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Engineering Drawings - Show Dimensions, Tolerances, etc.

Control Charts for and R Control Limits, Specification Limits Control limits are functions of the natural variability of the process (usually set at 3 sigma 3-sigma from the mean) Specification limits are determined by developers/designers.

Control Charts for and R Control Limits and Specification Limits There is no mathematical relationship between control limits and specification limits. Do not plot specification limits on the charts
Causes confusion between control and capability If individual observations are plotted, then specification limits may be plotted on the chart.

Limit Limit Nominal Max

Nominal Max

Process Capability
Lower Specification Upper Specification

Unacceptable, process needs adjustment back to centre of range. Acceptable, even if things change slightly.

Limit

Nominal

Max
Process variability matches specifications Lower Specification Upper Specification

Limit

Nominal

Max
Unacceptable, needs to reduce the variability.

Limit Acceptable now, but the slightest change will make it unacceptable. Should reduce the variability
Time distributions in the proposal writing process

Nominal

Max

Process variability well within Lower specifications

Specification

Upper Specification

Unacceptable, needs to re centre the process and reduce variability

Process variability exceeds specifications

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Factors influencing process capability

Process Capability Ratio

1. Condition of machine/ equipment. 2. Type of operation and operational conditions. 3. Raw materials. 4. 4 Skill of operators operators. 5. Measurement method / instruments. 6. Inspectors skill. Cp = Process capability ratio, Cp = specification width process width

Upper specification l U ifi i lower specification ifi i 6p

where normal distribution is assumed (number of samples is large): Cp>1 implies a process has the potential of having more than 99.73% of outcomes within specifications

Process Capability Cpk

Upper Specification Limit x C pk = minimum of , or 3 p x Lower Specification Limit 3 p where x = process mean p = standard deviation of the process population
Assumes that the process is:
under control normally distributed

Meanings of Cpk Measures

Cpk = negative number Cpk = zero Cpk = between 0 and 1 Cpk = 1 Cpk > 1

The Evolution of Quality

Six Sigma BPR M Hammer Six Sigma : Motorola 1996 1990

1987 1980: TQM : Quality Circles

WHAT IS SIX SIGMA ?

QUALITY BENCHMARK - PRODUCT, PROCESS, SERVICES DEFECT REDUCTION TECHNIQUE CORPORATE PHILOSOPHY

1970: Zero Defects : Crosby 1960: Japanese Quality movement Deming, Feigenbaum, Juran Taguchi, Ishikawa 1950: reconstruction of Japan SPC

1940: Statistical Sampling Techniques : W E Deming 1930: statistical Sampling : W A Shewhart 1920: Time & Motion studies F. Taylor Each phase built on the structure and gains from the previous phases

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Results From Six Sigma in GE

A FEW SIX SIGMA RESULTS
MOTOROLA ( 1987-1994)
REDUCED IN PROCESS DEFECT LEVELS 200 TIMES
3500 3000

3000 2500 2500

2500

REDUCED MFG. COSTS BY $ 1.4 BILLION INCREASED S C S SHARE VALUE 4 TIMES S

USD Millions D

2000

1500

- CUMULATIVE SAVINGS $ 14 BILLION (UPTO 1997) GENERAL ELECTRIC

1997 : $ 300 MILLION PROFIT
1000

1200 900 700

500

380 200170

450

500

600

500

600

1998 : $ 600 MILLION PROFIT OPERATING PROFITS INCREASED TO 16.7% IN 1998

0 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Six Sigma cost

Six Sigma productivity

Delighting customers

Three Emphasis Areas for Six Sigma

Basic Terminologies
Focused on product design excellence, design for manufacturability, Customer satisfaction and cost reduction within all components of the development and new product introduction process. Focused on operational excellence, Customer satisfaction and cost reduction within all components of the operation. Areas of focus include Sales, HR, Finance, Materials, etc. Focused on product production excellence, variation and defect reduction, lean production techniques, Customer satisfaction and cost reduction within all components of the production and delivery process. Six Sigma touches on all aspects of the Business Enterprise

CTQ Metric Defect / Defective DPU Opportunity & DPMO COPQ

CTQ - Critical to Quality

The key measurable characteristics of a product or process whose performance standards or specification limits must be met in order to satisfy the customer. They align improvement or design efforts with customer requirements. Customer level CTQ Product / Process level CTQ
OM process cycle time Shifter fork movement, cone clutch

Customer Generated CTQs Q Process Generated Business Generated

Order Delivery on time Smooth gear shifting

Six Sigma speaks only in terms of Metrics So measure everything that results in customer satisfaction

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Examples of Metric
Process metric To define the result / output of processes, certain process metrics have to be defined - the standards which help track and monitor the processes. These may add up to a Business level metric. Process Metric %QC & Rework time No of defects (DPMO) Material residing time Cost per KM Travel Hit ratio --------------Business results metric Manpower cost Rework/Warranty cost

-------- Inventory carrying cost -------- ROI -------Order booking value

Process metric control

Process output is dependent on inputs(X) we provide to the process ,that is Y= f (X) To control Y we must control Xi
Controllable Inputs X1 X2 Input raw materials, components, and sub-assemblies Xp Measurement Evaluation Monitoring and g control Product Process y = Quality Characteristic

Defining Processes & CTQS

Identify customer driven Critical-to-quality (CTQ) characteristics

Identify Key processes that cause defects in a CTQ Characteristics

Output

For each product or process CTQMeasure, Analyze, improve &CONTROL

Z1 Zp Z2 Uncontrollable inputs

Process identification matrix

Customer driven CTQ

Improved CSI Score

Basic Terminologies
CTQ Metric Defect / Defective DPU Opportunity & DPMO COPQ

Vehicle servicing
Service Level CTQ

Sub CTQ 1 Waiting time for registration

Sub CTQ 2 Waiting during service

Sub CTQ 3 Satisfaction At time of delivery

Process1 Process2 Process3

Registration of service request Servicing process After service follow up

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Unit
Unit is the basis of measurement of a metric. Length : Metric Meter : Unit.

Defect

Defect vs Defective

Defect is within a unit

Duster length = 10.1cm

Defective is for a unit.

Defect Per Unit (DPU)

Shoe No. 1 2 3 4 Total = 4 No. of defects 2 1 3 0 Total = 6

Opportunities:Any measurable event that provides a chance of not meeting specification limits of a CTQ

DPMO : Defect per million opportunities = No. of defects x 106 No. of units x No. of opp.

DPU = Total no. of defects / Total no. of units = 6 / 4 = 1.5 defects per unit

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THE COST OF POOR QUALITY

Sigma level
2 3 4 5 6 66,807 6,210 (industry avg.) 233 3.4 (world class)

DPMO
308,537 (non-competitive)

COPQ
not applicable 25-40 % of sales 15-25% of sales 5-15% of sales < 1% of sales

Each sigma shift provides a 10 % net income improvement Source : Mikel J. Harry & Richard Schroeder in Six Sigma

Six Sigma as a Philosophy

Costs
Internal & External Failure Costs Prevention & Appraisal Costs

is a measure of how much variation exists in a process

Old Belief High Quality = High Cost

Old Belief 4

Quality
Internal & External Failure Costs Prevention & Appraisal Costs

New Belief High Quality = Low Cost

Costs

4 New Belief 5 6

Quality

3 Sigma Vs 6 Sigma
6 Sigma curve

The Objective Of Six Sigma

Off-Target Too Much Variation

LSL
3 Sigma curve

Defects

USL

LT

UT
Centered On-Target

LT

UT

Center Process

Reduce Spread

10

11 12 13

14

15

16

UT : Upper Tolerance LT : Lower Tolerance

LT

UT

In a 3 sigma process the values are widely spread along the center line, showing the higher variation of the process. Whereas in a 6 Sigma process, the values are closer to the center line showing less variation in the process.

Reduce Variation & Center Process : Customers feel the variation more than the mean

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Amount of process shift allowed

1.5 SD LSL SD = 1 1.5 SD USL

10

11 12 13

14

15

16

DMAIC

Y=
Y p Dependent Output Effect Symptom Monitor

f(X)
X1 . XN Independent p Input - Process Cause Problem Control

To get result, should we focus our behaviour on y or x ? DEFINE MEASURE ANALYSE IMPROVE CONTROL D M A I C

If we understand that X is the cause, why do we constantly test and inspect Y Y = f (Man, Machine , Method, Measurement, Material, Mother Nature)

1 Input1 input2

2 Input1 input2

1 Process Mapping 3 Input1 CTQ1 input2 CTQ2

Step1:Process mapping a) Form team using subject matter experts and process owners b) Define the current process steps and input (xs) c) Identify which process steps affect each CTQ d) Identify the characteristic of each process input
Step2: C&E Matrix (Cause & Effect Matrix) a) List the controllable and critical inputs vertically in the C&E matrix. b) List the CTQS horizontally c) Use the same team to corelate and weigh the impact of each input to each CTQ

Failure Mode Effect Analysis (FMEA)

Process Step/Input Potential Failure Mode Potential Failure Effects What is the impact on the Key Output Variables (Customer Requirements) or internal requirements? S E V How Severe is the s effect to the o O C C How often does ca ause or FM oc ccur? D R E P T N How well can you n

Potential Causes

Current Controls

2 C&E Matrix
(Cause & Effect)
Imp. Rating

What is the In what ways does process step/ the Key Input go Input under wrong? investigation? Step/Input

What causes the Key Input to go wrong?

3
CTQ1

5
CTQ 2 score

What are the existing controls and procedures (inspection and test) that prevent eith the cause or the Failure Mode? Should include an SOP number.

Input1 input2

3 3

4 5

29 34

Step3:FMEA a) List the key inputs which Rank high in the C&E matrix in the input column of FMEA, b) Work through FMEA with team

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1 Input1 input2

2 Input1 input2 3 FMEA

Potential Failure Effects What is the impact on the Key Output y Variables (Customer Requirements) or internal requirements? S E V How Severe is the t effect to the Potential Causes O C C How often does cause c or FM oc ccur?

1 Process Mapping 3 Input1 CTQ1 2 input2 CTQ2 C&E Matrix

(Cause & Effect)
D R E P T N How well can you n

The Funneling Effect

Process Maps

30+ Inputs 10 - 15 8 - 10 4-8 3-6

All Xs

Process Step/Input

Potential Failure Mode

Current Controls

Imp. Rating

3
CTQ1

5
CTQ 2 score

MEASURE
C&E Matrix FMEAs M lti V i Studies Multi-Vari St di Design of Experiments (DOE) 1st Hit List

What is the In what ways does y g process step/ the Key Input go Input under wrong? investigation? Step/Input

What causes the Key g g Input to go wrong?

What are the existing controls and procedures (inspection and test) that prevent eith the cause or the Failure Mode? Should include an SOP number.

Input1 input2

ANALYZE

Screened List

3 3

4 5

29 34
IMPROVE

Found Critical Xs

Step1:Process mapping a) Form team using subject matter experts and process owners b) Define the current process steps and input (xs) c) Identify which process steps affect each CTQ d) Identify the characteristic of each process input

Step2: C&E Matrix Step3:FMEA (Cause & Effect Matrix) a) List the key inputs which a) List the controllable and Rank high in the C&E critical inputs vertically in matrix in the input coulumn the C&E matrix. of FMEA, b) List the CTQS b) Work through FMEA with team horizontally c) Use the same team to corelate and weigh the impact of each input to each CTQ

CONTROL Control Plans

Controlling Critical Xs

Critical Input Variables

SIX SIGMA METHODOLOGIES : DMAIC

Process Improvement Tools

Measurement Analysis
Pareto Charts Histogram Scatter Diagram Run Chart FMEA t-test Test for equal variances ANOVA Chi-square 2-proportions Regression Project Charter Process Mapping Cause & Effect diagram Descriptive statistics

The 5 - step methodology

Guide posts
DI R E C TI O N

Define

Measures

Analyze

Improve

Control

What are the customers needs & key processes ?

What is the frequency of defects ?

When and where do defects occur ?

How can we fix the process ?

How can we ensure process remains fixed ?

Gage R & R Process Capability

Improvement
Historical DOE Full factorial DOE Fractional Factorial DOE

Control
Mistake proofing X-bar & R chart I & MR chart p - Chart c-chart

TOOLS Survey interviews inquiries process map Measurement sigma score cost of poor quality Statistical analysis pareto FMEA DOE SOP risk analysis action planning Error proofing process monitoring

Residual Analysis Solution design matrix Pilot

TRANS PORT

SIX SIGMA METHODOLOGIES : DMAIC

The 5 - step methodology

Guide posts Define Measures Analyze Improve Control

DI R E C TI O N

Initiate, scope, and plan the project

Understanding customer needs and specify CTQs

Develop design concepts and high level design

Develop detailed design and control / test plan

Test design and implement full - scale processes

TOOLS MGP Customers research QFD Benchmarking FMEA / error proofing Process simulation Design scorecards

TRANS PORT

Project management