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Objectives
This chapter provides fundamental knowledge of different methods of productions / heat treatments of titanium alloys and the use of various types of cast and wrought titanium alloys. The influences of alloy composition, microstructure and heat treatment on chemical and mechanical properties of titanium alloys will be discussed in relation to its applications.
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Titans
Ilmenite (FeTiO3)
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Rutile (TiO2)
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(<882.5oC)
HCP,BCC
Ti
Titanium 47.87
Experiences allotropic transformation ( ) at 882.5oC. Highly react with oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen. expensive. Difficult to extract Used mainly in wrought forms for advanced applications where cost is not critical. High strength and toughness.
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Sports
Turbine blades
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Hip-joint component
MEDICAL Orthopaedic Implants Bone Screws Trauma Plates Dental Fixtures Surgical Instruments SPECIALIST Body Jewellery Ultrasonic Welding Motor Racing Components Marine Bicycle Sports Equipment
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INDUSTRIAL Petrochemical Offshore Subsea Metal Finishing Pulp & Paper General Engineering
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Melting processes
- Electroslag Refining (ESR) - Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR) - Electron Beam Melting (EBM) - Plasma Arc Melting (PAM) - Induction Skull Melting
Casting processes
- Casting : investment casting, laser fabrication
Forming processes
- Forming process such as rolling, extrusion, forging.
Heat treatments
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Extraction of titanium
Titanium ore rutile (TiO2) is converted into titanium sponge by 1) Passing Cl2 gas through charge the ore, resulting in colourless. titanium tetrachloride TiCl4. TiO2 + 2Cl 2 + C TiCl 4 + CO2 2) TiCl4 is purified by fractional distillation. 3) The liquid form of TiCl4 is reacted with either Mg or Na under an inert (Ar) atmosphere to obtain titanium sponge while Mg or Na is recycled. 2Mg + TiCl 2MgCl + Ti
(l ) 4(l ) 2(l ) (s)
Chlorination
TiO2 Coke
TiCl4 Distillation
Mg
Mg
MgCl2 Cl2
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Briquette
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Sponge and alloying elements are blended together and then hydraulically pressed to produce blocks (briquette). Revert or scrap can also be used. The briquettes are welded together to produce first melt electrode or stick. The electrode is double or triple melted in the VAR furnace to produce sound ingot.
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Electrode made from compacted briquette of nominal alloy composition is held in the VAR by a stub and first melted in a water-cooled copper crucible. A molten metal pool is on the top of the new ingot. The melting variables such as melting rate, molten pool depth, stirring, contamination is carefully control to obtain homogeneity and soundness of ingots.
Cooling water
Mould
Arc Ingot
Cooling water
VAR furnace
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The metal is melted in a watercooled copper vessel (hearth) using the heat source (plasma torch or electron beam).
Ingot molten pool
Melting hearth
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The skull (solid Ti) is contacted with the hearth and leave the molten titanium alloy floating on the top, preventing contamination from the hearth. High density inclusions are separated on to the bottom of the hearth.
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The floating metal is on the top of the skull, giving a sound ingot.
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EBM ingot
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Note: Used for melting of reactive materials May-Aug such as Ti, Ni, Ta, Zr.
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Water-cooled system
Alpha stabilisers
Al, O, N
Beta stabilisers Isomorphous: Mo, V, W, Nb, Ta. Eutectoid: Fe, Cr, Cu, Ni, Co, Mn. Neutrual
(a) stabilising
Zr, Si, Sn
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Commercially pure titanium alloys Alpha titanium alloys Near alpha titanium alloys
Characteristics:
Non-heat treatable Weldable. Medium strength Good notch toughness Good creep resistance at high temperature.
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Solute content
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250 x HCP phase structure with spheroidal particles due to 0.3% Fe as impurity
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% Al equiv = Al + 1 Sn + 1 Zr + 10(O + C + 2 N ) 9% 3 6
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>5-6% Al addition produces coherent ordered 2 phase (Ti3Al) embrittlement. Co-planar dislocations are produced early fatigue cracking.
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Forged compressor disc made from neat alloy IMI 685 May-Aug 2007
Microstructure of CP Ti alloy.
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IMI679 Air-cooled from + phase field, having white primary phase and Widmansttten
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0.5 m
(a) Near Ti (IMI 685) oil-quenched, (b) quenched from phase field and aged at 850oC
Air-cooling from the phase field gives a basket weave structure of Widmansttten phase delineated by phase, fig (b).
X 75
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Effects of cooling rage from the beta phase field on lamellar microstructure in Ti 6242 alloy
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250 x Annealed from phase field, showing transformed phase or lamellar (basket weaves) microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V
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Annealed from + phase field, showing equiaxed grains (light) with intergranular retained beta (dark)
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250 x Air-cooled from + phase field, showing primary grains in a matrix of transformed (acicular)
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Annealing from the and + phase field. Air cooling from the and + phase field. Quenching from and + phase fields. Tempering of titanium martensite Decomposition of metastable
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Note: Following tempering and ageing at elevated temperature lead to decomposition of martensite.
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(c)
If enough stabilisers
(a) Hexagonal lath, (b) hexagonal lenticular , (c) orthorhombic Possible reactions due to quenching from the phase field
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Martensite
Primary phase 500 x Ti-6-4 alloy solution treated at 954oC and then water quenched
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Decomposition of martensite
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Decomposition of metastable
Retained obtained after quenching decomposes when subjected to ageing at elevated temperatures. developing high tensile strength. The metastable is transformed into equilibrium phase at high ageing temperatures due to difficulty in nucleating HCP phase on BCC matrix.
Medium alloy content 100- 500oC Concentrated alloys 200- 500oC oC > 500
+ +1 +
+ +
Possible reactions
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Decomposition of metastable
phase
embrittlement
Appears as very fine dispersion particles after metastable is isothermally aged at 100-500oC Avoided by controlling ageing conditions, temp (475oC), composition.
phase separation
phase separation into two BCC phases (enrich)+1 (depleted) occurs in high stabiliser containing alloy to prevent formation. This phase will slowly transform into equilibrium phase
Equilibrium phase formation
strength
Laths of Widmansttten
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fine globular
coarse globular
+
Ms
Ti-6Al
%V
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(a) Slip planes in HCP Ti alloy and alignment of unit cell showing strongly preferred orientation. (b) Fatigue endurance limit of three different conditions in Ti-6Al-4V alloy.
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Ms + c % Beta stabiliser s
Molybdenum equivalent
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titanium alloys
titanium alloys possess a BCC crystal structure, which is readily cold-worked (than HCP structure) in the phase field. Microstructure after quenching contains equiaxed phase. After solution heat treating + quenching (up to 1300-1400 MPa). giving very high strength
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titanium alloys
Most titanium alloys are metastable and tend to transform into (1) coarse platets after heat-treated in the + phase field or (2) phase precipitation after longterm ageing at elevated temperature.
annealed microstructure, CEZ (Ti-5Al2Sn-2Cr-4Mo-4Zr)- beta rich
This effect gives higher strength to the alloy but can cause embrittlement and not desirable when ductility is required.
(a) 690oC/8h+ 650oC/8h. (b) 500oC/8h+ 725oC/24h. (c) 725oC/24h.
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titanium alloys
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Forging Sheet and ring rolling Machining Power metallurgy Superplastic forming/diffusion bonding
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HCP Ti alloys Deformation is limited on available slip systems and relies on twinning* deformation at RT. BCC Ti alloys Deformation relies on more available slip systems with quite limited twinning deformation. hot-working.
most ductile.
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N no. of atoms per unit cell, CN Coordination number, P Packing density, bmin/a minimal slip component.
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Titanium alloys are ring rolled to produce large cylinders for fan casing or pressure vessels.
Titanium ring rolling
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(a) Ti-6Al-4V alloy produced from CIPing and sintering of blended CP sponge and ALV master alloy
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SPF/DB process
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SPF/DB structure
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Casting processes
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Conventional casting
Rammed graphite is used as the mould rather than sand due to its minimal tendency to react with molten titanium. Produce intricate shapes with good surface finish condition.
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Investment casting
This process begins with 1) Duplicating a wax part from engineering drawing of the specific part. 2) Dipping in ceramic slurry until a shell is formed. 3) The wax is then melted out and the fired shell is filled with molten metal to form a part near to the net shape of the drawing. Most widely used for titanium castings Cost effective Precise dimensional control Used for structural applications requiring metallurgical integrity and sports applications such as golf heads.
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Vacuum is applied for die casting to reduce gas entrapment during metal injection and to decrease porosity in the casting.
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Ti-6Al-4V(STA)
Temperature, oF
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Bimodal microstructure is more resistant to fracture due to equaixed phase giving higher strength. Equiaxed phase is also more resistant to nucleation of voids higher ductility.
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Crack paths in the centre of fracture toughness Ti-6Al-4V specimens (a) coarse lamellar and (b) fine lamellar
More torturous path in coarse lamellar microstructure leads to higher energy dissipation during fracture higher toughness.
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+
annealed
annealed
annealed
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Good corrosive resistance to salt water and marine, acids, alkalis, natural waters and chemicals.
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Tungsten Inert Gas Welding Electron Beam Welding Laser Beam Welding Friction welding
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clean.
Molten metal
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Friction welding
Friction welding is carried out by moving one part in a linear reciprocating motion to effect the heat at the joint. High cost of welding machines. Can use to join dissimilar metals. Very small distortion. Limited to non-round and non-complex component.
Embrittlement
- Due to oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen contamination at T> 500oC. need effective shielding.
Contamination cracking
- Due to iron contamination reducing corrosion resistance, separate from steel fabrication.
200 m
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Titanium implants
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References
Polmear, I.J., Light alloys: metallurgy of the light metals, Third edition, 1995, Arnold, London, ISBN 0-340-63207 (pb). Smith, W.F., Structure and properties of engineering alloys, second edition, 1993, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-70112829-8. Ltjering, G., Williams, J.C., Titanium, 2003, Springer, ISBN 3-540-42990-5. Leyens, C., Peters, M., Titanium and titanium alloys: fundamentals and applications, 2003, WILEY-VCH, Germany, ISBN 3-527-30534-3. F.H. Froes, S.J. Mashl, V.S. Moxson, J.C. Hebeisen, and V.A. Duz , The Technologies of Titanium Powder Metallurgy, JOM, November, 2004, p. 46-48. www.jhu.edu.
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