Transactions of the ASAE

Vol. 44(6): 14031407 E 2001 American Society of Agricultural Engineers ISSN 00012351 1403
COMPARISON OF VISCOSITY CHARACTERISTICS OF SOYBEAN
OILS WITH A MINERAL OIL TWOSTROKE ENGINE LUBRICANT
S. Fernando, M. Hanna
ABSTRACT. Soybean oil is a multipurpose oil that is used extensively in industry. The potential use of soybean oil as an
alternative lubricant in twostroke engines was studied. Physical properties of crude, degummed, and methyl ester forms of
soybean oil were measured as a function of temperature in preliminary studies. Subsequent laboratory studies of the viscosity
of crude and degummed soybean oil revealed that crude and degummed soybean oils had higher viscosities than that of the
mineral oil lubricant at a temperature of 1605 C. The viscosity index values of all the soybean oil forms were higher than that
of the mineral oil lubricant.
Keywords. Soybean oil, Lubricants, Viscosity, Viscosity index, Twostroke engines, Twostroke oil.
he primary purpose of lubrication is to separate two
surfaces sliding past each other with a film of some
material that can be sheared without causing
damage to the surfaces (Cameron, 1966). As
secondary functions, lubricating oils have to cool, clean, and
seal engine components (Drake, 1981). The primary raw
material used extensively in manufacturing commercial
lubricants is crude petroleum oil (Pugh and Court, 1949).
Lubricants have also been manufactured from naphthalene
derivatives and paraphinic derivatives of mineral oils
(Cameron, 1966). In recent years, little information has been
published on successful experiences with animal fats and
vegetable oils in the lubricant industry.
Cameron (1966) and Hersey (1966) cite the earliest
lubrication research. They state that the first studies of a
lubricated shaft and bearing running under fully
hydrodynamic conditions were by Van Pauli in 1849 and by
Hirn in 1854, who have been referred to as the fathers of
lubrication. Petroff analyzed Hirns work in 1883. In 1883
and 1885, Tower also conducted lubrication studies, and
Reynolds mathematically analyzed these results in 1886.
Reynolds paper was the foundation on which all subsequent
lubrication theory was based.
For over a century, lubricants derived primarily from
mineral oils or petroleum distillates have been used to
lubricate internal combustion engines. Because mineral oil
reserves are nonrenewable, and in an effort to address the
problem of environmental pollution caused by the use of
these petroleum derivatives, attempts have been made to find
renewable alternatives, like vegetable oils, to replace mineral
Article was submitted for review in December 2000; approved for
publication by the Power & Machinery Division of ASAE in July 2001.
The authors are Sandun Fernando, ASAE Student Member, and
Milford Hanna, ASAE Fellow Engineer, Professor, Biological Systems
Engineering, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. Corresponding
author: Milford Hanna, Biological Systems Engineering, University of
Nebraska, 211 L.W. Chase Hall, Lincoln, NE 685830730; phone:
4024721634; fax: 4024726338; email: mhanna@unlnotes.unl.edu.
oil lubricants. Soybean oil has potential as an alternative
since soybean oil currently is being used successfully as a
lubricant in various components of irrigation systems. In
addition, although there is no extensive data on the use of
soybean oil as a lubricant, analysis of its physical properties
indicates that there is good potential for using soybean oil as
a lubricant in internal combustion engines. Finally, better
yields under intense cropping systems have drastically
reduced soybean prices over the past few years because
demand has not expanded relative to yield growth. Therefore,
this study was an effort to increase the number of products
produced from soybeans.
Green (1967) pointed out that, although there are many
laboratory tests designed to test the effectiveness of
lubricating oils, actual performance can only be discovered
after the oils have been used in machines under operating
conditions over a period of time. The following is a list of
essential requirements that Green suggested a lubricating oil
should possess:
1. The oil must be capable of maintaining an efficient
lubricating film between all pairs of working surfaces in
the engine under operating conditions.
2. The oil must be chemically stable, anticorrosive, and
show good chemical resistance to oxidation in the
working environment and through the temperature range
over which the engine will operate.
3. The oil should have a high viscosity index, combining
easy cold starts and low oil shearing losses with adequate
viscosity at maximum running temperature.
4. The oil should preferably have detergent properties
capable of inhibiting deposit formation in the engine over
the range of operating conditions.
5. The oil must have film strength adequate for bearing
surfaces that have very high loadings.
6. For the lubrication of some twostroke engines, the oil
must be miscible with gasoline.
We decided to investigate whether soybean oil meets the
above requirements. Research has shown that soybean oil has
good lubricating properties. The lubricity (also known as film
T
1404 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASAE
strength) values indicate that the lubricating ability of
soybean oil is as good as that of mineral oil. During
preliminary studies, the miscibility with gasoline, lubricity
values, and viscosity values of different soybean oil forms
were investigated. The results of these studies paved the way
to using soybean oil in twostroke gasoline engines. The
reasons behind this decision were that twostroke engine
lubricating oils do not require commercial additives, and
twostroke gasoline engines run at relatively low
temperatures in comparison to diesel and fourstroke
gasoline engines.
Viscosity is frequently considered the property that
determines the effectiveness of any lubricating oil (Georgi,
1950; Green, 1967). The fact that the SAE classification
system is based solely on the viscosity of lubricants further
supports this statement. However, Green (1967) stated that,
because other factors of oil character and quality have not
been taken into account, different oils within one SAE
viscosity number might vary considerably under operating
conditions. As the SAE Handbook (1990) states, changes in
viscosity can have marked effects upon an oils suitability for
certain applications. The ability of an oil to resist changes in
viscosity due to changes in temperature is expressed as the
viscosity index (V.I.). The viscosity index is an empirical,
unitless number. The higher the V.I. of an oil, the less its
viscosity changes with temperature.
In determining the type of engine that was used in this
study, emphasis was given to the operating temperature. As
Cameron (1966) pointed out, the operating temperatures in
twostroke engines are generally around 120C under
normal conditions. In addition, as Drake (1981) pointed out,
additives like detergents are unnecessary in twostroke
engines. Drake also pointed out that most twostroke engine
manufacturers recommend mediumviscosity lubricants
(SAE 20, 30, or 40 oils), which are comparable with the
viscosity of soybean oil. For the preliminary studies, we
decided to use a manufacturerrecommended lubricant as the
control for this experiment. Consequently, in subsequent
studies, we decided to use a twostroke lawnmower from a
manufacturer that recommended the control lubricant.
OBJECTIVES
A study was designed to address the following objectives
with the intention of assessing the suitability of soybean oil
as a lubricant for twostroke internal combustion engines:
1. Compare the miscibility of different soybean oil forms
with gasoline.
2. Investigate the viscosity variation of different soybean oil
forms in order to assess the suitability of a soybean oil
form as an alternative lubricant for twostroke engines.
3. Determine and compare the viscosity index values of
different soybean oil forms with standard twostroke
engine lubricants.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
MISCIBILITY
The miscibility of different forms of soybean oil with
gasoline was studied. The different forms of soybean oil that
were compared were crude soybean oil, which was
mechanically expelled; degummed soybean oil, which was
solvent extracted; and soybean methyl ester.
These soybean oil samples were mixed with gasoline in
1:20 ratios in transparent glass containers to compare
miscibilities. The specific proportion was selected because
most twostroke engine manufacturers recommend an
oiltogasoline ratio in the range of 1:20 to 1:100 (Drake,
1981). Therefore, it was decided to compare and collate the
miscibilities at the highest oil concentration.
As the first control, twostroke engine oil was mixed with
gasoline at the same ratio. A container of uncontaminated
gasoline was utilized as the second control to contrast
between the colors of the mixtures.
VISCOSITY
An experiment was designed to find the absolute viscosity
variations with temperature of the three forms of soybean oil
and the manufacturerrecommended lubricant. Preliminary
test data were used to obtain the expected variance of the new
experiment. Analysis showed that three replications were
required to obtain satisfactory power for the experiment
(Kuehl, 2000). The statistical analysis was performed with
statistical software: The SAS System for Windows, release
8.00, and Microsoft Excel 2000.
Various statistical procedures were used to analyze the
data. The Generalized Linear Models (GLM) procedure was
used to test the effect of temperature on viscosity for different
oils. Means were compared by Dunnetts procedure
(Littell et al., 1996). The regression between viscosity and
temperature was established using Microsoft Excel 2000.
The significance of differences, where mentioned, refers to
the 95% level ( = 0.05).
TREATMENT DESIGN
There were four treatments: (1) manufacturer
recommended twostroke engine oil produced by Toro,
(2) soybean methyl ester produced by Soygold, (3) crude
soybean oil, a mechanically expelled product of Bruning
Grain and Feed Manufacturers, and (4) degummed soybean
oil produced by solvent extraction by ADM Inc. Each
treatment consisted of three replications, and thus the design
included 12 experimental units. Each experimental unit was
observed for viscosity at temperature levels ranging from
20C to 160C at 10C intervals. The manufacturer
recommended oil served as the control treatment because this
lubricant could be compared with the experimental soybean
oil forms for lubricant effectiveness.
EXPERIMENT DESIGN
A completely randomized design (CRD) was used for the
experiment. The experimental units were randomly assigned
to the four treatments. The instrument used to find the
dynamic viscosity was a Brookfield model DVE digital
viscometer. Because it was necessary for comparison to
obtain viscosity values over a range of temperatures, the
viscometer was set up to acquire the viscosity values at
different temperatures.
For heating, a hotplate with a temperature controller was
used. The oil container was placed in an oil bath on the hot
plate, and the viscosity readings were obtained at
temperatures of 20C to 160C at 10C intervals. Viscosity
was measured after the sample oil temperature reached the
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preset temperature. The temperature readings were measured
using a hightemperature glass thermometer. To obtain
viscosity values at colder temperatures, the oil samples were
cooled, and then the viscosity values were measured while
the oil samples warmed up to room temperature.
As a control, the viscosity variation of a manufacturer
recommended twostroke engine oil was measured in the
identical manner. Mathematical models were developed to
determine the viscosity values at specific temperatures for all
the oil forms.
Because kinematic viscosity is the standard practice for
reporting a lubricants viscosity, an experiment was
conducted to find the specific gravity of the four oil forms by
using the specific gravity bottle. Kinematic viscosity values
were then calculated by dividing the dynamic viscosity by the
mass density of the oils.
VISCOSITY INDEX
The viscosity index values were calculated using ASTM
standard D 227093 (reapproved 1998), adhering to the
standard practice for calculating viscosity index from
kinematic viscosity at 40C and 100C using the following
equations (SAE Handbook, 1990).
For oils of viscosity index up to and including 100:
100 VI (
,
\
,
(
j

H L
U L
(1)
where
VI = viscosity index
L = kinematic viscosity at 40C of an oil of viscosity
index 0 having the same kinematic viscosity at
100C as the oil whose viscosity index is to be
calculated (cSt)
H = kinematic viscosity at 40C of an oil of viscosity
index 100 having the same kinematic viscosity at
100C as the oil whose viscosity index is to be
calculated (cSt)
U = kinematic viscosity at 40C of the oil whose
viscosity index is to be calculated (cSt).
For oils of viscosity index 100 and greater:
( )
100
00715 . 0
1 antilog
VI +
]
]
]

N
(2)
where N = (log H log U)/log Y, or Y
N
= H/U (3)
where Y = kinematic viscosity at 100C of the oil whose ki-
nematic viscosity is to be calculated, mm
2
/s (cSt).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
MISCIBILITY
When crude soybean oil was poured into a glass container
with gasoline, the oil initially percolated to the bottom of the
container and then gradually dispersed into the gasoline. The
diffusion was clearly visible because the crude soybean oil
was yellowish in color. After shaking the contents vigorously
for approximately 30 s, the oil and gasoline were completely
mixed.
The miscibility characteristics of the degummed soybean
oil and soybean methyl ester were similar to that of the crude
soybean oil except less mixing was required. The soybean
methyl ester had superlative miscibility properties.
The manufacturerrecommended twostroke engine oil
percolated down through gasoline without any sign of
mixing. It only mixed with gasoline after vigorous shaking.
The degrees of miscibility of all forms of soybean oil were
superior to that of the twostroke engine oil.
In the miscibility study, an assumption was made that the
same relative viscosity relationships between pure soybean
oils and mineral oils would be maintained when both types
of oils were mixed with gasoline at the recommended ratios
for twostroke engines. In addition, the above methodology
was used because a more standard method was not available
to study the miscibility relationships of lubricants and
gasoline.
VISCOSITY
Figure 1 compares the viscosity variations with
temperature of the different soybean oil types and the
commercially available twostroke engine oil (Toro 50:1
twostroke engine oil).
The viscosity variation of the manufacturer
recommended twostroke engine oil with temperature had a
functional relationship of y = 67889x
1.8988
10
6
, where x
is the temperature in C and y is the kinematic viscosity in
m
2
/s.
The viscosity variation of soybean methyl ester with
temperature had a functional relationship of y =
40.959x
0.5223
10
6
, where x is the temperature in C and
y is the kinematic viscosity in m
2
/s 10
6
.
The viscosity variation of crude soybean oil with
temperature had a functional relationship of y =
2742x
1.2337
10
6
, where x is the temperature in C and y is
the kinematic viscosity in m
2
/s 10
6
.
The viscosity variation of degummed soybean oil with
temperature had a functional relationship of y =
2602.7x
1.2257
10
6
, where x is the temperature in C and
y is the kinematic viscosity in m
2
/s. The R
2
values of the
above equations are given in table 1.
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Temperature (
o
C)
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

(
m
2
/
s
)

x

1
0

6
soy methyl ester
recommended oil
crude soybean oil
degummed soybean oil
best fit curves
Figure 1. Viscosity variations of different oil forms with temperature.
Table 1. R
2
values of the bestfit curves for different oil forms.
Oil form R
2
Manufacturerrecommended oil 0.98
Soybean methyl ester 0.94
Crude soybean oil 0.99
Degummed soybean oil 0.99
1406 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASAE
Because this study was primarily directed to find
alternative twostroke engine oils, it was necessary to
compare the physical properties of the soybean oils with a
manufacturerrecommended oil. Table 2 illustrates the
comparison of the mean viscosity values at three selected
temperatures. Dunnetts mean comparison procedure was
used to compare the means at the 95% significance level.
Dunnetts procedure was used because it effectively controls
the type I experimentwise error for comparison of all
treatments against a control, unlike the protected LSD, which
controls the type I comparisonwise error rate, not the
experimentwise error rate.
As shown in table 2, all the soybean oil treatment means
were significantly different from the control with a negative
difference, and the values were greater than 40 10
6
m
2
/s
at 40C. In addition, as shown in figure 1, the manufacturer
recommended oil had considerably higher viscosity values at
lower temperatures. At 100C, there was still a significant
difference between all the treatments and the control.
However, the differences were reduced drastically from those
at 40C.
It is interesting to note that there was no significant
difference between treatments 3 and 4 and the control at
160C. In fact, the trend at the low temperatures was
reversed, with the viscosity values of the crude and
degummed soybean oil being higher than that of the control.
At lower temperatures, the crude and degummed soybean
oils had lower viscosity values than the recommended oil, as
shown in figure 1. On the other hand, at higher temperatures,
the viscosity values of the soybean oils were comparatively
high. This suggests that crude and degummed soybean oils
have higher viscosity index values.
As Drake (1981) pointed out, most twostroke engine
manufacturers recommend lubricating oils classified as
SAE 20 or SAE 30. When comparing the physical properties
of different forms of soybean oil with SAE 20, it is evident
that both crude soybean oil and degummed soybean oil
compare well with SAE 20 and ISO 68 VG. One advantage
of crude and degummed soybean oils is that they have
comparatively higher smoke and flash points than mineral oil
Table 2. Mean comparisons of viscosity values at different
temperatures using Dunnetts mean comparison procedure.
Temperature
Treatment
comparison
Difference
between
means
(m
2
/s 10
6
)
Simultaneous 95%
confidence limits
of the difference
between means
160_C 3 1
[a]
0.45 2.62 0.86
4 1 0.37 0.10 0.64
2 1 2.35 2.62 1.87
[b]
100_C 3 1 1.04 1.94 0.14
[b]
4 1 1.27 2.27 0.37
[b]
2 1 5.98 6.88 5.08
[b]
40_C 3 1 39.62 63.71 15.53
[b]
4 1 40.75 64.84 16.66
[b]
2 1 65.17 89.28 41.10
[b]
[a]
Treatment 1 = manufacturerrecommended oil
Treatment 2 = soybean methyl ester
Treatment 3 = crude soybean oil
Treatment 4 = degummed soybean oil.
[b]
Comparisons significant at the 0.05 level
derivatives. This implies that crude and degummed soybean
oils have naturally high antioxidation properties.
VISCOSITY INDEX
Figure 2 illustrates the specific gravity variation of
different oils with temperature. The given relationships were
used to obtain the specific gravity values, which were used
for calculating the kinematic viscosity values from the
absolute viscosity values.
Table 3 lists the viscosity index values that were
calculated using the procedure in ASTM standard D 2270. It
is interesting to note that all forms of soybean oil have
superior viscosity index values in comparison to the
manufacturerrecommended oil. As ASTM standard D 2270
points out, the viscosity index is widely used and is an
accepted measure of the variation in kinematic viscosity of
oil due to changes in temperature. A higher viscosity index
(V.I.) indicates a smaller decrease in kinematic viscosity with
increasing temperature of the lubricant. Therefore, for the
three oils with similar kinematic viscosity values at 160C,
the two soybean oil forms (i.e., crude soybean oil and
degummed soybean oil) have higher V.I. values in
comparison to the manufacturerrecommended oil. This
implies that crude soybean oil and degummed soybean oil
have better viscosityholding properties than the
manufacturerrecommended oil, especially at crucial high
temperatures.
Although the V.I. of soybean methyl ester is the highest of
all the oils compared, the viscosity of the soybean methyl
ester was comparatively low at low temperatures, and the
smoke point was reached at 127C. Consequently, the use of
soybean methyl ester as a lubricant in internal combustion
engines is precluded when the operating temperatures in the
engine block are higher than 127C.
The tests of miscibility, viscosity, and viscosity index
suggest that crude and degummed soybean oils have a high
propensity for succeeding as alternative lubricating oils in
y = 0.0006x + 0.9358
y = 0.0007x + 0.8985
y = 0.0005x + 0.8833
0.78
0.8
0.82
0.84
0.86
0.88
0.9
0.92
0.94
0 50 100 150 200
Temperature
o
C
recommended 2S oil
soybean oil
soy methyl ester
Figure 2. Specific gravity variation of different oil soybean oil forms and
a commercial twostroke engine oil with temperature.
Table 3. Viscosity index values calculated using ASTM standards.
Oil type Viscosity index
Manufacturerrecommended oil 116.45
Soybean methyl ester 853.43
Crude soybean oil 273.46
Degummed soybean oil 275.35
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twostroke engines. Nevertheless, there have been concerns
of carbon deposits when using untransesterfied oils from re-
newable resources in diesel engines. Subsequent twostroke
engine testing, which is beyond the scope of this article, re-
vealed that there was little evidence of such deposits at proper
oiltogasoline mixtures. Our interpretation was that carbon
deposits would be minimized with the low level of oil sub-
stitution used in this study. Longerterm implications will
have to be documented.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The miscibility of soybean oil with gasoline is satisfactory
when mixed in an oiltogasoline ratio of 1:20 at a
temperature of 25C. The viscosity values of crude and
degummed forms of soybean oil fall within the viscosity
standards of SAE 20, or thinner, lubricants. The viscosity of
crude soybean oil is close to SAE 30. The viscosity index
values of the soybean oil forms are higher than that of the
manufacturerrecommended twostroke engine oil.
Consequently, the effect of temperature was greater on the
viscosity of manufacturerrecommended oil than on the
soybean oil forms. Therefore, it could be concluded that the
viscosity characteristics of crude and degummed soybean
oils at higher temperatures were equal or superior to those of
the recommended petroleum derivatives.
In order to move ahead with utilizing soybean oil as a
commercial twostroke engine lubricant, further studies
should be performed under laboratory and field conditions.
The proposed studies are:
1. Soybean oil and derivatives should be subjected to
standard lubrication tests.
2. More extensive engine tests should be conducted to
determine the optimum ratio of crude soybean oil to
gasoline for commercial usage.
3. The prospective soybean oil and derivatives should be
tested in a demonstration study with different types of
twostroke machinery under different load conditions.
4. Different vegetable oil types should be blended with
soybean oil to improve the physical properties of the end
product for better performance and wider application.
REFERENCES
Cameron, A. 1966. The Principles of Lubrication. New York, N.Y.:
John Wiley and Sons.
Drake, G. R. 1981. Small Gasoline Engines: Maintenance,
Troubleshooting, and Repair. Reston, Va.: Reston Publishing
Co.
Georgi, C. W. 1950. Motor Oils and Engine Lubrication. New
York, N.Y.: Reinhold Publishing.
Green, A. B. 1967. Lubrication and Lubricants. E. R. Brainthwaite,
ed. New York, N.Y.: Elsevier Publishing Co.
Hersey, M. D. 1966. Theory and Research in Lubrication:
Foundation for Future Developments. New York, N.Y.: John
Wiley and Sons.
Kuehl, R. O. 2000. Design of Experiments: Statistical Principles of
Research Design and Analysis. 2nd ed. Belmont, Cal.:
Brooks/Cole Inc.
Littell, R., C. Milliken, G. A. Stroup, and R. D. Wolfinger. 1996.
SAS system for mixed models. Cary, N.C.: SAS Institute Inc.
Pugh, B., and J. M. A. Court. 1949. Fuels and Lubricating Oils for
Internal Combustion Engines. London, U.K.: Sir Isaac Pitman
and Sons Ltd.
SAE Handbook. 1990. Vol. 03: Engines, fuels, lubricants,
emissions, and noise. Warrendale, Pa.: Society of Automotive
Engineers, Inc.
1408 TRANSACTIONS OF THE ASAE