AP LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION EXAM PREPARATION RESOURCES

AP Rhetoric and Writing Resources Rhetoric is the study of effective thinking, writing, and speaking strategies; rhetoricians analyze and evaluate what works and what does not work in a specific context. Composition and rhetoric study writing contexts, how texts are created, how texts interact, and what features make up an effective written text. To be effective, a text must be developed and organized with a clear context and purpose in mind. What is rhetoric? Rhetoric is the study of effective speaking and writing. And the art of persuasion. And many other things. In its long and vigorous history rhetoric has enjoyed many definitions, accommodated differing purposes, and varied widely in what it included. And yet, for most of its history it has maintained its fundamental character as a discipline for training students 1) to perceive how language is at work orally and in writing, and 2) to become proficient in applying the resources of language in their own speaking and writing. Discerning how language is working in others' or one's own writing and speaking, one must (artificially) divide form and content, what is being said and how this is said. Because rhetoric examines so attentively the how of language, the methods and means of communication, it has sometimes been discounted as something only concerned with style or appearances, and not with the quality or content of communication. For many (such as Plato) rhetoric deals with the superficial at best, the deceptive at worst ("mere rhetoric"), when one might better attend to matters of substance, truth, or reason as attempted in dialectic or philosophy or religion. Rhetoric has sometimes lived down to its critics, but as set forth from antiquity, rhetoric was a comprehensive art just as much concerned with what one could say as how one might say it. Indeed, a basic premise for rhetoric is the indivisibility of means from meaning; how one says something conveys meaning as much as what one says. Rhetoric studies the effectiveness of language comprehensively, including its emotional impact (see pathos), as much as its propositional content ( see logos). To see how language and thought worked together, however, it has first been necessary to artificially divide content and form. Content/ Form Rhetoric requires understanding a fundamental division between what is communicated through language and how this is communicated.

Aristotle phrased this as the difference between logos (the logical content of a speech) and lexis (the style and delivery of a speech). Roman authors such as Quintilian would make the same distinction by dividing consideration of things or substance, res, from consideration of verbal expression, verba.

Rhetorical Strategies/Devices Elements creators of text use to put forth their arguments Themes: Linking devices that hold a text together structurally, e.g. the battle between good and evil: the general idea or insight about life a writer wishes to express. All of the elements of literary terms contribute to theme. A simple theme can often be stated in a single sentence. Repetition of certain words: Why, with all the words at his or her disposal, does a writer choose to repeat particular words? Counterpoints: Contrasting ideas such as black/white, darkness/light, good/bad. Imagery: language that evokes one or all of the five senses: seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, touching. Metaphor and symbolism: Non-literal, imaginative substitutions in which, for instance, a tree becomes a metaphor for family, or springtime symbolizes rebirth. Characterization: The method used by a writer to develop a character. The method includes (1) showing the character's appearance, (2) displaying the character's actions, (3) revealing the character's thoughts, (4) letting the character speak, and (5) getting the reactions of others. Plot development: Linear or fragmented, chronological or driven by a theme or some other unifying device. Introduction and conclusion: Framing strategies. Narrator: Usually first or third person. Is the narrator the same as the author? Style, tone, voice: Gut reactions are useful here. Examine your own responses. What is it that makes you respond as you do? Are you the authors intended audience? If not, who is? The attitude a writer takes towards a subject or character: serious, humorous, sarcastic, ironic, satirical, tongue-in-cheek, solemn, objective. Analogy: The comparison of two pairs that have the same relationship. The key is to ascertain the relationship between the first so you can choose the correct second pair. Part to whole, opposites, results of are types of relationships you should find. Example: shells were to ancient culture as dollar bills are to modern culture OR shells: ancient culture :: dollar bills: modern culture Flashback: Action that interrupts to show an event that happened at an earlier time which is necessary to better understanding. Foreshadowing: The use of hints or clues to suggest what will happen later in literature.

Hyperbole: Exaggeration or overstatement. Example: Ive told you a million times not to exaggerate. Personification: giving human qualities to animals or objects. Example: a smiling moon, a jovial sun Allusion: A reference to something real or fictional, to someone, some event, or something in the Bible, history, literature, or any phase of culture. Example: The author alludes to Helen of Troy when discussing women who bring about ruin. Irony: An expression, often humorous or sarcastic, that exposes perversity or absurdity. For example, the fact that only teams from the U. S. and Canada play in the World Series is ironic. Oxymoron: A contradiction in terms, such as faithless devotion, searing cold, deafening silence, virtual reality, act naturally, peacekeeper missile, or larger half. Paradox: Reveals a kind of truth which at first seems contradictory. Example: Red wine is paradoxically good and bad for us. Symbolism: is using an object or action that means something more than its literal meaning. *The practice of representing things by means of symbols or of attributing symbolic meanings or significance to objects, events, or relationships. *A system of symbols or representations. *A symbolic meaning or representation. Example: the bird of night (owl is a symbol of death) Parody: A humorous exaggerated imitation, or travesty. The film, Airplane! is a parody of 1970s era disaster films. Austin Powers films parody James Bond-type spy films. Kung Fu Hustle - a movie by Steven Chow parodying Chinese wuxia films, as well as gangster films in general. Some examples of parody in classic literature include "MacFlecknoe," by John Dryden ,A Tale of a Tub by Jonathan Swift, The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope, Namby Pamby by Henry Carey, and Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift.

Sarcasm: A cutting, often ironic remark intended to wound.

A form of wit that is marked by the use of sarcastic language and is intended to make its victim the butt of contempt or ridicule. Satire: literary tone used to ridicule or make fun of human vice or weakness, often with the intent of correcting, or changing, the subject of the satiric attack. One of the most interesting features of satire is that it is almost universally believed to be a persuasive writing form. In actuality, it appears that most written satire actually fools most of its readers, so that, far from being persuasive, it is often not even understood. Aristotelian Appeals Logos Appeals to the head using logic, numbers, explanations, and facts. Through Logos, a writer aims at a person's intellect. The idea is that if you are logical, you will understand. Ethos Appeals to the conscience, ethics, morals, standards, values, principles. Pathos Appeals to the heart, emotions, sympathy, passions, sentimentality.

Persuasive Appeals Persuasion, according to Aristotle and the many authorities that would echo him, is brought about through three kinds of proof (pistis) or persuasive appeal: logos: The appeal to reason. pathos : The appeal to emotion. ethos : The persuasive appeal of one's character. Although they can be analyzed separately, these three appeals work together in combination toward persuasive ends. Aristotle calls these "artistic" or "intrinsic" proofsthose that could be found by means of the art of rhetoricin contrast to "nonartistic" or "extrinsic" proofs such as witnesses or contracts that are simply used by the speaker, not found through rhetoric. PERSUASIVE WORDS, LOGICAL FALLACIES, AND INTENT SIGNALS

Persuasive words How are words used so as to get you to go along with what the speaker intends, perhaps without him or her having to really make a full case? (These do not, by themselves, mean his or her ideas don't deserve assent!!) Anecdotes, Stories, Metaphors These cast an issue in a favorable or unfavorable light, or can highlight or suppress certain aspects. They work by suggesting a likeness between a character and the listener, or a situation and the listener's. What is emphasized or suppressed is key. Double-bind One way of getting a child to eat her vegetables is to offer a "choice" "Would you like peas or spinach?" Regardless of the alternative chosen, your desired objective is met. "Which kind of environmental bureaucracy do you want -- one that stifles business and innovation, or one that burdens American industry with impossible extra costs?" Contingency This works by getting you to accept both parts of a statement because of how they are linked; one part might be reasonable enough by itself, but. . . "Unless you want the earth to turn to a barren crust, you must oppose corporate capitalist pigs, tooth and nail."

Rapport How does the author go about building a sense of friendliness and receptivity on the part of the audience? Some methods are friendly introductions ("my friends"), complimenting, showing respect, speaking the speakers 'language,' and conveying optimism. These are important communicative techniques! Rapport is important. We just have to be aware of its use in persuasive contexts. Authority A speaker may claim in many ways to be an authority; sometimes external checking of this is called for. Humor Humor has a great way of defusing our critical faculties. Not that it's bad in itself; it should just raise a red flag lest we go too far down the garden path on which someone wants to lead us. Emotional words Advertisers are especially keen about the emotional qualities of certain words, and the sway they can give a speaker, just by their associations. Consider the possible power of: winner, loser, infantile, powerful, lovely, courage, freedom, radical. How are these kinds of words employed to generate a certain response in the listener? What purposes are served? Pacing

How do you move a listener along to your conclusion? Certain phrases help a speaker move us from one idea to another, regardless of whether strong connection or evidence has been established. Don't let phrases like these lull your assessment of the argument: "Naturally..."; "Certainly then..."; "Surely..."; "Without question..." Questions Jacobs points out 3 ways posing questions helps a persuader do her work. 1. A question can substitute for a request (recall the peas and spinach). 2. While a listener is searching for an answer, the speaker can give his own answer to the question. The listener is more likely to accept it than if it were given as an assertion. 3. A question can have a suggestion embedded in it. Sales people skillfully use questions to lead the listener and control the discussion. Absolutes We've all heard "never say never"; any totalizing statement is likely to result in a fallacy. But words like "don't" and "must" creep in and can give a writer's statements and indisputable air. Fallacies The genetic fallacy This is fallacy hinges on a confusion of causal explanation with rational justification. You may be able to explain how you came to hold a certain idea based on your past experience, such as upbringing, education, or many other factors. Thus, the causes of my belief that "2 is the square-root of 4" might include that I had to memorize this once. But this is not a justification of the belief; this would require instead that I furnish a mathematical proof (deductively valid set of inferences) to establish it. Reasoning that offers an explanation of the former sort in place of a justification of the latter sort commits the genetic fallacy. It is fallacious because the causes of someone's belief are not in general relevant to its truth or falsity. Rather, we should demand reasons. There are many forms of this fallacy. For example, some claim that because a belief in God is motivated by a need for a heavenly father to replace our mortal human parents. But even if this were true, it is logically irrelevant to the truth or falsity of the existence of God. Argumentum ad hominem This fallacy occurs when someone argues against a claim or position by attacking its holders in logically irrelevant ways. Even damaging and true accusations against the holder of a belief do not refute the belief! Often in environmental debate people think they can discredit a view by asserting that it is held by "wackos" or "corporate pigs" or "elitists." The point is not that name-calling is not nice; rather, who holds a belief is irrelevant to its truth. The error is not in criticizing someone on personal grounds, but in going from there to infer that some statement that this person believes is therefore false. One exception is when the very fact that a person (perhaps a supposed authority or authority) holds a belief has been offered as a reason to accept it. In that case information calling the reliability of the person into question would, if true, be relevant to the argument. Equivocation This fallacy turns on switching the meanings of words used in the course of an argument. Consider the argument with two premises: 1. Only man is rational.

2. No woman is a man. Conclusion: 3. No woman is rational. "Man" is used in 1. in the sense of the human species in comparison to others; in 2. it refers to one of the two human sexes; the argument equivocates or switches between them, causing an obviously false conclusion, even though it appears to logically follow. Carefully attend to the meanings of words in what you read!!! Once found, just substitute the ambiguous words with an unambiguous phrase and argument will be obviously invalid: 1. Only humans are rational. 2. No woman is male. 3. No woman is rational. This fallacy becomes harder to spot the more abstract are the terms in the argument. The black-or-white fallacy (or the either-or fallacy, or the fallacy of thinking in extremes) Some terms are vague in the sense that they may apply to a range of things that is not sharply defined. An area of permanent standing water is clearly a wetland; a dry mountain top clearly is not. But what about a field that is seasonally flooded? Where do you draw the line? No sharp one exists. For practical purposes we have to draw one, but any such line may be arbitrary in the sense that no conclusive reason can be given for drawing it exactly where we did. But if one argues that since an area is not a lake it is not a wetland - since it is not in one category, it must be in the other extreme - commits this fallacy. Often justifications are offered for this move, such as "it's just a matter of degree" and "any line you draw is arbitrary." But differences of degree as well as of kind do exist in the world, and some differences of degree are just as important as differences of kind. Jumping to a conclusion What's wrong with concluding something about all Western students on the basis of interviewing only 10? (It has to do with sampling.) Other variations have to do with generalizing to a wider set of claims that the evidence offered supports. Pesticide residues may be a cause of cancer, but they are probably not the cause. Straw opponent This common strategy occurs when instead of attacking one's opponent's actual beliefs, the speaker attacks a less defensible position that superficially resembles the position held by the opponent. Consider this argument:

Some environmentalists argue that the interests of nonhuman species should be given consideration in decisions about economic development. Every time there is an advance in industry, some animals may be harmed. But if we halt all economic growth and technological development, human beings will be forced to have far greater impacts on the environment that otherwise.

Clearly "halting all development" implies something quite different than does "given consideration." Begging the question

If an argument depends for one of its reasons or assumptions on a statement that is identical or equivalent to the conclusion drawn, it is "circular" or "question-begging."

The Forest Service is corrupt, for the clear reason that it is sold out.

Such arguments really go nowhere!! Note that a suppressed or presupposed assumption might also be the conclusion, making this fallacy less obvious! Loaded questions This fallacy occurs in a question that assumes the truth of one or more fallacies, but doesn't offer evidence to support them. The listener is asked or led into a situation where response implies agreement with these assumptions. "Is your company still evading enforcement actions by the EPA?" Misrepresentation of references Detecting this fallacy requires knowing the true context or statement on which an argument depends for support. If an author advocating ecosystem management acknowledged a need to reduce the population of some animal in order to attain a more balanced species composition, it would be wrong to pull out one statement she may have made and suggest she is in favor of unconstrained hunting. This fallacy also applies to the uses of statistics; always examine the full context; ask what has been omitted, what else might have happened that explains or refutes a connection that has been "proven" with statistics. Argument from ignorance There is insufficient evidence to establish that pesticide residues cause cancer; therefore they do not cause it.

Ignorance or lack of proof or evidence shows neither truth or falsity!! Post hoc ergo propter hoc This Latin phrase means "after this, therefore because of this," and it denote the logical fallacy in arguing that one thing caused another just because it happened before it. It is a special case of the general problem of inferring causation from correlation. One example is the observation of increased stork sightings and increased births in a town in Germany over a period of 20 some years. Was there a causal relation? No, both observations were the result of a third factor, probably increased population levels. Face value Rather than offering any reasons, a persuader may try to get us to accept what he says on the basis of force of personality, intimidation or bullying, or appeal to a supposed authority who actually is not an expert on the subject. None of these bases should convince us. Burden of proof Normally, we want to see a convincing degree of proof before we accept a new view as true. Those promoting that view have "the burden of proof." Shifting the burden of proof to another party is an important strategy. In the case of health effects of pollution, for example, the situation in the US has been that for anyone to seek redress for exposure to pollution, they must prove that it cased their health

problems. An alternative, advocated by some environmentalists, is that those proposing to undertake a polluting activity should have to first prove it is safe before being allowed to proceed. A problem arises because scientific knowledge is characterized not by absolute certainty, but by degrees of probability. Therefore the Precautionary Principle is favored by environmentalists: when the risks are great enough, the burden of proof should be with those proposing polluting or damaging activities. In other words, a cautious stance toward risk, and a concern for the magnitude of future damages, justify acceptance of a new idea (restraints on business as usual) despite lack of positive scientific proof. Showing probable harm is sufficient, in environmentalists' view, to err on the side of safety. Just when a claim that proof is available that an activity is safe is a difficult matter to judge. When shifting the burden of proof to (or from) environmentalists is likely to remain a very particular decision in every case. Ignoring the issue Many a political candidate can be observed responding to a question by talking about something she or he wanted to talk about instead. When irrelevant considerations are raised as a way of distracting attention from valid arguments on the other side, the result is hardly a valid response. Intent signals These are things to look for in persuasive language that reveal possibly self-serving motivations. For some purposes self-interest is fine. But too much of it, especially in the apparent pursuit of helping others, should cause us to question the integrity of the speaker. Whether the presence of any of these in writing is cause for rejection requires analysis; their presence should call up further examination. Us vs. Them Does the speaker see two "sides," with the other side being in some way inferior or denigrated? This happens all the time in environmental discourse, and often tends to cloud the real issues, and impede useful analysis. Many techniques of propaganda employ this technique: name calling, touting how great it is to "belong," using one-sided testimonials of famous people, simplifying issues for slogans, emphasizing being on the right side of the competition. Supremacy Although there is nothing wrong with asserting superiority, it can suggest a need that is stronger than the desire to give a sound argument. Absolute certainty Science doesn't provide it; scholarly research doesn't. Mathematics has it, but only within its self-defined deductive systems. When someone asserts they know something with absolute certainty, it can really only be based on self-evidence, faith, or mythology. Righteous indignation To quote Jacobs (1994, p. 74):

When someone is so full of guiltless virtue and vengeance because of "unjust treatment," his information is likely to be biased and inaccurate. Ultimately, this could hurt a worthy cause. Admittedly, what is truth and what is worthy are difficult things to know. But if this is not appreciated by a persuader, it could

indicate he has taken an easy path to his position. It shows he may not have carefully analyzed his assertions. It is not likely he has open-mindedly compared his ideas to other viewpoints. The listener should thus question his information. Affiliations Most groups demand some degree of allegiance of their members. Knowing the agenda of any groups with which a speaker affiliates herself is helpful. Some agendas are self-serving; some are more genuinely sincere. It's hard to know without finding out. These books were the source of ideas presented above: Jacobs, D. T. (1994). The bum's rush: The selling of environmental backlash. Boise, ID: Legendary. Thomas, S. N. (1977). Logical reasoning in natural language. Seattle: ASUW. TONE, STYLE AND SYNTAX I. II. A. TONE SHIFT: often a change or shift in tone will be signaled by the following: Key words (but, yet, nevertheless, however, although) Punctuation (dashes, periods, colons) Stanza and paragraph divisions Changes in line and stanza or sentence length. STYLE: when analyzing style, consider the following: Diction (word choice): describe diction by considering the following: 1. Words may be monosyllabic (one syllable in length) or polysyllabic (more than one syllable in length). The higher the ratio of polysyllabic words, the more difficult the content. Words may be mainly colloquial (slang), informal (conversational), formal (literary) or archaic (old fashioned). Words may be mainly concrete (specific) or abstract (general). Words may be euphonious (pleasant sounding), such as butterfly or cacophonous (harsh sounding), such as pus. Syntax (sentence structure): describe the syntax by considering the following: 1. Examine the sentence length. Are the sentences telegraphic (shorter than five words in length), medium (approximately 18 words in length) or long and involved (30 or more words). Does the sentence length fit the subject matter? What variety of sentence length is present? Examine the sentence patterns. Some elements to consider are:

2.

3. 4.

B.

2.

a. b. c. d. 3. a.

A declarative sentence makes a statement: The king is sick. An imperative sentence gives a command: Stand up. An interrogative sentence asks a question: Is the king sick? An exclamatory sentence makes an exclamation: The king is dead! Are sentences simple, compound, or complex? A simple sentence contains one subject and one verb: the singer bowed to her adoring audience. A compound sentence contains two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or) or by a semicolon: The singer bowed to the audience, but she sang no encores. A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses: You said that you would tell the truth. A compound-complex sentence contains two or more principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses: The singer bowed while the audience applauded, but she sang no encores.

b.

c.

d.

C.

A loose sentence makes complete sense if brought to a close before the actual ending: We reached Edmonton that morning after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences. A periodic sentence makes sense only when the end of the sentence is reached: That morning, after a turbulent flight and some exciting experiences, we reached Edmonton. In a balanced sentence, the phrases or clauses balance each other by virtue of their likeness or structure, meaning and/or length: He maketh me to lie down in green pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters. Natural order of a sentence: the sentence is structured so that the subject comes before the predicate: Oranges grow in California. Inverted order (sentence inversion) involves constructing a sentence so that the predicate comes before the subject: In California grow oranges. This is a device in which normal sentence patterns are reversed to create an emphatic or rhythmic effect. Split order of a sentence divides the predicate into two parts with the subject in the middle: In California oranges grow. Juxtaposition is a poetic and rhetorical device in which normally unassociated ideas, words, or phrases are placed next to one another, creating an effect of surprise and wit: The apparition of these faces in the crowd:/Petals on a wet, black bought (In a Station of the Metro by Ezra Pound). Parallel structure (parallelism) refers to a grammatical or structural similarity between sentences or parts of a sentence. It involves an arrangement of words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs so that elements of equal importance are equally developed and similarly phrased: He was walking, running, and jumping for joy. Repetition is a device in which words, sounds, and ideas are used more than once for the purpose of enhancing rhythm and creating emphasis: . . . government of the people, by the people for the people . . .

D.

E.

F.

G.

H.

I.

A rhetorical question is a question which expects no answer. It is used to draw attention to a point and is generally stronger than a direct statement: If Mr. Ferchoff is always fair, as you have said, why did he refuse to listen to Mrs. Baldwins arguments? Examine the following: 1. 2. 3. sentence beginnings and endings: is there a good variety or does a pattern emerge? the arrangement of ideas in a sentence. Are they set out in a specific way for a purpose? the arrangement of ideas is a paragraph: what is the structure?

J.

III. TREATMENT OF SUBJECT M ATTER: describe the authors treatment of the subject matter by considering the following: has the author been: A. B. C. 1. 2. 3. 4. IV. A. Subjective? Are conclusions based on opinions? Are they rather personal in nature? Objective? Are conclusions based on facts? Are they impersonal or scientific? Supportive of the main idea? If so, how does the author support claims? Does the writer: state opinions? report experience? report observations? refer to sources, such as statements by experts or statistical data?

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE: Simile: a comparison of two difference things or ideas using the words like or as: a specifically stated comparison, the writer saying one thing is like another: The warrior fought like a lion. A metaphor is a comparison without the use of like or as. The writer specifically states that one thing is another. It is usually a comparison between something that is real or concrete and something that is abstract: Life is but a dream Personification is a kind of metaphor which gives inanimate objects or abstract ideas human characteristics: The wind cried in the dark Hyperbole is a deliberate, extravagant, and often outrageous exaggeration. It may be used for either serious or comic effect: The shot that was heard round the world. Understatement (Meiosis) is the opposite of hyperbole. It is a kind of irony which deliberately represents something as much less than it really is: I could probably manage to survive on a salary of $2,000,000 per year. Paradox is a statement which contradicts itself. It may seem almost absurd. Although it may seem to be at odds with ordinary experience, it usually turns out to have a coherent meaning and reveals a truth which is normally hidden: The more you know, the more you know you dont know.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

Oxymoron is a form of paradox which combines a pair of contrary terms into a single expression. This combination usually serves the purpose of shocking the reader into awareness: sweet sorrow. A pun is a play on words which are identical or similar in sound but which have sharply diverse meanings. Puns may have serious as well as humorous uses when Mercutio is bleeding to death in Romeo and Juliet, he says to his friends, Ask for me tomorrow, and you shall find me a grave man. Irony is the result of a statement saying one thing while meaning the opposite. Its purpose is usually to criticize: Its simple to stop smoking. Ive done it many times. Sarcasm is a type of irony in which a person appears to be praising something while he is actually insulting the thing. Its purpose is to injure or hurt: My parents are really cool.

H.

I.

J.

WRITING A RHETORICAL ANALYSIS When you are asked to do a rhetorical analysis of a text, you are being asked to apply your critical reading skills to break down the whole of the text into the sum of its parts. You try to determine what the writer is trying to achieve, and what writing strategies he/she is using to try to achieve it. Reading critically means more than just being moved, affected, informed, influenced, and persuaded by a piece of writing. Reading critically also means analyzing and understanding how the work has achieved its effect. Below is a list of questions to ask yourself when you begin to analyze a piece of prose. These questions can be used even if youre being asked only to read the text rather than write a formal analysis. Keep in mind that you dont need to apply all of these questions to every text. This rather exhaustive list is simply one method for getting you started on reading (and then writing) more critically. QUESTIONS TO ASK YOURSELF WHEN PREPARING TO ANALYZE NON-FICTION 1. What is the general subject? Does the subject mean anything to you? Does it bring up any personal associations? Is the subject a controversial one? 2. What is the thesis (the overall main point)? How does the thesis interpret/comment on the subject? 3. What is the tone of the text? Do you react at an emotional level to the text? Does this reaction change at all throughout the text? 4. What is the writers purpose? To explain? To inform? To anger? Persuade? Amuse? Motivate? Sadden? Ridicule? Anger? Is there more than one purpose? Does the purpose shift at all throughout the text? 5. How does the writer develop his/her ideas? Narration? Description? Definition? Comparison? Analogy? Cause and Effect? Example? Why does the writer use these methods of development? 6. How does the writer arrange his/her ideas? What are the patterns of arrangement? Particular to general? Broad to specific? Spatial? Chronological? Alternating? Block? 7. Is the text unified and coherent? Are there adequate transitions? How do the transitions work? 8. What is the sentence structure like in the text? Does the writer use fragments or run-ons? Declarative? Imperative? Interrogative? Exclamatory? Are they simple? Compound? Complex? Compound-complex? Short? Long? Loose? Periodic? Balanced? Parallel? Are there any patterns in the sentence structure? Can you make any connections between the patterns and the writers purpose? 9. Does the writer use dialogue? Quotations? To what effect? 10. How does the writer use diction? Is it formal? Informal? Technical? Jargon? Slang? Is the language connotative? Denotative? Is the language emotionally evocative? Does the language change throughout the piece? How does the language contribute to the writers aim? 11. Is there anything unusual in the writers use of punctuation? What punctuation or other techniques of emphasis (italics, capitals, underlining, ellipses, parentheses) does the writer use? Is punctuation over- or under used? Which marks does the writer use when, and for what effects? Dashes to create a hasty

breathlessness? Semi-colons for balance or contrast? 12. Are important terms repeated throughout the text? Why? 13. Are there any particularly vivid images that stand out? What effect do these images have on the writers purpose? 14. Are devices of comparison used to convey or enhance meaning? Which tropessimiles, metaphors, personification, hyperbole, etc. does the writer use? When does he/she use them? Why? 15. Does the writer use devices of humour? Puns? Irony? Sarcasm? Understatement? Parody? Is the effect comic relief? Pleasure? Hysteria? Ridicule? AP EXAM FREE-RESPONSE ESSAYS: HELPFUL HINTS Dont present yourself as an immature writer AP readers see beyond handwriting to the larger issues of style and content, but handwriting can reflect problems. Is the handwriting so excessively large or small that it is difficult to decipher? Is the handwriting excessively florid? If you have poor, difficult to read handwriting, strive to be certain the writing is clear enough to read. AP readers must grade 20+ essays an hour and your handwriting may affect attentiveness. Dont make it difficult for the reader to see your thinking Brief, scant responses are the worse error you can make as the AP reader is left with no way to evaluate your ability. 2. Avoid those serious errors, which will mark you as an unprepared writer. A very serious error is repeated comma splices running two independent clauses together without a conjunction and with only a comma. (Run-on sentences omit the comma and present the same problem.) Another serious error is repeated occurrences of sentence fragments. Spelling errors are serious, but a few are acceptable; too many may cost you points. Spelling errors combined with a lack of sentence control are more apt to count against you. Errors of usage e.g., affect/effect affect how the readers evaluate your language competence. 3. Write sentences that are smooth, flowing, clear, sensible; avoid short, choppy sentences. Proofread to ensure that you have not omitted words that render sentences unclear or nonsensical. Proofread to make sure that your wording is not so confused, awkward, or ineffective that the reader cannot figure out what you are saying. Sentences which are sharp, precise, and clear but which at the same time show complexity characterize the best writing. Sentences whose structures enable you to express intricate, layered understandings effectively will mark you as a mature and capable writer. A fluent, clear style is a primary characteristic of higher-level writing. Use sentence variety to develop a more sophisticated style. 4. Pay attention to organization and content: THE MOST IMPORTANT ISSUES. Respond exactly to the question asked. The literature and questions are logical and focused. Your answer is in the question. Accept that guidance; interpret and illustrate the question Keep your focus clear throughout your essay; make certain the thoughts are in a logical sequence that is continually connected to the focus, thus yielding a unified essay. Use specific details both to offer commentary and interpretation about the literary piece and to support and illustrate your points. Explain through examples and comments on the details of the text. Plan to spend about five minutes brainstorming and structuring your response; then write from your outline or list of ideas. Think through your whole answer before you begin. 1.

Once you begin writing, try to maintain a continuous, logical, and focused flow. You may have new insights as you proceed, but try to connect continually where you began, where you are, and where you are going with your central idea.

KEY TERMS Allegorya narrative in which the characters, behavior, apd even the setting demonstrate multiple levels of meaning and significance. Often allegory is a universal symbol or personified abstraction, such as Cupid' portrayed as a chubby angel with a bow and arrows. Alliterationthe sequential repetition of a similar initial sound, usually applied to consonants, usually in closely proximate stressed syllables: For instance, "She sells sea shells by the sea shore." Allusiona literary, historical, religious, or mythological reference. For example, one might contrast the life and tribulations of Frederick Douglass to the trials of Job. Anaphorathe regular repetition of the same words or phrases at the beginning of successive ' phrases of dauses. The following is an example: 'To raise a happy, healthful, and. hopeful child, it it takes a family, it takes teachers; it takes clergy; it takes business people; takes community leaders; it takes those who protect our health and safety; it takes all of us" (Hillary Clinton, National Convention Address, 1996) Ant thesisthe juxtaposition of sharply contrasting ideas in balanced or parallel words, phrases grammatical structure, or ideas. For example, Alexander Pope reminds us that "To err is human, to forgive divine' Aphorisma concise statement designed to make a point or illustrate a commonly held belief. For example, "Spare the rod and spoil the child" is an aphorism. ' Apostrophean address or invocation to something inanimatesuch as when the slave Frederick Douglass exclaims as he looks upon the ships in the Chesapeake Bay: "I would pour out my Soul's complaint, in my rude way, with an apostrophe to the moving multitude of ships" Appeals to ... authority, emotion, or logicrhetorical arguments in which the speaker claims to be an authority or expert in a field, or attempts to play upon the emotions, or appeals to the use of reason. Classically trained rhetoricians identify these appeals with their Greek names: ethos is authority, logos is logic, and pathos is emotion. Assonancethe repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds, usually in successive or proximate words. The alliteration example also demonstrates assonance: "She sells sea shells by the sea shore.' Asyndetona syntactical structure in which conjunctions are omitted in a series, usually producing more rapid prose. For example: 'Veni, vidi, i4ci (I came, I saw,! conquered)," supposedly said by Julius Caesar. Attitudethe sense expressed by the tone of voice or the mood of a piece of writing; the author' toward his or her subject, characters, events, or theme. It might even be his 'or her feelings for the reader. AP English Exam essay prompts often require students to respond to some aspect of the attitude of the writer, speaker, or narrator. Begging the question- an argumentative ploy where the arguer sidesteps the question or the conflict, evades or ignores the real question.
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Canonthat which has been accepted as authentic, such as in canon law, or the "Canon according to the Theories of Einstein' Chiasmusa figure of speech and generally a syntactical structure wherein the order of the. terms in the first half of a parallel clause is reversed in the second. For example 'He thinks I am but a fool. A fool, perhaps I am' Claimin argumentation, an assertion of something as fact Colloquial- term identifying the diction of the common, ordinary folks, especially in a specific region or area. For instance, -most people expect Southerners to use the colloquial expression, gall" to engage the attention of a group of people. In some parts of the United States, a Coke is a product of the Coca-Cola Company. In some parts of the country, coke means any type of carbonated beverage. Other people refer to Coke as "pop" or "soda pop." These are all colloquial terms for the drink. Comparison and contrasta mode of discourse in which two or more things are compared, contrasted, or both. On the 1993 English Language exam, students were asked to contrast two marriage proposals taken from literature, analyzed for the use the narrators made of rhetorical devices and their argumentative success. Conceita comparison of two unlikely things that is drawn out within a piece of literature, in particular an extended metaphor within a poem. However, conceits can also be used in non-fiction and prose. For instance, Richard Selzer's passage 'The Knife" compares the preparation and actions of surgery to preparing for and conducting a religious service or a sacred ritual. Connotationthe implied, suggested, or underlying meaning of a word or phrase. It is opposite of denotation which is the "dictionary definition" of the word. Consonance-4he repetition of two or more consonants with a change in the intervening vowels, such as pitter-patter, splish-splash, and click-clack. Conventionan accepted manner, model, or tradition. For instance, Aristotle's conventions of tragedy. Critiquean assessment or analysis of something,'such as a passage of writing, for the purpose of determining what it is, what its limitations are, and how it conforms to the standard of the genre. Deductive reasoning (deduction)the method of argument in which specific statements and conclusions are.drawn from general principals: movement from the general to the specific, in contrast to Inductive reasoning (induction). Dialectthe language and speech idiosyncrasies of a specific area, region, or group. For example, Minnesotans say "you betcha" when they agree with you. Southerners refer to the gathering of folks as Yall" Although dialect is most often found in fiction, sometimes it is evident in speeches from a different era or from a different culture. Dictionthe specific word choice an author uses to persuade or convey tone, purpose, or effect The 1982 English Language exam included Adlai Stevenson's famous "Cat Bill" veto addressed to the Illinois State Senate. Cats roaming without leashes were "feline delinquency," and irritated citizen reactions were referred to as "small game hunts by zealous citizens." On the AP exam you must relate how a writers diction, combined with syntax, figurative language; literary devices, etc,' all come together to become the authors style.

Didactic(from the Greek, meaning "good teaching") writing or speech is didactic when it has an instructive purpose or a lesson. It is often associated with a dry, pompous presentation, regardless of its innate value to the reader/listener. Some of Aesop's fables are didactic in that they maintain an underlying moral or social message. Elegy--a poem or prose work that laments, or meditates upon the death of, a person or persons. Sometimes an elegy will end with words of consolation. Many public elegies were presented in the aftermath of 9/11. Epistrophein rhetoric, the repetition of a phrase at the end of successive sentences. For example: "If women are healthy and educated, their families will flourish. If women are free from violence, their families will flourish. If women have a chance to work . their families will flourish." (Hillary Clinton, October 1, 1995)' Epitaphwriting in praise of a-dead person, most often inscribed upon a headstone. Ethosin rhetoric, the appeal of a text to the credibility and character of the speaker, writer, or narrator. (Who is this person saying what, and what makes him able to say so?) Eulogya speech or written passage in praise of a person; an oration in honor of a deceased person. Elegy laments; eulogy praises. Many eulogies were spoken in honor of the brave New York Fire Fighters who heroically lost their lives on 9/11. Euphemisman indirect, kinder, or less harsh or hurtful way of expressing unpleasant information. For instance, it is much nicer for a person who has just been given a pink slip to hear that she has been made redundant, rather than she has hereby been terminated. Expositionthe interpretation or analysis of a text Extended metaphora series of comparisons within a piece of writing. If they are consistently one concept this is also known as a conceit. Figurative language/Figure of speechfigurative (in contrast to literal) language has levels of meaning expressed through figures of speech such 8,personification, metaphor, hyperbole, irony, oxymoron, litote, and others. Flashback(also chronology the narration. known as retrospection) an earlier event is inserted into the normal

Genrea type or class of literature, such as epic, narrative, poetry, biography, history. Homilya sermon, but more contemporary uses include any serious talk, speech, or lecture on moral or spiritual Iife. John Donne was known for his homilies, among other things. Hyperboleoverstatement characterized by exaggerated language, usually to make a point or draw attention. If in a state of exhaustion you say "I'm really beat" that is hyperbole. Imagerybroadly defined, any sensory detail or evocation in a work; more narrowly, the use of figurative language to evoke a feeling to call to mind an idea, or to describe an object Basically, imagery involves any or all of the five senses. A writer generally uses imagery in conjunction with other figures of speech, such as simile and metaphor. "Her cheeks were rosy and so was my lovebursting with fragrance and softness' Here metaphor is U'sed,'with the images of rosy cheeks (the visual color) and the smell and feel of roses.

Inductive reasoning (induction)the method of, reasoning or argument in which general statements and conclusions are drawn from specific principals: movement from the specific to the general. In other words, a general supposition is made after investigating specific instances, a common logic used in scientific study. See Deductive reasoning. Inferencea conclusion or proposition arrived at by considering facts, observations, or some other specific data. It is through inferencelooking at the dues, learning the factsthat Sherlock Holmes was as able to solve the crimes. Irony (ironic)the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant The intended meaning Is often the opposite of what is stated, often suggesting light sarcasm. The most famous classical ironist is Jonathan Swift in his "Modest Proposal' Irony is used for many reasons, often to create poignancy or humor. There are three major types of irony:

Verbal ironywhat the author/narrator says is actually the opposite of what is meant Situational ironywhen events end up the opposite of what is expected. Dramatic ironyin drama and fiction, facts or situations are known to the reader or audience but
not to the characters. Isocolonparallel structure in which the parallel elements are similar not only in grammatical structure, but also in length. For example, the Biblical admonition, "Many are called, but few are chosen," is an isocolon. Jargonspecialized or technical language of a trade, profession, or similar group. The computer industry, for example, has introduced much jargon into our vocabulary, such as geek, crash, interface, down, delete, virus, and bug. Juxtapositionthe location of one thing adjacent ' to or juxtaposed with another to create an effect, reveal an attitude, or accomplish some other purpose. Litotea figure of speech that emphasizes its subject by conscious understatement, for instance, the understated "not bad" as a comment about something especially well done. George Orwell wrote, "Last week Isaw a woman flayed and you would hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse' Loose sentence(a term from syntax) a long sentence that starts with its main clause, which is followed by several dependent clauses and modifying phrases; for example, 'The child ran, frenzied and ignoring all hazards, as if being chased by demons' Metaphorone thing pictured as if it were something else, suggesting a likeness or analogy. Metaphor is an implicit comparison or identification of one thing with another, without the use of a verbal signal such as like- or as. Shakespeare's Romeo says, "It is the east and Juliet is the sun," directly comparing Juliet to the sun. Sometimes the term metaphor is used as a general term for any figure of speech. Metonymya figure of speech in which an attribute or commonly associated feature is used to name or designate something, as in "Buckingham Palace announced today.... Mode of discoursethe way in which information is presented in written or spoken form. The Greeks believed there were only four modes of discourse: narration, description, exposition (cause and effect, process analysis, comparison/contrast), and argumentation. Contemporary thought often includes other modes, such as personal observation and narrative reflection.

Mooda feeling or ambience resulting from the tone of a piece as well as the writer/narrator's attitude and point of view. It is a "feeling" that establishes the atmosphere in a work of literature or other discourse. Narrativea mode of discourse that tells a story 6f some sort and it is based on sequences of connected events, usually presented in a straightforward, chronological framework. Onomatopoeiaa word capturing or approximating the sound of what it describes; 'buzz' is a good example. The purpose of these words is to make a passage more effective for the reader or listener; for example, "Recta whacked the ball over the fence and took her time walking the bases' Oxymorona figure of speech that combines two apparently contradictory elements as in "wise fool," "baggy tights," or "deafening silence' Paradoxa statement that -seems contradictory but may probably be true. A popular paradox from the 196Ys was that war protesters would "fight for peace! Parallel structurethe use of similar forms in writing for nouns, verbs, phrases, or thoughts, for example, lane enjoys reading, writing, and skiing.' in prose, parallel, recurrent syntactical similarity where several parts of a sentence or several sentences are expressed alike to show that their ideas are equal in importance. A Tale of Two Cities opens with 'It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness. . . Pathosthat element in literature that stimulates pity or sorrow. In argument or persuasion it tends to the -evocation of pity from the reader/listener. Think of if as the 'poor starving children" approach to convincing you. Periodic sentencea long sentence in which the main clause is not completed until the end; for example, 'Looking as if she were being chased by demons, ignoring all hazards, the child ran" "The child, who looked as if she were being chased by demons, frenzied and ignoring all hazards, ran" Personificationtreating an abstraction or nonhuman object as if it were a person by endowing it with human features or qualities. William Wordsworth speaks of the stars 'Tossing their heads in I sprightly dance' Or, looking at a prose speech: "Once again the heart of America is heavy. The spirit of America weeps for a tragedy that denies the very meaning of our land" (Lyndon B. Johnson) Point of Viewthe relation in which a narrator/author stands to a subject of discourse. Point of view in nonfiction requires the reader to establish the historical perspective of what is being said. Prosethe ordinary form of written language without metrical structure.in contrast to verse and poetry. Realismattempting to describe nature and life without idealization and with attention to detail. Mark Twain is an author of this school. Thoreau, with his romantic outlook toward nature is not Rebuttal/refutationan argument technique wherein opposing arguments are anticipated and countered. Rhetoricthe art "of using words to persuade in writing or speaking. All types of writing may seek to persuade and rhetoricians study these genres for their persuasive qualities.

Rhetorical questiona question that is asked simply for the sake of stylistic effect and is not expected to be answered. Sarcasma form of verbal irony in which apparent praise is actually critical. Sarcasm can be light, and gently poke fun at something, or it can be harsh, caustic, and mean. Satirea literary work that holds up human failings to ridicule and censure. Jonathan Swift and George Orwell were 'masters of satire. Several years ago, the English Language exam included a satirical piece by columnist Ellen Goodman, 'Me Company Man," a satire attacking the strut : e for corporate survival by the little man. Arthur Miller exposed the same subject several decades ago in his tragic play, Death of a Salesman. Similea direct, explicit comparison .of one thing to another, usually using the words like or as to draw the connection. For instance, Charles Dickens wrote: 'There was a steamy mist in all the hollows, and it had roared in its forlornness up the hill likean evil spirit! Stylethe manner in which a writer combines and arranges words, shapes ideas, and utilizes syntax and structure. It is the .distinctive manner of expression that represents that author's typical writing style. This is often queried on the English Language test In particular, when two passages on the same topic are presented, you must, pay the most attention to their styles. Symbolismuse of a person, place, thing event, or pattern that figuratively represents or "stands for" something else. Often the thing or idea represented is more abstract or general than the symbol, which is concrete. Everyone recognizes the symbol of the Golden Arches representing McDonald's", restaurants. Synecdochea figure of speech in which a -part signifies the whole, such as "50 masts" representing 50 ships or "100 heed of steer had to be moved to their grazing land' Syntaxthe way words are put together to form phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is sentence structure and how it influences the way the reader receives a particular piece of writing. It is important in establishing the tone of a piece and the attitude of the author/narrator. See Loose sentence, Parallel structure, and Periodic sentence. Themethe central or dominant idea or focus of a work. The statement a passage makes about its subject Tonethe attitude the narrator/writer takes toward a subject and theme; the tenor of a piece of writing based on particular stylistic devices employed by the writer. Tone reflects the narrator/author's attitude. Voicethe acknowledged or unacknowledged source of the words of the story; the speaker's or narrator's particular "take" on an idea based on a particular passage and how all the elements of the style of the piece come together t6 express his or her feelings. Zeugmaa grammatically correct construction in which a word, usually a verb or adjective, is applied to two or more nouns without being repeated. Often used to comic effect (the thief took my wallet and the Fifth Avenue bus).