DONE, Bio-Medical Eng Physiology-2 in PDF

2012
[BIO-MEDICALENGINEERINGPHYSIOLOGY-2]
[BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING-PHYSIOLOGY2]
[TOPICS ARE :-> ENDO-CRINELOGY, SPINAL-CORD-PHYSIOLOGY, BRAINPHYSIOLOGY, NERVOUS-SYSTEM-PHYSIOLOGY, SLEEP-PHYSIOLOGY, E.E.G (ELECTRO-ENCEPHALO-GRAM) ] .
MOHAMMAD-SIKANDER-KHAN-LODHI, BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERINGGUIDE.INC BY SIKANDER-LODHI 6/21/2012
[BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING-PHYSIOLOGY-2]
(CLASS-1)-ENDOCRINELOGY:
1.
2.
3.
4.
ENDOCRINELOGY: Its the study of Gland's,there hormones and there physiological effect's on the human biologicalsystem; Hormone's: Its a chemical substance,which secreated by there gland's which produce's a physiological effect on the human body and its glands itself; Local-Hormone's: Those hormones produced there effects at the side of there secreation or near to its secreation there fore local hormones receptor are present near there site of secreation;(e.g) Acetylecholine(hormone); General-Hormones: These hormones produced there
effects on the hole human body, therefore these hormone's receptor's are present on all over the body;(e.g) Growthhormone's, this growth-hormones secreated by Anteriorpituitary gland;
5.
Target-tissue: Its a tissue which contain's,specific receptor's, for binding there specific-hormones ; ----------------------------
CHEMICAL-NATURE-OF-HORMONE:
There are 3-major classis of hormones, which classified chemically; (i-e)
[BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING-GUIDE.INC BY SIKANDER-LODHI ]
Page 2-OF-56 DATE:JUNE/21/2012
1. 2. 3.
Steroid's-hormone's; Amino-Acid Derivative's-hormone's; Proteine and peptied's hormone's;
1.
STEROID'S-HORMONE'S:
They are derived from Cholestrol; (e.g)

GLAND'S AND HORMONE'S
Testes-Gland[Testo-sterone-hormones];
Overy[(a)Esterogen,&(b)proestrogen)hormones]; 2).Amino-Acid-Derivative's-Hormone's: Mostely there are derived from Tyrosine; (e.g) T3,T4 "Throid-hormones"; (T4[thyroxine]) (T3[tri-iodo-thyronine]);
1. 2.
nor-epi-nephrine; epi-nephrine;
both of above them from "AdrenalMadula(gland)"; 3).PROTEINE and PEPTIED'S-
HORMONE'S:
They are amino-acid chain's(peptied's and poly[BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING-GUIDE.INC BY SIKANDER-LODHI ] Page 3-OF-56 DATE:JUNE/21/2012
peptied's); example:
GLAND'S and HORMONE'S:

1. 2.
3.
Anterior-pituitary-gland's[growth-hormone]; Posterior-pituitary-gland's[i).Anti-diuretichormone;(ii).Oxytosine-hormone]; Islet-of-langer-hans(pancreas)[(i).Insulinehormone; and (ii).Glucagon-hormone];
------------------------------(finished-here)----------------------
Activation Of Cell Function By Proteine Hormone: Mechanism-Of-Hormonal-ActionOn-The-Cell:
Hormone-production-cell(hormonesynthesis,stored and released) releasehormone(unactivated form) into blood ,in blood(its reach to its targeted-cell) , hormone(activated) as a 1st-messenger bind's with its recpetor which present at plasmamembrane of its targeted-cell then, its activated "Adenylate-cyclase-enzyme" then "Adenylatecyclase-enzyme" converted ATP to Cyclic-AMP(cAMP)[as a 2nd-messenger] , then it activated the "PROTEIN-KINASE(ENZYME)" then, this "protein-kinase" reacted protein(PROTEINKINASE(ENZYME)) with ATP then its gives
[BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERING-GUIDE.INC BY SIKANDER-LODHI ] Page 4-OF-56 DATE:JUNE/21/2012
"protein-phosphate-complex" + ADP then, This "protein-phosphate-complex" Activated the "Altered cell function" [action-indicated by hormone]; then cell performed all cell function: (i-e)
1. 2. 3. 4.
Enzyme regulation; secreation; protein synthesis; altered membrane permeability;
--------------------------------(FINISHED-HERE)-----------------------------------SATURDAY, APRIL 4, 2009
(class-2)-ENDOCRINELOGY:
ACTIVATION-OF-GENE'S-BY-STEROID-&-AMINO-ACIDHORMONE'S:
-->Hormone-production-cell(hormone=>synthesis,stored & released)-->Its release-Hormone(in unactivated form) to blood(as a 1th-messenger)--->in blood (hormone=>reach to its Target-cell)-->these hormones are steroid or amino-acid in nature-->there fore, these hormones eassiely penetrated into plasma-membrane & come's inside the cell--->Inside Cell-membrane, there is an Amino-Acid OR Steroid hormonal receptor(known as "Intera-Cellular-Receptor") are present --->When steroid or Amino-Acid Hormones bind with its "Intera-Cellular-receptor" ---->Its form a "Hormonal-receptor-complex"-->"hormonal-receptor-complex" bind with DNA-molecule--->then, DNA-molecules form "Proteinphosphate-complex" enzyme-molecule;--->"protein-phosphate-complex-enzyme" --->Activated "Alteredcell-function"; ---------(FINISHED-HERE)------------------------SATURDAY, APRIL 4, 2009
(class-3)-ENDOCRINELOGY
PITUITARY-GLAND:
--->Pituitary-gland=>is divided into 2-parts; a).Neuro-hypophysis(posterior-pituitary-gland); b).Adeno-hypophysis(Anterior-pituitary-gland);
a).NEURO-HYPO-PHYSIS(POSTERIOR-PITUITARY-GLAND):
1. ---->Superiorly to the "Pituitary-gland" there is a "hypo-thalamus" is located; 2. ---->"hypo-thalamus" contains neurons whose axon run & end at "Posterior-pituitary-gland"; 3. ---->There are 2-types of hormones are porduces in the cell body of Neuron's at "hypo-thalamus" & released by "posterior-pituitary-gland" to blood. i).Anti-diuretic-hormone(ADH), (or Vasopressin); (ii).Oxytocin;
i).Anti-diuretic-hormone(ADH), (or Vasopressin):

1. Its act on the Kidney it cause to suck the water from the Ureane; 2. It cause to contract the blood-vessel's;
ii).Oxytocin:
1. It Cause to contract the smooth-muscle;
b).Adeno-hypo-physis(Anterior-pituitary-gland): LOCATION:
1. Its located anterior with respect to "posterior-pituitary-gland";
ITS PHYSIOLOGY:
1. Its cause to produce there hormone's inside the cell in "Anterior-pituitary-gland";
2. when a stimulus come's from the hypothalamus to "Anterior-pituitary-gland" either "releasinghormone (RH)" OR "inhibitary-hormone(IH)" form; 3. Then,"Anterior-pituitary-gland" cause to secreated there hormonal-secreating to Blood-vessel's; --> There are following Hormones which secreated by "Anterior-pituitary-gland"; 1. Growth-hormone; 2. Adreno-corticotropin; 3. Thyroid-stimulating-hormone; 4. Folliclestimulating-hormone; 5.prolactin; 6. leutinizing-hormone; 1.
GROWTH-HORMONE:
--->It Causes growth in all most all cell of body; 2. ADRENO-CORTICOTROPIN: --->This "Adreno-corticotropin" activated the "Adrenal-cortex" which cause to secreate "Adrenocorticalhormones"; 3.
THYROID-STIMULATING-HORMONE:
--->It activated the thyroid-g land which cause to secreated T3 , T4-hormone, & Calcitonine; 4.
FOLLICLE-STIMULATING-HORMONE:
--->Its causing growth of follicles in the Ovary before Ovulation & promotes the formation of sperm in Testis; 5.
PROLACTIN: HORMONE:
--->It promotes developments of breasts & secreation of milk; 6. LAUTINIZING
__________(FINISHED-HERE)___________________________
SUNDAY, APRIL 5, 2009
(CLASS-4)ENDOCRINELOGY
ADRENAL-CORTEX:
(OR SUPERA-RENAL-GLAND):
--> The Adrenal-cortex secreated 2-major hormones; (i-e) 1. Cortisol ; 2. Aldosterone; 1.
CORTISOL:
---> The Cortisol is the Metabolic-hormone, which Cause to performed metabolism in the body; (a). CORTISOL-PERFORMED-CARBOHYDRATE-METABOLISM: 1. Its increased Gluconeogenesis, In which its converted amino-acid into glucose in liver; 2. Its increased the glucose-level in blood; 3.
Its decrease the utilization of cell;
(b).CORTISOL-PERFORMED-PROTEINE-METABOLISM:
1. It cause to increase the conversion of Amino-Acid into glucose, by "gluconeogenesis" in liver ; 2. Its cause to increase the "plasma-Amino-Acid" in blood , which then transported to the liver;
(c).CORTISOL-PERFORMED-METABOLISM-OF-FAT:
1.
Its Cause to Increase the "Utalization" of fat's;
2. ALDOSTERONE:
1. Its cause to decrease the (Na+) excreation by kidney;
2. Its cause to increase the (K+) excreation by kidney; 3. Its exchange (Na+) as (K+) by the kidney to expel (K+) out-side the body; ----------------------(FINISHED-HERE)----------------------------------------->MEDULLA-gland(its a inner-part of supera-renal gland)----RELEASED--->1.NOR-EPI-NEPHRINEhormone; OR, 2.EPI-NEPHRINE-hormone; --->Adernal-cortex(gland)-->(its the outer-coat of supera-renal gland); _________________________________________________
HORMONE-RECEPTOR'S-&-THERE-ACTIVATION'S:
1. The each "hormone-Recpitors" for there specific receptor's are located inside and on the cellmembrane of Target-cell; 2. The Steroid hormone contain there receptor in the cytoplasm; 3. The "Thyroid-hormone" contain there receptor on the nucleus;
-------------------(FINISHED-HERE)--------------------------------------
(CLASS-5)-ENDOCRINELOGY:
THYROID-GLAND:
1. Its present in neck below "Cricoid-cartilage"; 2. its contain's 2-lobe's; 3. its internal structure is Composed of folicles; 4. Between the folicles para-folloicles (C-cell)-cell's are present's; 5. A folicles is bounded by folicules cell's, and filled with thyro-globuline which is produced and secreated by follicular-cell; 6. Iodine is also, transported from blood to inside the thyroid-gland through folicle's cell's; 7. 1. then,Iodine combine with thyro-globuline which produced T3 and T4 harmones; THYROID-HORMONE'S: There are 2 types of Thyroid hormone's; (i-e) T3(Tri-iodo-thyronine);
2. T4(Thyroxine); (a).increase rate of chemical reaction in all cell's of the body; (b).increase metabolism; 1. Calcitonine: Its increases the (Ca+) Concentration in bone;
2. Its decreases the (Ca+) Concentration in blood;
___________(FINISHED-HERE)____
MONDAY, APRIL 6, 2009
(CLASS-1)-SPINAL-CORD-PHYSIOLOGY:
SPINAL-CORD-ANATOMY:
PROTECTION-AND-COVERING-OF-SPINALCORD:
1. 2. 3. 1.
There are 3-type's of protection; Bony (vertibral-canal); Meninge's; Fluid,(Cerebro-spinal-fluid[C.S.F]); BONY(VERTIBRAL-CANAL): Its the tunnel, In Vertibral-Columb through which "Spinal-Cord" goes down;
2.
MENINGES:
There are 3-type's of meninge's are present in spinal-cord, which are called as spinal-meninge's;
(i-e) 1.
2. 3.
Dura-mator(Outer-most)[Its consists of Dense, irregular connective Tissue ]; Arachnoid-mator(Middle-layer); Pia-Mator(Inner-most);
these are the Covering's of Spinal-Cord; 3. FLUID (CEREBRO-SPINAL-FLUID[C.S.F]):
"C.S.F" a Liquid present b\w the Arachnoid & piamator;

----------------(FINISHED HERE)----------------------------------- 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
EXTERNAL-ANATOMY-OF-SPINAL-CORD:
The external-dimension of spinal-cord are below; SHAPE(Cylindrical); LENGTH(42--to-->45 cm,in adult's); diameter(2--to--3 cm); START-From(MADULA); END'S -AT((1).Upper border of L2 in adult's; (2).Lower border of L3 in children);
{:.Those meninge's which are present in brain is called as "Crainalmeninge's"};{:.those meninge's which are present in spinal-cord is known as spinal-meninge's};
1.
2-ENLARGEMENTS:
In Spinal-cord there are 2-enlargements ; CERVICAL-ENLARGEMENT'S: The Cervical-EnLargement's is Start's from C4 and its end's at T1;
2.
LUMBER-ENLARGEMENT'S: The lumber-enlargement's from T9 to T12;

1.
CONUS-MEDULLARIS: Its a Conical-Termination of Spinal-Cord;
1.
FILUM-TRIMINALE: Its the extension of Pia-Mator, present below the ConusMedullaris; TWO-GROVE'S:
SPINAL-CORD have 2-grove's;

1. 2.
Anterior Median fissure; posterior Median Sulcus;
-----------(FINISHED-HERE)-----------------------------
(class-2)-spinal-cord-physiology
INTERNAL-ANATOMY-OF-SPINAL-CORD:
The cross-section of spinal-cord show's 2-Area's ;
1.
Grey-matter;
2.
White-matter;
1.
GREY-MATTER:
Its Consists of the Cell-bodie's of Neuron's,which present's in spinal-cord;
Its Composed of following Area's;

1.
The Grey-Commissure;
2.
Anterior-Grey-Horn;
3.
Posterior-Grey-Horn;
1. 2. 3. 1.
CENTRAL-CANAL: Its small in Dia-meter called as Central-Canal ; Its run's with the center of spinal-Cord; Its Contain C.S.F; WHITE-MATTER: This Area's Contain's Myelinated-Axon's of Neuronpresent in Spinal-Cord and in Brain known as Tract's ; White-Matter is divided into 3-region's by Gray-Matter in Spinal-cord;
2.
(i-e)
1. 2. 3.
Anterior(Ventrical)-White-Columb; Posterior(Dorsal)-White-Columb; Laterial-White-Columb;
These Columb's Contain's bundles of Axon's which are called as Tracte's ; There are 2-type's of Tracte's ;
1. 2.
Ascending(sensory)-Tracte; Descending(Motor)-Tracte;
These Tracte's join with the Controlled center in brain;
-----------------(FINISHED-HERE)---------------------------------
TUESDAY, APRIL 7, 2009
(Class-3)-SPINAL-CORD-PHYSIOLOGY:
SPINAL-CORD-PHYSIOLOGY:
The Spinal-cord has following function's; (i-e)

1.
Its form's a connection b/w the body and the brain;

2.
The neuron's present's in grey matter of spinal-cord combine and process InComming and out-going signal's;
3.
The neuron's in grey-matter of spinal-cord form thecentral part of reflex-arc ;
TRACT'S: There are 2-type's of tract's are present's in Spinal-cord; (i-e)

1.
Sensory-Tract's;
2.
Motor-Tract's; 1. THE SENSORY-TRACT'S: There are 2-major sensory-tract's in the body;

1. 2.
The Spino-Thalamic-Tract's; The Posterior-Columb-Tract's;
1.
THE SPINO-THALAMIC-TRACT'S:
Its Carries sensory Impulse's, from the body to the Brain for
1. 2. 3. 4.
Pain-Sensation; Temperature-Sensation; Crude-Tuch-Sensation; Deep-Pressure-Sensation;
2.THE POSTERIOR-COLUMB-TRACT'S:
Its Carries Sensory Impulse's for,
1.
Proprio-ception-Sensation(knowing of the movements of muscle's,tendon's and joint's);

2.
Discrimeated-tuch(Fine-Tuch, or , localized pin-point-tuch);

3.
Two-point Discrimeation;
4.
Light-Pressure[light-tuch];
5.
Vibration-Sensation; 2.MOTOR-TRACT'S: There are 2 Motor-tract's are present's;

1. 2.
Pyramiddle-Tract's; Extra-pyra-Middle-Tract's;
1.
PYRAMIDDLE-TRACT'S:
Its Contain's 3 Tract's ;

1.
CORTICO-BULBER-TRACT'S:
They Transmitted Motor-Impulses from Cerebral-Cortex to Crainal-nerve's; 2. CORTICO-SPINAL-TRACT'S: (a).Anterior-Cortico-spinal-tract's; (b).Lateral-Cortico-spinal-tract's;
These "Cortico-spinal-tract's" transmitted motor-order's from CORTEX toSpinalnerve's ; 2.EXTRA-PYRA-MIDDLE-TRACT'S:
1. 2. 3.
Rubro-Spinal-Tract's; Tecto-Spinal-Tract's; Vestibular-Spinal-Tract's;
There function's are

1. 2. 3.
Controlled of "Auto-matic-movement"; Controlling the Co-ordination and equilibrium; Controlling the "Muscle-Tone";
___________________(FINISHED-HERE)_______________________
REFLEXE'S: The Reflexe's is the fast,automatic responce's Occur's when a changed produced in the body environment's; ___________________
SPINAL-NERVE'S: Each Spinal-Nerve's consist's of 2-root's;

1.
Posterior(or-Dorsal[or-sensory])-root;
2.
Anterior(or-Ventrial[or-motor])-root;
1.
POSTERIOR(or-DORSAL[or-SENSORY])-ROOT:
(a).Its Contain's Axon's (sensory-nerve's-fibre's) of "Sensory-Neuron's"; (b).Its has a Sowilling near the Spinal-cord in which the cell-bodie's of"SensoryNeuron's (uni-polar-neuron)" are present's is called as "Posterior-rootGangolion" ; 2.ANTERIOR(or-VENTRIAL[or-MOTOR])-ROOT:
1. 2.
Its Contain, Axon's of "Motor-Neuron's" ; The "Cell-bodie's" of "Motor-Neuron's" are present's in the "Gray-Matter" of Spinal-Cord;
Motor-Neuron's has 2-type's;

1. 2.
Somatic-Motor-Neuron's; Auto-nomic-Motor-Neuron's;
1.
SOMATIC-MOTOR-NEURON'S:
(a).Its Supplie "Motor-Impule's" to the "Skeleton-Muscle's" ; (b).Its have there Cell-bodie's in "Anterior-Gray-Horn" in spinal-cord ; 2. AUTO-NOMIC-MOTOR-NEURON'S: (a).Its Supplie "Motor-Impule's" to "Smooth-Muscle's", Cardiac-Muscles & Glands; (b). Its have there Cell-bodie's in the "Lateral-Gray-Horn" in spinal-cord ; _______________________
REFLEX-ARC:
Its the Neuronal-circuit in which the SensoryImpule's, generated by the Receptor's , Triggere's a Motor-Responce by the effector'swithout the Involvement of Brain;
Its composed of 5-part;

(i-e)
1.
Receptor's;
2.
Sensory-Neuron's(uni-polar-neuron);
3.
Integrating-Center(or-Intermediated-or-Association)-Neuron;
4.
Motor-Neuron;
5.
Effector's (Muscle, or, Gland);

1.
RECEPTOR'S:
Its a dendrite's OR a "Specilized-Structure" which can sence anyChange in the Internaly OR Externaly Environment's then itsproduced ActionPotential;
2. SENSORY-NEURON'S:
Its Receive's a Stimulu's from its Receptor's and Transmitte's thisActionPotential to the Integrating-Neuron which present inside theSpinal-Cord; 3. INTEGRATING-CENTER (INTERMEDIATED-NEURON):
1.
Its a Neuron or a Group's of Neuron's which receive's a SensoryImpule's from the Sensory-Neuron's and Transmitted toward's MotorNeuron's;
2.
Its has also a Connection with brain which cause to Inhibit theTransmission of Impule' s toward's the Motor-Neuron;
4.MOTOR-NEURON'S: Its Receive's the Impule's from the Integrating-Center and Transmitte's this Impule's to the effector's Organ's; either gland or muscle;
5.EFFECTOR'S: Its can be of 2-type's;

1.
Skeleton-Muscle's (Somatic-Reflex);
2.
Gland's,Smooth-Muscle's,Cardiac-Muscle's(Autonomic-Reflex); __________(FINISHED-HERE)____________
(CLASS-4 )-SPINAL-CORD-PHYSIOLOGY:
PHYSIOLOGY-OF-STRETCHREFLEX:
1.
NEURAL-CIRCUIT:
Receptor to Sensory-Neuron to motor-neuron to effector.
2. TYPE:
1. Mono-Synaptic
Only 2-Neuron's are Involved
Sensory-Neuron;
2.
Motor-Neuron; 3. RECEPTOR'S:
Its a Specialized Structure, Called "Muscle-Spindle"; Its present at Muscle-Tendon-junction ;
4. PROCESS: When the "Muscle-spindle" Stretched, its produce's an Actionpotential which is Transmitted through the Sensory-Neuron to Posterior-Horn of Spinal-Cord Through which its makes a synape's with a Motor-Neuron present in the Anterior-Gray-Horn(for Somaticreflex) This "Motor-Neuron" is activated by the Impule's, from sensoryneuron and Transmitte's the Action-Potential to the Neuro-MuscularJunction of the Same-Muscle(skeleton-muscle), and Causes the Contraction in Responce's to the Stretch produced in Its MuscleSpindle, This is Called the Stretch-Reflex; example "Pataller-Reflex(Knee-Jerk)"; e.g
1. 2.
bysep-Jerk; trysep-Jerk;
MUSCLE-TONE:
Its that amount of Contraction present in Muscle when the muscle is at resting state ; This is the function of "Spindle-fiber"; _____________(finished-here)______________
TENDON-REFLEX:
1.
TYPE:
1.
Poly-Synaptic 3-Neuron's are Involved;
Sensory-Neuron;
2.
Integration(Inhibitatory)-Neuron;
3.
Motor-Neuron; 2. RECEPTOR'S: Its a Specilized Structure present in the Tendon near its Junction with Muscle Called "Golgi-Tendon-Organ's" ; 3. PROCESS:
When the Tension in the Muscle Increase then "Golgi-Tendon-Organ" is Activated, then, which cause to transmitte's the Action-Potential to Sensory-Neuron, then sensory-neuron enter the spinal-Cord through Posterior-Gray-Horn and Synapes with the "Integration(Inhibitatory)-Neuron" when this Inhibitatory-Neuron is Activated , its Inhibite's the MotorNeuron ( which Causing the increased Tension in muscle), so, in this way the tension in Muscle is Decreased; _________(finished-here)___________
FLEXOR(WITH-DRAWAL)REFLEX:
1.
TYPE: Poly-Synaptic;
1.
Sensory-Neuron;
2.
Inter-Neuron;
3.
Motor-Neuron; 2. RECEPTOR'S:
Its the "free-nerve's-ending "; 3. PROCESS: When ever a sharp or hot Object is touches to skin surface, then, its Stimulate's "free-Nerve's-ending" of sensory-neuron, this produce's an Impule's in the sensory-Neuron, then thisImpule's is transmitted to Inter-Neuron which produce's an Impule's in the motor-Neuron, which cause's Contraction of the "FlexorMuscle's" which move's the body away from the pain full object;
_____________(finished-here)___________
now Enjoy hahhaha all finished , so lets do some of body-bulding
___________(SPINAL-CORD-FINISHED-HERE)______
(CLASS-1)-HUMAIN-BRAIN-PHYSIOLOGY:
HUMAIN-BRAIN-PHYSIOLOGY: BRAIN:
----> Its the Organ where Sensory-I/P , there Integration & Motor-O/P are generated along with this the Intellectual function's are also performed;
Its has following part's ;
1.
FORE-BRAIN:
(a).Cerebrum-Cortex; (b).Thalamus; (c).Hypo-Thalamus; 2. MID-BRAIN: 3. HIND-BRAIN: (a).Pon's; (b).Cerebellum; (c).Medulla-Oblongata; ________________________
PROTECTION-&-COVERING:
1.
BONY-PROTECTION:
--->The Brain is enclosed inside the bony-skull; 2. COVERING: ---->There are 3-types of "Meninges" (Covering) are present in Brain Called as "Crainal-Meninge's"; (i-e) Dura-Matter(outer-most); Arachnoid-Matter(Middle-Most); 3. Pia-Matter(Inner-Most);
1.
2.
CEREBRO-SPINAL-FLUID(C.S.F):
----> Its the fluid present b/w Arachnoid & Pia Matter;
1.
QUANTIE'S:
--->Its 80 to 150 ml; 2. COLOUR: ---->Transparient; 3. CONTAIN'S: --->Its contain's glucose,protein,lacticAcid,urea,Cation's(Na+,K+,Ca+,Mg+), & Anion's(Cl-,HCO3-); 4. ITS PROVIDE'S: Mechanical-protection againsts shocket's; Chemical-protection's(for electrolyte's balence's);
1.
2.
_____________________
EMBRYOLOGICAL-DEVELOPEMENT-OF-BRAIN:
1.
1th-STAGE:
--->Neural-Tube(a single-tube); 2. 2th-STAGE: ---->Primary-Brain-Vessicle's; Prosen-cephalon(upper-projection); 2. Mesen-cephalon(middle-projection); 3. Rhomben-cephalon(lower-projection);

1.
3. 3th-STAGE: ---->Secondary-Brain Vessicle's;
1.
Prosen-cephalon(upper)--->(Telen-cephalon & Dien-cephalon); 2. Mesen-cephalon(middle)--->(Mesen-cephalon(middle)); 3. Rhomben-cephalon(lower)---->(Meten-cephalon & Myelencephalon); 4. FINAL-STAGE: ----->Final-structure;

1.
FORE-BRAIN(upper):
-->(a).Telen-cephalon--->Cerebrum-Cortex; --->(b).Dien-cephalon---->Thalamus & Hypo-Thalamus; 2. MID-BRAIN(middle): ---->(a).Mesen-cephalon---->Mid-brain; 3. HIND-BRAIN(lower): ---->(a).Meten-cephalon----->Pons & Cerebellum; ----->(b).Myelen-cephalon---->Medulla-Oblongata; ____________________
WEDNESDAY, APRIL 15, 2009
(class-2)-Brain-Physiology:
1.
MEDULLA-OBLONGATA:
3.
----->Its a part of "hind-brain"; 2. ---->Its Develop's from "Myelencephalon"; ---->Its Contain's all "Assciending & Decending" Tract's;
PYRAMID'S(MOTOR-TRACTS):
1.
---->On the Anterior-surface of "Medulla" there are 2-Bulge's are presents called as "PYRAMID'S"; 2. ----->"PYRAMID'S" are "Motor-tracts" which coming from "Cerebrum-Cortex";
DECUSSATION-OF-PYRAMID'S:
---->Just above the junction with "spinal-cord" these pyramid's(motor-tracts) cross-over each-other on the Opposite-site called as "DECUSSATION-OF-PYRAMID'S";
NUCLEUS (GRACILIS & CUNEATUS):
---->The posterior(dorsal) site of "Medulla" contain 2 pairs of nucli called as

1. 2.
NUCLEU'S GRACILIS (1-pair); NUCLEU'S CUNEATUS(1-pair);
These Nucli receive's the "Sensory-Nerve-fibres" from "PosteriorWhite-Columb" of spinal-cord & send Impules to the thalamus on opposite site (sensory-decosation);
MEDULLA ALSO CONTAIN'S 2-IMPORTANT CONTROL CENTER'S: THE CARDIO-VESCULAR-CENTER=>Its regulates rate & force of heart-beat & dia-meter of blood-Vesseles;
1.
2.
THE RESPIRATORY-CENTER=>Its control's the rate & depth of "respiration";
MEDULLA-CONTAIN'S-NUCLI-OF-FOLLOWING-CRANIALNERVE'S:
1.
VIII-(VESTIBULO-COCHLEAR)-NERVE'S; 2. IX-(GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL)-NERVE'S; 3. X-(VAGUS)-NERVE'S; 4. XI-(ACCESSORY)-NERVE'S; 5. XII-(HYPO-GLOSSAL)-NERVE'S;
OLIVE:
---->On the Lateral-surface of Madulla there are "Oval-Projection" called "OLIVE"; ----->OLIVE contain's nucli which connects medulla to Cerebellum by there tracts called "Inferial-Cerebellum-Peduncles (tracts)" ; ---->Through these tracts (Inferial-Cerebellum-Peduncles-[tracts]) cerebellum effect's the motor movements by increasing precegion & maintaing; ---->"Vestibular-Nuclear-Complex" present in Medulla also take's part in mataning equilibrium; __________________________

PONS:
TRACTS:
--->the tracts act as a bridge b/w brain & spinal-cord & other part's of brain;
PONS:
---->The pons means bridge, its developed from "Metencephalon"; ---->Its about (2.5 cm)-long; ---->Pons contain's
1.
Nucli(Bundle of Neuron[cell-body of more then 1 neuron]); 2. Tracts(Bundle-of-Axon's[nerve-fibre's]);
---->the Pons provides a Connection which form by 2-main Tracts; (i-e)

1.
THE TRANSFER-FIBRE'S(TRACTS)=>These fibre's are also called "Middle-Cerebellar-Peduncle's"; --->They Connected right & left lobe's of "Cerebellum";
2.
THE LONGITUDINAL-FIBRE'S(TRACTS)=> These fibre's are Asscending & desscending tracte's in Pons;
PONS-CONTAINS-NUCLI-OF-CRAINAL-NERVE'S:
---->The pons contains the nucli of following crainal-nerve's;

1.
V-(Trigemenal)-Nerve;
2.
VI-(Abducent)-Nerve;
3.
VII-(Facial)-Nerve;
4.
VIII-(Vestibular-branch-of-Vestibulor-Cochlear)-Nerve;
THE PONS HAS FOLLOWING CONTROLLED CENTER FOR RESPIRATION-PROCESSES:
1.
Pneumotaxic-Center;
2.
Apneustic-Center;
--->These center controlled respiration-processes; ______________________________
RETICULAR-FORMATION:
---->Its a Neural-Network(network of Neuron's) present through out the

1.
Spinal-Cord;
2.
Medulla-Oblongata;
3.
Pons;
4.
Mid-Brain;
5.
Cerebrum-Cortex;
--->Its has both sensory & motor function; --->Its receive's (motor)-input from Cortex & other higher center of brain & its send's sensory-signal to Cerebrum-Cortex;
1.
ASCENDING-RETICULAR-ACTIVATING-SYSTEM(ARAS): ---->"ARAS" is the part which provides sensory-I/P to "Cortex" ;
2.
----->"ARAS" is responsible for maintaing "Concineous-ness" & awaking from Sleep because its stimulated by Incomming Impules from ear,eye & skin;
(e-g)=>Alarm,light & touch cause to awake-us; ________________________

TUESDAY, APRIL 21, 2009
(Class-3)-BRAIN-PHYSIOLOGY:
1.
MID-BRAIN:
2.
Its known as "Mesencephalon"; Its extend's from "Pons" to "Diencephalon(Thalamus+HypoThalamus)";
MOTOR-TRACTS-OF-MID-BRAIN:
--->The Anterior-part of Mid-Brain contain fibres called "Cerebralpandulcas" these Pandulcas contain's "Motor-Nerve-fibre's (Motor-
tracts)" that Convey motor-impules from "Cerebral-Cortex" to "Pons";
SENSORY-TRACTS-OF-MID-BRAIN:
---->Mid-Brain contain sensory-tracts which carry sensory-impules from -->Spinal-cord---->madulla--->Pons---->Mid-Brain-->Diencephalon(Thalamus+Hypo-Thalamus);
CONNECTION-B/W-CEREBELLUM & MID-BRAIN:
---->Mid-Brain connects with Cerebellum through(via) "SUPERIORCEREBELLAR-PEDUNCLES";
TECTUM-(POSTERIOR-PART-OF-MID-BRAIN):
---->Tectum contain's 4-rounded elevation's called as "CorporaQuadri-Gemina";

1.
CORPORA-QUADRI-GEMINA: The upper-2-elevation's of "Tectum" are called as "SuperiorColliculi" these are the reflex-center's for the movements of eye's,head & neck in responce to Visual-stimuli;
2.
The lower-2-elevation's of "Tectum" are called "InferiorColliculiculi" they serves as the reflex-center for movement of head & trunk in responce to "Audiatory(ear)-Stimuli" ;
SUB-STANTIA-NIGRA(LARGE-DARKELY-PIGMENTEDNUCLI):
---->The "Mid-brain" contain on both side large darkely-pigmentednucli near "Cerebral-Peduncle's(Motor-tracts)" called as "SubStantia-Nigra" ; ----->"Sub-Stantia-Nigra" control "Sub-Consciou's" muscle activities;
RED-NUCLEUS:
---->The "Mid-Brain" contain's on its both left & right side the "REDNUCLEUS" (Its name because of its rich in blood supply & iron containing pigment's); ---->"RED-NUCLEUS" receives i/p from "Cerebral-Cortex" & "Cerebellum" & give o/p through "Rubro-Spinal-Tracts"; ---->The "RED-NUCLEUS" function with the "Basal-ganglia" & Cerebellum to Coordinate muscle movements (for-muscleCoordination);
MID-BRAIN CONTAIN NUCLI OF CRINAL-NERVES:
---->The "Mid-Brain" contain's nucli of following "Crinal-Nerve's"

1.
III-OCCULOMOTOR-NERVES;
2.
IV-TROCHLEAR-NERVES;
MEDIAL-LEMINIUCUS:
---->Its a structure which extend's through (Madulla,Pons & MidBrain ) ; ----> Its contain's nerve-fibre's that transmitted-impules for"discriminative-touch,proprioception,pressure & Vibration's"from Madulla through thalamus;
______________________________
DIENCEPHALON(THALAMUS+HYPO-THALAMUS): --->Its develope from "Prosencephalon" ; ---->Its consists of Thalamus; Hypo-Thalamus;

1.
2. 1.
THALAMUS: --->Its an Oval-structure;--->Its locates above the Mid-Brain & Hypo-Thalamus ; --->The Thalamus is the mainstation b/w cortex & lower part of "Centeral-NervousSystem(C.N.S)" for sensory & motor Impule's;---->Its contain's Nucli & Tracts;--->Its has following nucli are as followed ->(i).Medial-Geni-Culate-Nucli=>hearing-sensation transfer in the "Cerebrum(Cerebral)-Cortex"; --->(ii).Lateral-Geni-CulateNucli=>Vission-sensation transmitted to "Cerebrum(Cerebral)Cortex"; --->(iii).Ventrial-Posterior-Nucli=>Tast & Somaticsensation transmitted in "Cerebrum(Cerebral)-Cortex"-->(i-e)->Somatic-sensation->Touch,pressure,Vibration,heat,cold,Pain; --->(iv).Ventriallateral-Nucli---->(v).Plus(+)-Ventrial-Anterial-Nucli=> They Contain synapes for Somatic-Motor-Nervous-system; --->(vi).Anterior-Nucleus=> Its take part in memory & emonation's;
2.
HYPO-THALAMUS:--->Its a part of "Diencephalon" & its located below the Thalamus,
---->Its has 4-major region's, (i-e)

1.
2.
THE MAMMILLARY-REGION: =>Its the most posterior-part of "Hypo-thalamus" & its present just in front of "Mid-Brain" , its Contain's (a). The-Mammillary-Bodie's: --->These bodies are the relay(delay)-station's for the "sence-of-smell" ; (b). Theposterior-hypo-thalamus-nucleus; THE-TUBERAL-REGION: =>Its the middle & widest part of Hypo-Thalamus;--->Its contain's the following nucli-->(a).the Dorso-medial-Nucli;-->(b).Ventro-Medial-Nucli;-->(c).Arcuate-Nucli; --->following structure are also present->(d).Tuber-cinereum;--->(e).Infundebulum=>Its a structure which connects the Pituitary-gland to hypo-thalamus;--->(f).Median-Amine's-neuron:=>Its contain neuron that synthesis "Hypo-thalamic-regulatory-hormones";
MONDAY, JUNE 15, 2009
(class-4)-Brain-Physiology-(hypothalamus contineou) 3. SUPRA-OPTIC-REGION:- Its present above the Optic-Chiasma, Its Contains following nucli, -->(a). Para-Ventricular-Nucli;-->(b). Supra-Optic-Nucli;-->(c). Anterior-Hypo-Thalamic-Nucli;-->(d). Supra-Chiasmatic-Nucli; -->SUPRA-OPTICO-HYPO-PHYCAL-TRACT:-Nerve's Fibres in paraVentricular & Supra-Optic-Nucli form's a Tract Called as"SupraOptico-Hypo-Phycal-Tract" This tract Transport's Oxitosin & AntiDiruatic(ADH) Harmone which is formed in the above nucli, & transported to "Neuro-hypophysis" ;
FUNCTION OF HYPOTHALAMUS:-
1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Its a higher center for Autonomic-Nervous-System(ANS) in brain;-->(e.g)-->example of ANS-->a).heart-rate,->b).Intestinal-Motility,-->c).Contraction of Urinary-Bladder; Its regulated body temperature; Its controlle's hunger, through hunger-center; Its contain the Thrust-center; Its maintains the state's of waking & sleep;
__________________________________________
MONDAY, JUNE 15, 2009
(class-5)-brain-physiology-The-Cortex
CEREBRUM(or CEREBRAL-CORTEX):-
-->The "Cerebrum" is the higest-centre for sensory & motor Activities, Its composed of Right & Left Cerebral-hemisphere,
Its develop's from "Telen-Cephalon";-->Its Composed of
1.
Gray-Matter(Cerebral-Cortex);
2.
White-Matter(Corpus-Callosum);
GYRU'S & SULCU'S:- The surface of Cerebrum contains "elevation's(gyrus) & depression's(sulcus)"; (i-e)-->
1.
Elevation's is called "Gyru's";
2.
Depression's is called "Sulcu's";
The "Large-Sulci(depression)" are called "Fissure(Longitudinalfissure)";
FALX-CEREBRI:-->The fold's of Menge's that goes down in the "Longitudal-fissure" is Called "Falx-cerebri"; LOBES:--->Each Hemesphere is further divided into 4-Lobe's;(ie)--> Frontal-Lobe; Parital-Lobe; Occipatal-Lobe; Temporal-Lobe;
1. 2. 3. 4.
These Lobe's are separated by following Sulci(Depression), (i-e);

1. 2.
3.
Central-Sulcu's(Its separate the Frontal/Parital-Lobe); Parieto-Occipital-Sulcu's(Its separate the Parital/OccipatalLobe ); Lateral-Sulcus(Its separate the Frontal/Temporal-Lobe);
___________________________________________
WHITE-MATTER-OF-CEREBRUM-CORTEX:-
Its contains following nerve fibre's(nerve-Tract's),(i-e)-->

1.
2.
ASSOCIATION-FIBRE'S:-They connects one-Gyru's to anotherGyru's in same Hemespher; COMMISSURAL-FIBRE'S:-These fibre's connects one-Gyru's from one-hemespher to the same Gyru's of Opposite[or other]Hemespher, 3-important group's of Commissural-fibre's are as followed -->(a). Corpus-Callosum;
(b). Anterior-Commissural; (c). Posterior- Commissural;

3. PROJECTION-FIBRES:These fibres are the assending and decending-tracts; -------------finished-here---------- BASAL-GANGLIA:1. The basal-ganglia is the several-groups of nuclei ; 2. The basal-ganglia is present in each Cerebral-hemisphere ; CORPUS-STRIATUM:The Corpus-striatum is the largest nucleus in the basal-ganglia the Corpus-striatum is consists of following, that is, 1. Caudata-nucleus ; 2. Lenticular-nucleus ;
(2). LENTICULAR-NUCLEUS:The Lenticular-nucleus is subdivided into, a. Lateral-portion [Putamen ]; b. Medial-portion [ Globus-pallidus ]; There is a portion known as Internal-Capsule passing between the Lenticular-nucleus and Caudata-nucleus and its also passed between the Lenticular-nucleus and thalamus is sometimes considered part of the Corpusstriatum.
INTERNAL-CAPSULE:The Internal-capsule is the sensory and motor tracts that cause to connect the cerebral-cortex with brain stem and Spinal-cord; OTHER-STRUCTURE-OF-BASAL-GANGLIA:The other structure of Basal-ganglia that is , a. Substantia-nigra, b. Subthalamic-nuclei, c. Red-nuclei, a. SUBSTANTIA-NIGRA :The Substantia-nigra is the pair of larger-nucli in the mid-brain whose connection with the i. Caudata-nucleus; ii. Putamen; b. SUBTHALAMIC-NUCLEI :The Subthalamic-nuclei is lie against the Internal-Capsule, there major connection is with the Globus-Padlidus.
c. RED-NUCLEI:Its the part of human-brain, --------------finished-here---------- FUNCTION-OF-THE-CAUDATA-NUCLEUS-AND-PUTAMEN: The Caudata-nucleus and Putamen control large automatic-movement of skeletal-muscle . FUNCTION-OF-GLOBUS-PALLIDUS:The globus-pallidus is concerned with the regulation of muscle tone required for specific body-movements. -------------finished-here-------- FUNCTIONAL-AREA-OF-THE-CEREBRAL-CORTEX:The sensory,motor and integrative signals are processed in certain cerebral-regions, that is 1. Sensory-Areas, 2. Motor-Areas, 3. Association-Areas, 1. SENSORY-AREAS:In the cortex there are three areas are present that is , a. Primary-sensory-Areas; b. Secondary-sensory-Areas and; c. Sensory-association-Areas; a. PRIMARY-SENSORY-AREAS:- In cortex the primarysensory-Areas have the most direct connections with the Peripheral-sensory-receptors. b. SECONDARY-SENSORY-AREAS AND SENSORYASSOCIATION-AREAS:The Secondary-sensory-Areas and the Sensoryassociation-Areas are often adjacent with the primaryAreas, basically, these Secondary-sensory-Areas and Sensory-association-Areas receives the input from
Primary-sensory-areas, and cause to drives the other region of brain they participate in the interpretation of sensory expression into meaningful patterns of recognition and awareness, For example:-> a person with damage in the PrimaryVisual-cortex, would be blind in at least part of his Visual-field, but on the other-hand, if a person with damage of a visual-Association-Area might see normally yet be unable to recognize a friend.
A. PRIMARY-SOMATO-SENSORY-AREA-OR-GENERALSENSORY-AREA-[OR POST-CENTRAL-GYRUS]: ANATOMICAL-POSITION-OF-PRIMARY-SOMATO-SENSORYAREA:The primary-somato-sensory-area, located directly posteriorly to the central-sulcus of both cerebralhemisphere in postcentral-gyrus of each parietal-lobe; [note:-> the thalamus is like the secretary of the cortex.] Its extend from longitudinal-fissure on the top of the cerebrum and its ends at lateral-cerebral-sulcus, the somatosensory-area is designated areas by area-1,area2,area-3; FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-SOMATO-SENSORY-AREA:The Primary-somato-sensory-Area receives nerves-impulses from somatic-sensory receptors for touch, proprioceptiontouch, pain and temperature; Each points with in the primary-somato-sensory-area cause to receive the sensation from a particular specific part of the body;
So, due to which the whole body sensation receives by individually each part of primary-somato-sensory-area, the size of each point in this area receiving-impules from a particular body part, is depend on the number of sensoryreceptor whose present on the effected body parts; MAJOR-FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-SOMATOSENSORY-AREA:The major-function of Primary-somato-sensory-area is to localized the exact point of the body where the sensation is organized; 2. PRIMARY-VISUAL-AREA [AREA-17]: ANATOMICAL-POSITION-OF-PRIMARY-VISUAL-AREA:The Primary-visual-area-located on the medial surface of the occipital-lobe of brain, and its extending around the Lateral-surface, of the occipital-lobe. FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-VISUAL-AREA [AREA-17]:The optic-nerve which cause to terminated in the thalamus in lateral-geniculate-Nucli of the thalamus, then from the thalamus the neurons carry the visual-information to wards the primary-visual-area,[about shape, color and movements] 3. PRIMARY-AUDITORY-AREA [AREA 41 AND 42 ]: ANATOMY-OF-PRIMARY-AUDITORY-AREA [AREA 41 AND 42]:The Primary-Auditory-area area 41 and 42 are located on superior-part of the temporal-lobe near the lateral-sulcus. FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-AUDITORY-AREA [AREA 41 AND 42 ]:-
Its interprets the basic characteristics of sound such as Pitch and Rhythm; 4. PRIMARY-GUSTATORY-AREA[AREA-43 ]: ANATOMY-OF-PRIMARY-GUSTATORY-AREA:The Primary-gustatory-area is located at the base of Post-central-gyrus just above the Lateral-sulcus, in the parietal-lobe. FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-GUSTATORY-AREA [ AREA-43 ]:It receives impules related to taste; 5. PRIMARY-OIFACTORY-AREA:Its located in the temporal-lobe on the medial aspect, ITS FUNCTION:-> Its receives impulse related to smell; MOTOR-AREAS:Motor out-put from the cerebral-cortex flows mainly from the anterior-portion of each hemisphere, there are two motor areas are as followes, that is , i. ii. Primary-motor-area [Area-4]; Language-areas;
I. PRIMARY-MOTOR-AREA [AREA-4]: ANATOMY-OF- PRIMARY-MOTOR-AREA [AREA-4]:The Primary-motor-area [area-4], is located in the precentral-Gyrus of the frontal-lobe; FUNCTION-OF-PRIMARY-MOTOR-AREA [AREA-4 ]:-
Each point in the primary-motor-area[ area-4] cause to controlled the voluntary-contraction of specific-muscle or group of muscle in the body; if we electrical stimulation will applied on any point in the Primary-motor-Area results in contraction of specific skeletal muscle fibers on the opposite side of the body.
II.
LANGUAGE-AREA:-
The translation of speech or written word into thought involves both sensory and association-areas, CEREBELLUM: [note: Its due do it your self.]; [Note: human-brain physiology finished here.] -----------------finished here----------- NERVOUS-SYSTEM: SYNAPES:-> the synapse is a junction between two neuron, which allows the transfer of action-potential from presynaptic-neuron towards the post-synaptic-neuron. TYPES-OF-SYNAPES: There are two types of synapse are present, that is 1) Electrical- synapse . 2) Chemical-synapse. 1. Electrical-synapse:-> In the electrical-synapse the actionpotential travels directly from pre-synaptic-neuron towards the post-synaptic-neuron, through the gap-junction, 2. Chemical-synapse:-> All most all the synapse in CNS[centralnervous-system] are called chemical-synapse, In the Chemical-synapse, the action potential is transmitted from one neuron to wards the post-synaptic-neuron like that, when
action-potential comes at the synaptic-end-bulb, of presynaptic-neuron, then it cause to open, the Voltage-gatedCa+ions-channels in the pre-synaptic-membrane, then it cause to enter the Ca+ ions inside the pre-synaptic- end bulb, which cause to move the synaptic-vesicles towards the pre-synaptic-membrane, then, synaptic-vesicles cause to fused with the pre-synaptic-membrane, then the neurotransmitter which are present inside those pre-synapticvesicles cause to enter inside the synaptic-cleft, than, these neurotransmitter cause to bind with its post-synapticreceptors, to open the chemical-gated-Na+ ions-channels, on the post synaptic-membrane, than when Na+-ions channels are opened the Na+ ions cause to enter inside the post-synaptic-neuron, than, these Na+-ions cause to increased the internal post-synaptic-neuron potential gradient up to its threshold voltages, it cause to increase the resting post-synaptic-neuron-potential [that is -90mV] up to -60mV [-60mV= threshold voltages], than the a action potential is transmitted inside the post-synaptic-neuron. -----------------------finished-here------------- PRE-SYNAPTIC-TERMINALS:The pre-synaptic-neuron, has its axon, which will continuous and end with the multiples branches known as Telodendrias, each Telo-dendrias contains a bulb-likestructure which is known as Synaptic-end-bulbs, so, these Synaptic-end-bulb contains two important structure, (i-e) a. Mitochondria ; b. Synaptic-vesicles ; A. MITOCHONDRIA:-
The mitochondria, is provide ATP which necessary for synthesis of neurotransmitters and also for the secretion of neurotransmitters from pre-synaptic membrane to postsynaptic membrane. B. SYNAPTIC- VESICLES:i. These vesicles contains neurotransmitters[NT]; ii. These vesicles causes to secret-out the neurotransmitters[NT] from pre-synaptic neuron towards the synaptic-cleft in the response to Action-potential which reach to synaptic-end-bulb; MECHANISM-OF-TRANSMISSION-OF-ACTION-POTENTIAL FROM ONE NEURON TO POST-SYNAPTIC NEURON:i. ii. When the action-potential is generated in the presynaptic-neuron then, When these action-potential approaches towards the synaptic-end-bulb, so as the result , there is the voltage-gated calcium[Ca+]-ions channels will be opening so, Then, as the result of it Ca+-ions cause to move inside the cell pre-synaptic-end-bulb; So, as Ca+-ions enter inside the cell pre-synaptic-endbulb, as the result of it cause to activated the synapticvesicles ; So then, these Activated-synaptic-vesicles cause to move towards the pre-synaptic membrane and then these vesicles cause to fused with the pre-synaptic-membrane; Then , these vesicles cause to released there contains neurotransmitters [NT] inside the synaptic-cleft.
iii. iv.
v.
vi.
---------------------------
ACTION-OF-NEURO-TRANSMITTER-ON-POST-SYNAPTICMEMBRANE:So, when neurotransmitters [NT] entered inside the synaptic-cleft, then neurotransmitters [NT] do two jobs which are given below, i. ii. Ion-channel. Second [2nd]-Messenger-system.
a. ION-CHANNEL:i. These ion-channel are located on the post-synaptic membrane, which will be open when the neurotransmitters [NT], cause to bind with its post-synaptic-receptors, these are chemically-gated-Ion-channel, ii. So, there are two types of ion-channel are present that is (1) Cat-ion-channel [Excitatory Na+, K+- ions], and (2) An-ionchannel [ Inhibitatory Cl--ion]; iii. Example=> when the Acetylcholine [NT] are attached on the Cation-channel-receptors then it cause to open the cationNa+-channel, iv. When, GABA- neurotransmitters [NT] are attached on the Anion-channel-receptors then it cause to open the Anion-Cl channel. b. SECOND [2ND]-MESSENGER-SYSTEM:i. In this type the neurotransmitter [NT] cause to bind with its post-synaptic-receptors, which cause to activated the GProtein . ii. When G-Protein activated then it cause to converts ATPmolecules into c-AMP [cyclic-AMP]-molecules ; iii. Then, these c-AMP molecule cause to act as a second[2nd ]messenger-system;
iv. Then, these c-AMP molecule which act as a 2nd-messengersystem cause to changes the Alter-cell-function;
---------------------finished here--------- EXCITATORY-OR-INHIBITORY-RECEPTORS-IN-THEPOST-SYNAPTIC-MEMBRANE:In the post-synaptic-membrane, there are two types of postsynaptic-receptors are presents; that is, i. ii. The one of those receptors, which cause excitation on the post-synaptic-neuron, The other one of those receptors which causes the inhibition in the post-synaptic-neuron, Excitation-process. Inhibition-process.
1. EXCITATION-PROCESS:in this process there are some changes occurs, (a) . during excitation the Na+-ion-channel will be open, in the post-synaptic-membrane then, which allow large no of Na+-ions flow inside the post synaptic membrane, due to which causes to rises the interior-post-synaptic-membrane potential in the positive direction up towards the threshold-level for excitation, (b). in this condition, the diffusion of Cl- - ions inside the postsynaptic-neuron, will be decreased and the diffusion of K+ - ions outside the neuron-cell membrane will be decreased,so, due to this the internal post-synaptic membrane potential becomes more positive then normal.
(c). various changes in the internal metabolism of the post synaptic neuron, to increase the number of excitatory membrane receptors or decreased the number of inhibitory-membranereceptors. 2. INHIBITION-PROCESS:i. opening the Cl-1 ion-channel on post synaptic neuron, by which Cl-1 ions moves inside the post-synaptic-neuron, due to which the cell becomes inhibited . ii. increase the transportation of K+ - ions outside the postsynaptic-neuron, which cause the increased in negative-ions inside the neuron, by which neuron becomes negative internally. Activation of receptor enzymes that inhibit cellular metabolic functions due to which to increased the number of inhibitory membrane receptors or decrease the number of excitatory membrane receptors. --------------------finished here----------[ New-topic ] SLEEP-PHYSIOLOGY:Its the state of un- consciousness , from which the person can be aroused by sensory-stimulation. The sleep has two phases, 1) Slow-wave sleep. 2) Rapid-eye movements sleep. 1. SLOW-WAVE-SLEEP:a. Its the initial phase of sleep. b. Its deep sleep.
c. There is decreased in (1). Blood-pressure, (2). Respiration. (3) . Metabolism. (4). Tone of muscle. d. The slow-wave-sleep is the 75% of the total-sleep. e. The slow-wave-sleep occurs during for one to two hours.
2. RAPID-EYE MOVEMENTS SLEEP:a) Its the 2nd phase of sleep. b) Its less deep. c) Aroused is difficult. d) Active drumming occurs. e) Its occurs at least for 5 to 30 minutes. f) During this sleep rapid-eye movements is occurs. g) 20% increase in brain metabolism occurs.
DIFFERENT-BETWEEN-COMA-AND-SLEEP:SLEEP: 1. The person can be

aroused by sensory stimulation from sleep
COMA 1. The person can never be

aroused by any sensory stimulation from coma.
---------------finished-here----------- PHYSIOLOGICAL-EFFECT-OF-SLEEP:1) ON-NERVOUS-SYSTEM:During sleep nervous-system [NS] , required to regenerated its neurotransmitters [NT] , this enables it to performed its functions. 2) ON-OTHER-SYSTEM-OF-THE-BODY:-
i. Sympathetic nervous-system, cause the expenditure of energy while, the Para-sympathetic-nervous-system causes, conversation of energy. So, during sleep para-sympathetic activities will be increased, due to which the metabolism [conversation] of energy increased in the whole body. There fore, the sleep is responsible to decrease Arterialblood-pressure, pulse-rate. Increase the activity of G.I.T, decreased in skeletalmuscles-tone.
ii.
iii. iv.
------------------------finished here---------------[new-topic] ELECTRO-ENCEPHALO-GRAM [E.E.G]:The EEG is called as Electro-encephalon-gram, the neuron in brain which producing impulse on the different part of the brain, this impulse can be recorded by placing the electrodes on different position, of the skull, then this recording is known as E.E.G. CLASSIFICATION-OF-E.E.G :Its have four different waves patterns of E.E.G. That is , i. ii. iii. iv. Alpha-waves, Beta-waves. Delta-waves. Theta-waves.
i. ALPHA-WAVES:1. The alpha-waves have about 8 to 13 Hz frequency patterns. 2. This waves is found in brain during the condition when the person is awake but having close eyes. ii. BETA-WAVES:1. The beta-waves have about 14 to 30 Hz frequency pattern. 2. This waves is found in brain during active-period with sensory stimulation input. [when the person awake with eyes open ]. iii. DELTA-WAVES:1. Delta-waves have about 1 to 5 Hz frequency pattern. 2. In normal adults, these waves are found in brain during deep sleep but , if this delta-waves found in adults during awakens , then this shows us a brain-damage. 3. These Delta-waves should found in awake faints [1 year old child]. iv. THETA-WAVES:This theta-waves have about 4 to 7 Hz frequency patterns. It normally found in children. These waves found in Adults with emoinational stress. Also, it found in brain indicates brain disorders .
1. 2. 3. 4.
----------------finished-here-------[new-topics] EPILEPSY:Its the un-controlled activities of any one part of the brain or the whole brain, It has three major types
1. Grand-mal-epilepsy. 2. Focal-epilepsy. 3. Petit-mal-epilepsy. GRAND-MAL-EPILEPSY:-
Its characterized by a) Abnormal-activities of all parts of brain for 2 to 3 minutes . b) Convulsion[its mean in urdu dora-parna] of whole body. c) Loss of conscious ness . 2 FOCAL-EPILEPSY:Its characterized by a. Abnormal activities of any one part of brain for 2 to 3 minutes. b. Convulsion [its mean in urdu dora-parna] on any one part of body. c. No loss of consciousness. 3 PETIT-MAL-EPILEPSY:Its characterized by a) Abnormal activity of whole brain for 3 to 30 seconds. b) No convulsion [its mean in urdu dora-parna]. c) No loss of conscious-ness. ------finished here------Note: all bio-medical engineering physiology-2 finished here. ----finished---------

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2012

MOHAMMAD-SIKANDER-KHAN-LODHI, BIO-MEDICAL-ENGINEERINGGUIDE.INC BY SIKANDER-LODHI 6/21/2012

There are 3-major classis of hormones, which classified chemically; (i-e)

Page 2-OF-56 DATE:JUNE/21/2012

Steroid's-hormone's; Amino-Acid Derivative's-hormone's; Proteine and peptied's hormone's;

They are derived from Cholestrol; (e.g)

GLAND'S AND HORMONE'S

both of above them from "AdrenalMadula(gland)"; 3).PROTEINE and PEPTIED'S-

GLAND'S and HORMONE'S:

Anterior-pituitary-gland's[growth-hormone]; Posterior-pituitary-gland's[i).Anti-diuretichormone;(ii).Oxytosine-hormone]; Islet-of-langer-hans(pancreas)[(i).Insulinehormone; and (ii).Glucagon-hormone];

Activation Of Cell Function By Proteine Hormone: Mechanism-Of-Hormonal-ActionOn-The-Cell:

Enzyme regulation; secreation; protein synthesis; altered membrane permeability;

--------------------------------(FINISHED-HERE)-----------------------------------SATURDAY, APRIL 4, 2009

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i).Anti-diuretic-hormone(ADH), (or Vasopressin):

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--->It promotes developments of breasts & secreation of milk; 6. LAUTINIZING

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Its Cause to Increase the "Utalization" of fat's;

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SUNDAY, APRIL 5, 2009

2. Its decreases the (Ca+) Concentration in blood;

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Dura-mator(Outer-most)[Its consists of Dense, irregular connective Tissue ]; Arachnoid-mator(Middle-layer); Pia-Mator(Inner-most);

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"C.S.F" a Liquid present b\w the Arachnoid & piamator;

LUMBER-ENLARGEMENT'S: The lumber-enlargement's from T9 to T12;

CONUS-MEDULLARIS: Its a Conical-Termination of Spinal-Cord;

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SPINAL-CORD have 2-grove's;

Anterior Median fissure; posterior Median Sulcus;

MONDAY, APRIL 6, 2009

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Its Consists of the Cell-bodie's of Neuron's,which present's in spinal-cord;

Its Composed of following Area's;

Anterior(Ventrical)-White-Columb; Posterior(Dorsal)-White-Columb; Laterial-White-Columb;

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These Tracte's join with the Controlled center in brain;

TUESDAY, APRIL 7, 2009

The Spinal-cord has following function's; (i-e)

Its form's a connection b/w the body and the brain;

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TRACT'S: There are 2-type's of tract's are present's in Spinal-cord; (i-e)

Motor-Tract's; 1. THE SENSORY-TRACT'S: There are 2-major sensory-tract's in the body;

The Spino-Thalamic-Tract's; The Posterior-Columb-Tract's;

Pain-Sensation; Temperature-Sensation; Crude-Tuch-Sensation; Deep-Pressure-Sensation;

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Proprio-ception-Sensation(knowing of the movements of muscle's,tendon's and joint's);

Discrimeated-tuch(Fine-Tuch, or , localized pin-point-tuch);

Vibration-Sensation; 2.MOTOR-TRACT'S: There are 2 Motor-tract's are present's;

Its Contain's 3 Tract's ;

They Transmitted Motor-Impulses from Cerebral-Cortex to Crainal-nerve's; 2. CORTICO-SPINAL-TRACT'S: (a).Anterior-Cortico-spinal-tract's; (b).Lateral-Cortico-spinal-tract's;

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Rubro-Spinal-Tract's; Tecto-Spinal-Tract's; Vestibular-Spinal-Tract's;

There function's are

SPINAL-NERVE'S: Each Spinal-Nerve's consist's of 2-root's;

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Motor-Neuron's has 2-type's;

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Its composed of 5-part;

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Effector's (Muscle, or, Gland);

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5.EFFECTOR'S: Its can be of 2-type's;

SUNDAY, APRIL 12, 2009