TECTONIC TURTLE PROJECT RESTORE H2O PROGRAM

TECTONIC TURTLE IS A REG. TRADEMARK & SERVICEMARK Trade & Service-mark (IP) License Registration All Rights Reserved
TECTONIC TURTLE PROGRAM PLAN Copyright MONICA KUHON DEC 2011

TECTONIC TURTLE PROJECT: RESTORE H2O PROGRAM

Research Paper No.1, Title:: WATER IN BALI By: Monica Kuhon & Joey Marissa; Photograph courtesy: Jez O Hare

I. Description of Water Resources Potential in Bali

Bali is an island located near the equator with two tropical seasons, which are the rainy season (November-April) and the dry season (May-October). The rain fall measures between 1000mm in low altitude up to 3000mm in high altitude. The southern area of the island is lower than the north, so the southern area of the island has less rainfall. Although Bali has a high average rainfall of 2106mm which is higher than East Javas average rainfall of 2080mm; the potential of water surface and ground water in Bali is different than in Java, this is due to the difference of character of the river flow and soil transmission between the two islands. (e.g. In Java most rivers are able to flow throughout the whole year whilst in Bali some rivers run dry). This means that even though we are lucky enough to be provided with more water, we must be careful as not to run out of water. We must take care of our water-usage, and not waste.

Water resources in Bali comes from the rainfall, a hydrological cycle (precipitation) which begins with the evaporation of sea water that falls into the rivers to become surface-run-off, which the water then is absorbed into the soil to become ground water. The potential of surface water and ground water in Bali can be summarized as follows,

A. Surface Water:
i. Lakes: there are four main natural lakes in Bali Lake Names 1. 2. 3. 4. Batur (Kintamani) Beratan Buyan Tamblingan Total Area of Water Capture (km2) 105. 35 13.40 24.10 9.20 152.05 Surface Area km2) 16.05 4.30 3.67 1.15 25.17 Water Volume (Million M 3) 815.58 61.44 116.25 27.05 1,020.32

The total volume of the 4 Natural Lakes in Bali is approximately 1,020. 32 million M 3. ii. Man made lakes or dams (waduk), including: - Waduk Palasari, water volume: 8 million m3 Therefore the Total Volume of all Lake Water Resources in Bali becomes: 1,028.32 million m 3.

iii. River Water

Research has conclude a total of 162 rivers in Bali, which has been divided into 5 zones according to their hydrologist area character similarities. The potential water resources that can be used from these 5 hydrological zones are: 49,837 million meter 3, including from the man made river branches constructed in the Bukit Peninsula and the island of Nusa Penida.

Bali River Zones Zone 1.

Location , Number of Rivers & Characters

Area of Water Capture /river (km2) 8 50 km 2

Bordered by mountain range which runs from the most Western side to center of the Island. This rivers zone begins on the east along the picturesque Antosari Pupuan Highway. Zone 1 consists of 28 Rivers, which flows continuously throughout the year between the mountain slopes and graphical rice terraces. The river mouths ends in the Indian Ocean on the South and West Coast of the island. Is the largest zone, which starts at the Eastern boarder of zone 1, and runs North across the mountain range. Begins with 33 Rivers, mostly very long with strong current, some of these rivers widens and branches out as it reaches the low land until it reaches 54 rivers in total- with river mouth ending into sea on the South and Eastern side of the island. Located on the Eastern part of Buleleng District. With approximate 48 rivers, but one 3 that has low capacity of running water throughout the year, while the rest run when there are heavy rain fall during wet season. The potential of water resources in zone 3 is limited, with minimal surface area of water flow. Located of the Western part of Buleleng District. With approximately 33 Rivers in total, 18 of them which runs throughout the year, and the rest only during heavy rain fall. There are 2 large rivers running on Zone 4, which is the Daya & Sabah Rivers, each with a water capture capacity up to 80 km 2 Located in Klungkung - Nusa Penida Island, and the Bukit Peninsula on the south of of Badung District, which consist mostly of Limestone Hills and cliffs. Since there are no rivers with running waters throughout these areas, man-made river branch are constructed here. Water Volume capacity for Nusa Penida : Water Volume capacity for South of Badung, Nusa Dua & Bukit Peninsula Total Volume Capacity of River Water in Bali

Water Volume (Million M 3/ second ) 1,717

Zone 2.

Between 10 200 km 2

2,587

Zone 3.

Maximum 10 km 2

36

Zone 4.

0 80 km 2

594

Zone 5.

0.1 0.2 49, 837

B. SPRING WATER

There are 500 potential main water springs in Bali which can extract up to 422.54 million cubic meters No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 District Jembrana Tabanan Badung Gianyar Klungkung Bangli Karangasem Buleleng TOTAL No. of springs 37 82 21 33 26 86 71 144 500 Extraction capacity Total debit (m3/s) 0.11 3.26 0.51 0.98 0.82 1.62 3.91 2.19 17.40 The volume per Year 3.46 102.80 16.08 30.90 25.86 51.08 123.30 69.06 422.54

C. GROUND WATER Groundwater potential depends on the rock-formation and geological structure which is located under the earths surface, which will influenced the aquifer under the soil surface. The geological structure of the island of Bali is mainly made up of volcanic variety of volcanic topographies such as eroded early Quaternary volcanoes, active stratovolcanoes, thick tephra deposits, pyroclastic flow slopes and closed caldera lakes. These various topographies and a dense road network up to 1500 m high made Bali one of the ideal research fields for volcanic hydrology. Research conducted in 1989 shown that only small areas has a water potential bigger than 10L/second while most areas in the island less than 2L/second potential. Therefore it is only recommended to exploit maximum 10% from the average recharge ground water capacity per year. No. District Area (km2) Average rainfall (mm) Average recharge per year M3/s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Jembrana Tabanan Badung Gianyar Klungkung Bangli Karangasem Buleleng 841.8 839.3 542.5 368.0 315.0 520.8 839.5 1365.9 1957 2400 2001 2010 1653 1967 2039 1815 TOTAL 10.85 23.00 14.87 10.79 4.98 14.17 23.59 24.80 127.05 Mm 407 865 828 828 925 498 858 489 Limit of water that can be exploited= 10% ( M3/second) 1,08 2,30 1,49 1,08 0,50 1,42 2,36 2,45 12,47

II. Usage of Water Resources in Bali

1. Water for Agricultural

The beautiful island of Bali is strongly dependant on their Subak irrigation systems, which is a traditional water agricultural management. Agricultural is Indonesias second biggest money maker (their first is the oil and gas industry). To grow rice, you need a lot of water, but the water in Bali is also very important for their Hindu Buddha belief, as water is a sign of purification the Holy water. Therefore the Subak is also a social religious organization as it is the base of development for their rice paddy industry. The underlying philosophy guiding the Subak system is Tri Hita Karana, which is harmony between the Gods, the people and the nature. Therefore Subak is an age-old irrigation system which has, over the centuries, proven to be near perfect, as it demonstrates how it's possible for humans to live in harmony with nature through traditional methods and mutual cooperation, where Water temples played a major role in hydrological and biological management. The primary role of water temples was in the maintenance of social relationships between productive groups.

Idealized Map of Four Subaks with their Associated Waterways and Temples. Subak are egalitarian, cooperative farmers associations that manage the flow of irrigation water into rice terraces, and also coordinate agricultural rituals. But the average size of each subak is less than 50 hectares and 100 members. When a single subak decides on its planting schedule for the next year (what to plant, and when), it sets in motion an irrigation schedule for itself, which will also affect its neighbors. In other words, how much water one gets depends in part on the irrigation schedules of ones neighbors upstream. Bali annual precipitation ranges from 1500 to 2500mm in the relevant areas, with seasonality significant but least marked in the high-rainfall mountain areas that feed the rivers (McTaggart 1988). Nevertheless, rice farming on Bali is so extensive and intensive that water is in limited supply on the terraced hillsides of this island, and

must be conveyed to fields via kilometers-long canal and tunnel systems. Since rice fields must be flooded at planting time and kept relatively dry in the latter part of the growing cycle, farmers can deal with water shortage by staggering the time at which they plant relative to other areas in the same river basin. This impetus to stagger, however, is counteracted by another factor: if farmers synchronize planting, they synchronize fallow periods and wet-dry changes and, since wet and dry fields are ecologically different, they can kill off infestations of wet- or dryfield-specific pests by denying the pests the chance to jump to suitable adjacent fields (Lansing 1987) According the Public Work Department (PU) of Bali from (1992) The amount of river water in Bali that can be used for agriculture, fisheries, and clean water distribution is around 1.8 million m3, or aound 35% of the total available river water. The amount of river water that has been used is around 1.38 million m 3, or 76.5% from the total amount that can be used. The research of ELC and ADC (1981) found that from the development of 35 subak, with the total area of 17,560 hectare, only 11,040 hectare (62.9%) can be used for wet rice planting twice a year; while 2,670 hectare (15.2%) can be use for wet rice planting only 1 time a year plus additional 2 time of dry soil planting of other crops like corn, coffee, chilly, peanuts, ect. The balance of 3.850 hectare (21%) can be used for 2 x wet rice planting, and 1 x dry crop planting. This system of planting, is being used based on studying the water resources measurements. Which measures the water availability and the irrigation water requirement on the 35 subaks, with safety of supply greater than 90% for 25 subaks , while for 5% are less then 90%. Research finds that there is enough supply of irrigation water during dry season, by using the method of Taking turns in irrigation between land owners. Also the river water can be used repeatedly twice, since The water will run from top to down stream.

The pictures above give you an idea on how the canal system looks like in Bali. I have also depicted the typical flow division structures which work on the principle of continuous fixed proportional flows. The width of the diversion structures is determined by the size of the land that is to be irrigated thereof. Farmers are not allowed to manipulate these structures. However, in reality manipulation takes place.

As the illustration shows, farmers increase water flow into their own fields with a variety of methods. Especially in the early stages of the rice cultivation water is the crucial variable. By closing other farmers inlets and half of the weir just after the individual inlet (tembuku), the flow of water into the field is increased. As long as the farmer stays next to the water inlet and returns the flow to normal before going home this manipulation is labelled as borrowing. Each passing farmer will be informed about the act of borrowing and assured that the flow will be returned to normal. The borrowing farmer can explain why he has to borrow water and the other farmers can remind him that he shouldnt borrow water too long. This is not necessarily done verbally. Just seeing the borrowing farmer is enough to remind him of the shame attached to stealing water. If the water flow is not returned to normal, a farmer will be accused of stealing water. If this occurs the farmer will be warned and finally fined according to the subak regulations. Though, these sanctions are hardly used because it is not the financial sanctions which the farmers want to avoid, it is the fear of being known as a water stealer within the own social group. Another possibility observed in the field to increase water flow is the sharing of surplus water. The farmer of one subak makes an agreement with a farmer of another subak to use his off-flow water for his field in that he uses a bamboo stick. The water which would usually flow into the off-flow canal to be used further down in another subak is now diverted into the field of the neighbouring farmers field before flowing back into the off-flow canal.

2. Water for Clean Water

For the average Bali village community, clean water is generally obtained from shallow (individual home wells) and surface water, like river, lakes and springs. Meanwhile in the urban areas, clean water are provided by the PADM (State Owned Government Water Company), which uses ground water resources (deep well), springs and surface water (rivers), which are being undergoes the water treatment process. The usage of ground water in Badung District as well as Denpasar needs extra attention, since water exploitation besides for clean water, is also being used for Industry. In Badung District and Denpasar, surveyed found more then 171 wells that has obtained permit, but has not be properly equipped with proper water debit measurement system (Hassl et.al, 1992) , so we cannot count the usage. Clean Water Exploitation of Fresh Water Springs, between 1988 2010 No. District Water Debit from Springs (L / second) 110 3260 510 980 820 1620 3910 2190 13400 Water Supply through Pipes (L / second) 1988 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Jembrana Tabanan Badung Gianyar Klungkung Bangli Karangasem Buleleng Total 0 98 5 30 64 46 64 162 469 2010 0 261 5 61 97 117 196 474 1345 Without Spring & Surface Water Pipes (L / second) 1988 24 117 28 93 19 83 82 68 519 2010 32 137 26 107 22 98 96 93 611

Clean Water Exploitation of Ground Water, between 1988 to 2010. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 District Jembrana Tabanan Badung Gianyar Klungkung Bangli Karangasem Buleleng Total 1988 (L/second) * 134 57 887 67 44 0 071 158 1418 2010 (L/second) * 331 776 **734 532 60 0 154 325 2212 Limit of Exploitation 1080 2300 1490 1080 500 1420 2360 2540 12470

* Including clean water supplied by pipes from individual home wells, and wells in both urban and village areas ** Is required to improve the water pipe or other type of water distribution system, that can help minimize the Clean water usage.

In order to meet the clean water requirement in Badung district, besides spring and ground water, the PDAM also obtain 600 L / second - surface water of Tukad Yeh Ayung River, which will be develop as estuary dam. This dam will consist of the excessive water from Tukad Badung River, and Tukad Mati River with a capacity o 600 L/second, the provide clean water to the community, especially to meet the requirement for tourism Industry as well as the main urban residential areas.

Notes* Balinese farmers recognize, the irrigation schedules chosen by subaks also affect the life cycles of rice pests, like rats, insects and diseases. Gusti Nyoman Aryawan, a Balinese ecologist, has shown that synchronizing irrigation schedules over a sufficiently large area of rice terraces can control rice pests, since if all of the fields in a sufficiently large area are harvested at the same time, and subsequently flooded, rice pests are deprived of their habitat. If no alternative hosts are available, the pest population will drop (Lansing, 1991: 121, cf. Aryawan et al., 1993) In the 1970s, the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank attempted to improve on the system by introducing the Green Revolution - Bali Irrigation Project. Without consulting the locals, they introduced a new water distribution system and pesticides to Bali. The project almost destroyed Bali's farming and other ecological system. The Green Revolution brought the water temples into direct conflict with the goals of foreign engineers and planners. The powers of the water temples were entirely invisible to the planners involved in promoting the Green Revolution, who regarded agriculture as a purely technical process, and that production would be optimized if everyone planted high-yielding varieties of rice as often as they could. In contrast, Balinese temple priests and farmers argued that the water temples were necessary to coordinate cropping patterns so that there would be enough rice for everyone and to reduce pests by coordinating fallow periods. Since the advent of high yielding Green Revolution rice agriculture in the 1970s, Balinese farmers have been advised to supply all the potassium and phosphate needed by rice plants via chemical fertilizers. This policy neglects the contribution of minerals leached from the volcanic soil and transported via irrigation systems. Expert measured potassium and phosphate levels in unfertilized Balinese rice paddies, and found them to be indistinguishable from those in fertilized paddies, and sufficient for high grain yields. Field experiments indicate that most of the added phosphate flows out of the paddies and into the river systems, accumulating very high levels before reaching the coast. Thus for the past 30 years, the Massive Guidance program has instructed Balinese farmers to purchase superfluous fertilizers, which flow out of the paddies and into the rivers and ground water. Since most Balinese rivers are fast and short, a great deal of fertilizer reaches the coastal zone, threatening the coral reefs (coral death and red tides have already been observed). The real question is why these programs were implemented and sustained by technocrats for decades with so little regard for local conditions? Recommendation & Intervention Mathematical apparatus of systems ecology simulation modeling have been useful in the defence of Balinese traditional farming practices. For example, we were able to make a convincing argument against the continued use of chemical pesticides, by modelling the effects of synchronized fallow periods on rice pests. Without the use of mathematical tools, this analysis could not have been done, and Balinese farmers would still be told to spray organochloride pesticides on their fields in the interests of national development.

References Subak Sistem Irigasi Tradisional di Bali (Sebuah Canangsari) Publisher: Upada Sastra Denpasar Ir. Wayan Windia, SU; Ir. Wayan Sudana, MS; I Ketut Wirta Griadhi, SH; Prof. Dr. Nyoman Sutawan; Ngakan Made Samudra, SH; Ir. IGM. Suadnya; Ir. I Gde Pitana, MSc.; Ir. Nyoman Norken, MS; Drs. Ida Bgs. Pt. Purwita; IGM Jelantik Sushila, BIE; Editor: I Gde Pitana

Investigation of the water cycle using environmental tracers, Bali, Indonesia, I. KAYANE, T. TANAKA & J. SHIMADA Institute of Geoscience, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305, Japan,Y. SAKURA Department of Earth Science, Chiba University, Chiba 260, Japan, K. ITADERA Hot Spring Research Institute, Yumoto, Hakone 250-03, Japan Y. SHBVIANO Department of Culture, Utsunomiya Bunsei College, Utsunomiya 320, Japan, O. SHBMMI Department of Geography, Kagawa University, Takamatsu 760, Japan, K. MORI, Department of Geography, Mie University, Tsu 514, Japan , N. NAKAI Department of Earth Science, Nagoya University, Nagoya 464-01, Japan Are Balinese socio-religious irrigation societies called subak resilient? Contemporary challenges to the subak system and its responses, Resource Management in Asia-Pacific Program, Research School of Pacific & Asian Studies, Seminar Room B, Coombs Building, ANU, Tuesday 28 March 2006, 12.301.30pm Rachel P Lorenzen, PhD candidate rachel.p.lorenzen@anu.edu.au. Life Table Analysis of the Green Rice Leafhopper, Nephotettix virescans (Distant), an Efficient Vector of Rice Tungro Disease in Asynchronous Rice Fields in Indonesia. Resources and Population Ecology 35: 3143. Aryawan, I.G.N., I. N. Widiarta, Y. Suzuki and F. Nakasuji (1993) Priests and Programmers: Technologies of Power in the Engineered Landscape of Bali. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Lansing, J. Stephen (1991) Emergent Properties of Balinese Water Temple Networks: Coadaptation on a Rugged Fitness Landscape, American Anthropologist 95(1): 97114. Lansing, J. Stephen and James N. Kremer (1993) Volcanic Fertilization of Balinese Rice Paddies, Ecological Economics, Lansing, J. Stephen, Vanda Gerhart, James N. Kremer, Patricia Kremer, Alit Arthawiguna, Suprapto, Ida Bagus Suryawan, I Gusti Arsana, Vernon L. Scarborough and Kimberly Mikita (in press)