Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Contents
• Notation
• Transformers
• Induction Machines
• Synchronous Machines
• Direct Current Machines
• Efficiency
• Temperature Rise
• Dielectric Dissipation Factor
Notation
The symbol font is used for some notation and formulae. If the Greek symbols for
alpha beta delta do not
appear here [ α β δ ] the symbol font needs to be installed for correct display of
notation and formulae.
S [volt-amps, VA]
B susceptance [siemens, S] voltamperes
s [per-unit]
E induced voltage [volts, V] slip
T [newton-metres,
f frequency [hertz, Hz] torque
V Nm]
G conductance [siemens, S] terminal voltage
X [volts, V]
I current [amps, A] reactance
Y [ohms, Ω]
j j-operator [1∠90°] admittance
Z [siemens, S]
k coefficient [number] impedance
m number of phases [number] δ loss angle [ohms, Ω]
N number of turns [number] Φ magnetic flux [degrees, °]
n rotational speed [revs/min] φ phase angle [webers, Wb]
P power [watts, W] η efficiency [degrees, °]
p pole pairs [number] temperature [per-unit]
θ [centigrade, °C]
R resistance [ohms, Ω] ω angular speed
[radians/sec]
Transformers
For an ideal two-winding transformer with primary voltage V1 applied across N1 primary
turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = N1 / N2
The primary current I1 and secondary current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 = V2 / V1
For an ideal step-down auto-transformer with primary voltage V1 applied across (N1 +
N2) primary turns and secondary voltage V2 appearing across N2 secondary turns:
V1 / V2 = (N1 + N2) / N2
The primary (input) current I1 and secondary (output) current I2 are related by:
I1 / I2 = N2 / (N1 + N2) = V2 / V1
Note that the winding current is I1 through the N1 section and (I2 - I1) through the N2
section.
For a single-phase transformer with rated primary voltage V1, rated primary current I1,
rated secondary voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the voltampere rating S is:
S = V1I1 = V2I2
For a balanced m-phase transformer with rated primary phase voltage V1, rated primary
current I1, rated secondary phase voltage V2 and rated secondary current I2, the
voltampere rating S is:
S = mV1I1 = mV2I2
The primary circuit impedance Z1 referred to the secondary circuit for an ideal
transformer with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z12 = Z1(N2 / N1)2
The secondary circuit impedance Z2 referred to the primary circuit for an ideal
transformer with N1 primary turns and N2 secondary turns is:
Z21 = Z2(N1 / N2)2
The voltage regulation ∆V2 of a transformer is the rise in secondary voltage which
occurs when rated load is disconnected from the secondary with rated voltage applied
to the primary. For a transformer with a secondary voltage E2 unloaded and V2 at rated
load, the per-unit voltage regulation ∆V2pu is:
∆V2pu = (E2 - V2) / V2
Note that the per-unit base voltage is usually V2 and not E2.
Open Circuit Test
If a transformer with its secondary open-circuited is energised at rated primary voltage,
then the input power Poc represents the core loss (iron loss PFe) of the transformer:
Poc = PFe
The per-phase star values of the shunt magnetising admittance Ym, conductance Gm
and susceptance Bm of an m-phase transformer are calculated from the open-circuit test
results for the per-phase primary voltage V1oc, per-phase primary current I1oc and input
power Poc using:
Ym = I1oc / V1oc
Gm = mV1oc2 / Poc
Bm = (Ym2 - Gm2)½
Short Circuit Test
If a transformer with its secondary short-circuited is energised at a reduced primary
voltage which causes rated secondary current to flow through the short-circuit, then the
input power Psc represents the load loss (primary copper loss P1Cu, secondary copper
loss P2Cu and stray loss Pstray) of the transformer:
Psc = P1Cu + P2Cu + Pstray
Note that the temperature rise should be allowed to stabilise because conductor
resistance varies with temperature.
If the resistance of each winding is determined by winding resistance tests immediately
after the short circuit test, then the load loss of an m-phase transformer may be split into
primary copper loss P1Cu, secondary copper loss P2Cu and stray loss Pstray:
P1Cu = mI1sc2R1star
P2Cu = mI2sc2R2star
Pstray = Psc - P1Cu - P2Cu
If the stray loss is neglected, the per-phase star values referred to the primary of the
total series impedance Zs1, resistance Rs1 and reactance Xs1 of an m-phase transformer
are calculated from the short-circuit test results for the per-phase primary voltage V1sc,
per-phase primary current I1sc and input power Psc using:
Zs1 = V1sc / I1sc = Z1 + Z2(N12 / N22)
Rs1 = Psc / mI1sc2 = R1 + R2(N12 / N22)
Xs1 = (Zs12 - Rs12)½ = X1 + X2(N12 / N22)
where Z1, R1 and X1 are primary values and Z2, R2 and X2 are secondary values
Winding Resistance Test
The resistance of each winding is measured using a small direct current to avoid
thermal and inductive effects. If a voltage Vdc causes current Idc to flow, then the
resistance R is:
R = Vdc / Idc
If the winding under test is a fully connected balanced star or delta and the resistance
measured between any two phases is Rtest, then the equivalent winding resistances Rstar
or Rdelta are:
Rstar = Rtest / 2
Rdelta = 3Rtest / 2
The per-phase star primary and secondary winding resistances R1star and R2star of an m-
phase transformer may be used to calculate the separate primary and secondary
copper losses P1Cu and P2Cu:
P1Cu = mI12R1star
P2Cu = mI22R2star
Note that if the primary and secondary copper losses are equal, then the primary and
secondary resistances R1star and R2star are related by:
R1star / R2star = I22 / I12 = N12 / N22
The primary and secondary winding resistances R1 and R2 may also be used to check
the effect of stray loss on the total series resistance referred to the primary, Rs1,
calculated from the short circuit test results:
Rs1 = R1 + R2(N12 / N22)
Induction Machines
The synchronous rotational speed ns and synchronous angular speed ω s of a machine
with p pole pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
ns = 60fs / p
ω s = 2πfs / p = 2πns / 60
The per-unit slip s of an induction machine of synchronous rotational speed ns running
at rotational speed nm is:
s = (ns - nm) / ns
Rearranging for rotational speed nm:
nm = (1 - s)ns
Using angular speed ω instead of rotational speed n:
ω m = (1 - s)ω s
The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:
TM = PM / ω m = 60PM / 2πnm
For an induction machine with Ns stator turns and Nr rotor turns running at slip s on a
supply of voltage Es and frequency fs, the rotor induced voltage and frequency Er and fr
are:
Er = sEsNr / Ns
fr = sfs
For a rotor current Ir, the equivalent stator current Irs is:
Irs = IrNr / Ns
Note that the rotor / stator ratios are Ns / Nr for current, sNr / Ns for voltage and s for
frequency.
For an induction machine with rotor resistance Rr and locked rotor leakage reactance
Xr, the rotor impedance Zr at slip s is:
Zr = Rr + jsXr
The stator circuit equivalent impedance Zrf for a rotor / stator frequency ratio s is:
Zrf = Rrs / s + jXrs
For an induction motor with synchronous angular speed ω s running at angular speed ω m
and slip s, the airgap transfer power Pt, rotor copper loss Pr and gross output power Pm
for a gross output torque Tm are related by:
Pt = ω sTm = Pr / s = Pm / (1 - s)
Pr = sPt = sPm / (1 - s)
Pm = ω mTm = (1 - s)Pt
The power ratios are:
Pt : Pr : Pm = 1 : s : (1 - s)
The gross motor efficiency η m (neglecting stator and mechanical losses) is:
η m = Pm / Pt = 1 - s
An induction machine can be operated as a generator, a motor or a brake:
- for negative slip (speed above synchronous) the machine is a generator,
- for positive slip between 0 and 1 (speed below synchronous) the machine is a motor,
- for positive slip greater than 1 (speed negative) the machine is a brake,
In all cases the magnetizing current (at lagging power factor) is provided by the supply
system.
No Load Test
If an induction machine with its rotor unloaded is energised at rated voltage, then the
input power represents the sum of the iron loss and mechanical loss of the machine.
Locked Rotor Test
If an induction machine with its rotor locked is energised at a reduced voltage which
causes rated current input, then the input power represents the sum of the full load
copper loss and stray loss of the machine.
Stator Resistance Test
The resistance of the stator winding is measured using a small direct current.
Synchronous Machines
The synchronous rotational speed ns and synchronous angular speed ω s of a machine
with p pole pairs running on a supply of frequency fs are:
ns = 60fs / p
ω s = 2πfs / p
The output power Pm for a load torque Tm is:
Pm = ω sTm
The rated load torque TM for a rated output power PM is:
TM = PM / ω s = PMp / 2πfs = 60PM / 2πns
Synchronous Generator
For a synchronous generator with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and
synchronous impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Es - IsZs = Es - Is(Rs + jXs)
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
Synchronous Motor
For a synchronous motor with stator induced voltage Es, stator current Is and
synchronous impedance Zs, the terminal voltage V is:
V = Es + IsZs = Es + Is(Rs + jXs)
where Rs is the stator resistance and Xs is the synchronous reactance
Note that the field excitation of a parallelled synchronous machine determines its power
factor:
- an under-excited machine operates with a leading power factor,
- an over-excited machine operates with a lagging power factor.
The field excitation of an isolated synchronous generator determines its output voltage.
Efficiency
The per-unit efficiency η of an electrical machine with input power Pin, output power Pout
and power loss Ploss is:
η = Pout / Pin = Pout / (Pout + Ploss) = (Pin - Ploss) / Pin
Rearranging the efficiency equations:
Pin = Pout + Ploss = Pout / η = Ploss / (1 - η)
Pout = Pin - Ploss = ηPin = ηPloss / (1 - η)
Ploss = Pin - Pout = (1 - η)Pin = (1 - η)Pout / η
For an electrical machine with output power Pout (proportional to current) and power loss
Ploss comprising a fixed loss Pfix (independent of current) plus a variable loss Pvar
(proportional to square of current) the efficiency is a maximum when Pvar is equal to Pfix.
For a transformer, Pfix is the iron loss and Pvar is the copper loss plus the stray loss.
For an induction machine, Pfix is the iron loss plus the mechanical loss and Pvar is the
copper loss plus the stray loss.
Energy Conversion
Comparing megawatt-hours and gigajoules, 1 MWh is equivalent to 3.6 GJ. For an
energy conversion process with a per-unit efficiency η, 1 MWh of energy output is
obtained from (3.6 / η) GJ of energy input.
Temperature Rise
The resistance of copper and aluminium windings increases with temperature, and the
relationship is quite linear over the normal range of operating temperatures. For a linear
relationship, if the winding resistance is R1 at temperature θ 1 and R2 at temperature θ 2,
then:
R1 / (θ 1 - θ 0) = R2 / (θ 2 - θ 0) = (R2 - R1) / (θ 2 - θ 1)
where θ 0 is the extrapolated temperature for zero resistance.
The ratio of resistances R2 and R1 is:
R2 / R1 = (θ 2 - θ 0) / (θ 1 - θ 0)
The average temperature rise ∆θ of a winding under load may be estimated from
measured values of the cold winding resistance R1 at temperature θ 1 (usually ambient
temperature) and the hot winding resistance R2 at temperature θ 2, using:
∆θ = θ 2 - θ 1 = (θ 1 - θ 0) (R2 - R1) / R1
Rearranging for per-unit change in resistance ∆Rpu relative to R1:
∆Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = (θ 2 - θ 1) / (θ 1 - θ 0) = ∆θ / (θ 1 - θ 0)
Note that the resistance values are measured using a small direct current to avoid
thermal and inductive effects.
Copper Windings
The value of θ 0 for copper is - 234.5 °C, so that:
∆θ = θ 2 - θ 1 = (θ 1 + 234.5) (R2 - R1) / R1
If θ 1 is 20 °C and ∆θ is 1 degC:
∆Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = ∆θ / (θ 1 - θ 0) = 1 / 254.5 = 0.00393
The temperature coefficient of resistance of copper at 20 °C is 0.00393 per degC.
Aluminium Windings
The value of θ 0 for aluminium is - 228 °C, so that:
∆θ = θ 2 - θ 1 = (θ 1 + 228) (R2 - R1) / R1
If θ 1 is 20 °C and ∆θ is 1 degC:
∆Rpu = (R2 - R1) / R1 = ∆θ / (θ 1 - θ 0) = 1 / 248 = 0.00403
The temperature coefficient of resistance of aluminium at 20 °C is 0.00403 per degC.
Note that aluminium has 61% of the conductivity and 30% of the density of copper,
therefore for the same conductance (and same resistance) an aluminium conductor has
164% of the cross-sectional area, 128% of the diameter and 49% of the mass of a
copper conductor.