growth Streptomycin 1st drug found to be effective against PTB; given by injection
Nursing Management: 1. Give meds before meals 2. Maintenance therapy = after 6months 3. Client not communicable after 2wks 4. Rifampicins SE: reddish/orange body secretions (urine) 5. PZA prone to hyperuricemia so oral fluids 6. Ethambutol - A/E: optic neuritis so vision/visual changes C/I: pedia cannot report any visual disturbances 7. Streptomycin A/E: ototoxic ( tinnitus) nephrotoxic = oliguria neurotoxic = seizure precautions
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
14
Asthma
Chronic inflammatory airway disease Exposure to allergens (dust, smoke, animal dander, pollen, volatile organic compounds, food, meds, etc) Cold air, exercise, & emotional upset can produce bronchospasm Pathophysiology: allergens immune response (mast cells, eosinophils, T lymphocytes) mucus production bronchospasm inflammation excessive mucus production narrowing of airways bronchoconstriction asthma attack
Manifestations: (asthma attacks differ from 1 person to another) Episodic wheezing Feelings of chest tightness Cough may be accompanied by wheezing Prolonged expiration Increased RR Severe attacks = severe dyspnea (use of accessory muscles) Distant breath sounds (due to air trapping) Loud wheezing Fatigue develops Moist skin Anxiety/panic attack Client is able to speak 1-2 words before taking a breath Complication: respiratory failure (onset marked by inaudible breath sounds, diminished wheezing, coughing becomes ineffective
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
15
Cont
Dx: careful Hx & physical assessment
Spirometry Inhalation challenge test measures the level of airway responsiveness (histamine, or exposure to nonpharmacologic agent)
Tx/ Nursing Management: goal = prevention of attack episodes
Pharmacologic
Quick-relief not for daily use; relaxes bronchial muscles (albuterol, terbutaline via MDI or nebulizer) Long-term meds taken on daily basis; anti-inflammatory (cromolyn via MDI), corticosteroids (budesonide via MDI), bronchodilators (theophylline)
Mgt:
Bronchodilators Rest & relaxation techniques O2 = low flow (1-2Lpm) Nebulize Chest physiotherapy & controlled breathing (IPPB) High-fowlers/ orthopneic Immunotherapy Avoid allergens Liberal fluid intake
Meds: Aminophylline Steroids Theophylline relaxes bronchial muscles Histamine antagonist Mucolytics acetylcysteine (Fluimucil) Antibiotics
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
16
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
17
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
18
Emphysema Illustrations
Smoking Hx Age of onset Clinical Features Color Barrel Chest Weight loss SOB
- acyanotic - cyanosis w/ edema - dramatic - may be present - severe (advanced) - infrequent (often overweight) - compensatory - predominant early symptom pursed-lip breathing Sputum - may be absent - copious sputum production Lung x-ray - overinflated lucent - dirty lungs Heart involvement - none, late cor pulmonale - cor pulmonale (RV) ABGs - mild-mod hypoxemia - (+)hypoxemia
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
19
Dx: physical assessment Chest x-ray or Chest CT Scan = confirmatory PFTs, TST Lab: Arterial Blood Gas (ABG)
Below Acidosis Acidosis Alkalosis
Respiratory Alternate arrows Metabolic Same arrows
Above pH = 7.35 7.45 HCO3 = 22 26mEq/L PCO2 = 35 45mmHg Alkalosis Alkalosis Acidosis
Compensation pH compensatory system uncompensated abnormal no change partially abnormal change Fully normal change
Monitor respiratory patterns & assess breath sounds Low flow O2 (1-3Lpm) High fowlers position Energy conservation techniques facilitate coughing pursed-lip breathing technique Maintain adequate hydration & room humidity
sometimes theophylline - requires frequent blood monitoring for toxicity inhaled steroids Antibiotics - during flare-ups of symptoms Alpha1-antitrypsin replacement therapy
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
20
Pleurisy
inflammation of the lining of the lungs that causes pain when you take a breath or cough normally smooth lining of the lungs (the pleura) become rough, they rub together with each breath, and may produce a rough, grating sound called a "friction rub." Causes: may develop when you have lung inflammation due to infections such as pneumonia or tuberculosis Asbestos-related disease Certain cancers Chest trauma Pulmonary embolus - blockage of an artery in the lungs by fat, air, blood clot, or tumor cells Respiratory tract infections
S/Sx: main symptom = chest pain Some people feel the pain in the shoulder Deep breathing, coughing, and chest movement makes the pain worse fluid may collect inside the chest cavity & may cause the following: Coughing Cyanosis Shortness of breath, tachypnea Dx: Complete Blood Count (CBC) Activity intolerance (fatigue) RBC = 4.5M 5.4M Risk for infection Risk for injury (bleeding) Fluid volume deficit (dehydration) WBC = 5K 10K Platelets = 150k 450k Hematocrit = 35 45%
Risk for injury (CVA/Thrombosis) Actual infection Risk for injury (CVAclot formation) Fluid volume excess
Thoracentesis - procedure to remove fluid from the space between the lining of the outside of the lungs (pleura) and the wall of the chest; local anesthesia Pleural Biopsy - procedure to remove a sample of the tissue lining the lungs and the inside of the chest wall to check for disease or infection Ultrasound of the chest or Chest x-ray Sputum exam
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
21
Tx: depends on what is causing the pleurisy Bacterial infections = antibiotics (some bacterial infections require a surgical procedure to drain all the infected fluid) acetaminophen or anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen (for pain control) Thoracentesis Complications: Collapsed lung due to thoracentesis Complications from the original illness Nursing Management: Health teachings (infection, work environment, splinting ribcage with pillow) Position client on affected side Thoracentesis: Instruct client not to cough, breathe deeply, or move during the test to lung puncture Instruct to report SOB &/or chest pain during procedure Apply pressure on puncture site & monitor for bleeding
Tracheostomy
Tracheostomy used for severe lung disorder, neurological problem, or infection makes it impossible to breathe, to keep the windpipe open and supply air a small opening (stoma) through the skin on the throat a breathing tube is directly inserted into the windpipe (trachea). The trache tube is sometimes sewn to the skin around the stoma It can also be held in place with trache ties Some trache tubes have an inflatable cuff near the outer end to keep it from coming out and to prevent air leaks
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
22
trache tube parts Obturator - used to pass the trache into the windpipe outer cannula (tube) - has a plastic "trache plate" that lies against the skin of the neck and holds the trache in place Inner cannula that fits inside the outer one and locks into place Obturator and clamp should always be at bedside
Tracheostomy Care
clean the inner cannula on a daily basis Observe proper precautions & handwashing before & after care Whenever the tube threatens to become clogged with mucus, suction it clear Materials: kidney basin a small brush (like a toothbrush) or twisted OS H2O2 &/or sterile NSS 4x4 gauze pad scissors
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
23
Procedures: Place a trache bib under the trache plate with a gauze pad (upright U) Unlock the inner cannula and remove it by pulling it gently out and down Put a clean wet inner cannula (if reserve is available) as replacement & lock in place Clean the dirty cannula by soaking it in H2O2 Scrub it with the small brush when bubbling stops Rinse well the inner cannula by pouring the sterile NSS Return in place & lock if client has no reserve
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
24
Intubation Illustrations
1 ET tubes 2 Intubation
3 ET tube
Placement
ETAD
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
25
Nursing Management
RNs prepare all needed materials needed for intubation &/or assist in placement by securing patients position (head tilted on supine) Sterile suction kit, a bottle of sterile NSS, sterile gloves, a clean bite block if necessary, and tape already torn into appropriately-sized pieces, laryngoscope Documentation (note also tube distance at clients lips) All waste should be properly disposed Complete airway check every 8hrs & prn The insertion point (in cm) of the ET tube should be confirmed to be the same as prior to the procedure, unless the purpose of the procedure was to change the depth of the tube (via X-ray)
Cont
Primary portion of ET tube management is suctioning every 2hrs or prn Client should be hyperoxygenated prior to suctioning Color and amount of any sputum return should be noted Oral cavity should also be suctioned Thorough oral care every 8hrs and prn If client has a bite block, it must be removed and cleaned or replaced every 8hrs tube should be repositioned so as not to continuously exert pressure in the same area If the tube is taped to the client's face, tape must be removed and replaced on the opposite side of the face at least once per day and prn
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
26
nasal cannula (NC) - thin tube with two small nozzles that protrude into the nostrils
It can only provide oxygen at low flow rates, 2-6 litres per minute (LPM), delivering a concentration of 28-44%.
simple face mask - basic mask used for nonlife-threatening conditions but which may progress in time
Often set to deliver oxygen between 2-10 LPM The final oxygen concentration delivered by this device is dependent upon the amount of room air that mixes with the oxygen
non-rebreather mask- utilized for those requiring high-flow oxygen, but do not require breathing assistance
It has an attached reservoir bag where oxygen fills in between breaths, and a valve that largely prevents the inhalation of room or exhaled air.
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
27
Cont
bag-valve-mask (Ambubag) - used in CPR or if client is in critical condition An oxygen reservoir bag is attached to a central cylindrical bag, attached to a valved mask administers almost 100% concentration oxygen at 815 Lpm The central bag is squeezed manually to deliver a "breath" anaesthetic machine - used for general anesthesia allows a variable amount of oxygen to be delivered, along with other gases including air, nitrous oxide and inhalational anaesthetics
Done!
You must have control of the authorship of your own destiny. The pen that writes your life story must be held in your own hand.
http;//www.katzcriticalminds.com
28