CHANGES IN DEMOGRAPHIC AND AGRICULTURAL FACTORS AND THEIR IMPACT ON CROPPING INTENSITY AND NUTRIENT STATUS IN SOILS OF KALAPARA

UPAZILA: A CASE STUDY

Course Title: Project Thesis Course No. SS 5206

KHULNA UNIVERSITY KHULNA

JULY, 2012

CHANGES IN DEMOGRAPHIC AND AGRICULTURAL FACTORS AND THEIR IMPACT ON CROPPING INTENSITY AND NUTRIENT STATUS IN SOILS OF KALAPARA UPAZILA: A CASE STUDY
This project thesis paper has been prepared and submitted to Soil Science Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna, as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Soil Science.

Submitted By .. Angshuman Sarker Student ID. MS 111322 Session: 2010-11

KHULNA UNIVERSITY KHULNA

JULY, 2012

CHANGES IN DEMOGRAPHIC AND AGRICULTURAL FACTORS AND THEIR IMPACT ON CROPPING INTENSITY AND NUTRIENT STATUS IN SOILS OF KALAPARA UPAZILA: A CASE STUDY

APPROVED AS TO STYLE AND CONTENT BY

. KhandokerQudrataKibria
Head and Associate Professor Chairman of the Examination Committee Soil Science Discipline Khulna University, Khulna
KHULNA UNIVERSITY KHULNA

JULY, 2012 3

CHANGES IN DEMOGRAPHIC AND AGRICULTURAL FACTORS AND THEIR IMPACT ON CROPPING INTENSITY AND NUTRIENT STATUS IN SOILS OF KALAPARA UPAZILA: A CASE STUDY

Supervisor

. Md. Sanaul Islam

Associate Professor Soil Science Discipline Khulna University, Khulna

KHULNA UNIVERSITY KHULNA

JULY, 2012 4

CHANGES IN DEMOGRAPHIC AND AGRICULTURAL FACTORS AND THEIR IMPACT ON CROPPING INTENSITY AND NUTRIENT STATUS IN SOILS OF KALAPARA UPAZILA: A CASE STUDY

Co-Supervisor

. Md. ZaberHossain
Assistant Professor Soil Science Discipline Khulna University, Khulna

KHULNA UNIVERSITY KHULNA

JULY, 2012

Contents

Contents List of Tables List of Figures CHAPTER: 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Objectives CHAPTER: 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Coastal Areas of Bangladesh

i-iv iii iv 01 03 04 05 06 07 07 13 14 15 16 16 17 18 18 18 19 19 20 25 25 27 30 30 30 30 31 32 32

2.1.1. Population pressure in coastal areas 2.1.2. Cultivable land in coastal areas 2.2. Cropping Patterns and Cropping Intensity in Bangladesh 2.2.1.Cropping Pattern and Cropping Intensity in Kalapara upazila 2.3.Nutrient status in soils of Bangladesh 2.3.1. Nitrogen 2.3.2. Phosphorus 2.3.3. Potassium 2.3.4. Sulphur 2.3.5. Zinc 2.3.6. Calcium and Magnesium 2.3.7. Boron 2.3.8. Other Micronutrients 2.4. Nutrient Status of Kalapara Upazila 2.5. Cropping Intensity and Its Effect on Nutrient Status 2.6. Soil Salinity 2.6.1. Present Soil Salinity Status in Coastal Area 2.6.2. Effect of Salinity on Fertility Status of Soil CHAPTER 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1.Conceptualization and Work plan prepation Materials 3.2. Study Area 3.2.1. Area and Geographical Location 3.2.2. Demography 3.2.3. Topography and Relief 3.2.4. General Geology of the Study Area
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3.2.5. Land Use Pattern 3.2.5.1. Cropland 3.2.5.2. Settlement 3.2.5.3. Fallow Land 3.2.6. Soil type 3.2.7. Climatic Condition 3.2.7.1. Rainfall 3.2.7.2. Temperature 3.2.7.3. Humidity 3.3. Selection of the Study Area 3.4. Data Collection 3.4.1. Cropping Intensity Determination 3.5. Data Interpretation 3.6. Data Processing and Analysis CHAPTER 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1. Increase in population 4.2. Reduction of Cultivable land 4.3. Increase of Cropping Intensity 4.4. Increase of Salinity 4.5. Depletion of major Nutrient content 4.5.1. Nitrogen Depletion 4.5.2. Phosphorus Depletion 4.5.3. Potassium Depletion 4.5.4. Sulfur Depletion 4.5.5. Calcium Depletion 4.5.6. Zinc Depletion 4.5.7. Boron Depletion CHAPTER 5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION REFERENCES

32 33 33 34 34 34 34 34 35 35 35 36 36 36 37 37 38 39 39 40 40 41 42 43 44 45 45 47 48 - 60

List of Tables
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 3.1 3.2 3.3 Population growth trend in the coastal area Some dominant cropping patterns under variable crop production environments Cropping intensity rating Last 10 year cropping intensity of Bangladesh Major cropping patterns and cropping intensity in Kalapara Nutrient status of Ganges tidal floodplain Nutrient status of Kalapara upazila Emergence of new nutrient deficiency with time Extent of soil salinity during about last four decades (19732009) in coastal areas Estimation of salt affected areas(in 000 ha) in Patuakhali Agro-chemical characteristics of soil in some of the coastal and offshore areas (saline belt) of Bangladesh Represents increase of population in Union of Kalapara upazila after 10 years Represents the cropland use of Kalapara upazila Cropping intensity of Kalapara upazila 06 10 11 12 14 20 20 24 26 27 28 32 33 36

List of Figures

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 4.1 4.2a 4.2b 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11

Land coverage status of major crops in Bangladesh Acreage of different types of rice cultivated in Bangladesh Land used under minor crops in Bangladesh Nutrient input-output system N+P+K input and output in Bangladesh Location map of the study area Population growth of five unions in Kalapara upazilla Reduction of Cultivable land Reduction of per capita land Increase in Cropping Intensity Increase in salinity Depletion of Nitrogen Depletion of Phosphorus Depletion of Patassium Depletion of Sulfer Depletion of calcium Depletion of Zink Depletion of Boron

8 8 8 15 24 31 37 38 38 39 40 41 42 43 43 44 45 46

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

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1. Introduction Due to population increase, changes in the composition of the human diet and increasing demand for bio-fuels, it is necessary to increase global crop production in order to avoid a new era of malnutrition and hunger (Liu and Savenije,2008). The food production increases in Arithmetic mean but population grows in Geometric progression. So it is impossible to keep pace with the agricultural production and increasing population. So far, the discussion on how to achieve the required increase of crop production has been mainly restricted to the question of how many resources (e.g. water, nutrients, energy, germplasm) are needed, and whether an extension of the global cropland will be necessary or whether an increase of crop yields will be sufficient (Neumann et al., 2010). Cropping intensity is defined as the number of crops harvested per year and large differences are reported in both space and time. Shifting cultivation is still practiced by millions of farmers mainly in the tropics and subtropics and crop cultivation is interrupted in these systems by fallow periods that may last decades (Hiernaux et al., 2009). In contrast, up to four crops are harvested per year in very intensive land use systems under similar climate conditions (Tanaka, 1995; Siebert et al., 2007). Crop duration ratio is another indicator of land use intensity. Crop duration ratio is defined as the fraction of the year in which the cropland is covered with crops (Siebert et al., 2010). According to the agricultural statistics database of the Food and agriculture Organization of the united Nations FAO (2010), total cropland extent at the global scale, computed as the sum of arable land and permanent crop area, is about 15.3 million km2. These statistics account for all cropland used at least once in a five-year period, but neglect areas with longer fallow periods. The total harvested crop area reported in the same database is 11.8 million km2 yr-1, indicating a global average cropping intensity of 0.77 crop harvests per year. However, the extent of fallow land is larger than the difference between global cropland extent and global harvested crop areas because many areas are harvested more than once per year (Siebert et al., 2010). With rising cropping intensities in South Asia, nutrient management is a major issue being addressed by agricultural scientists for understanding any decline in yields. Many long-term fertility experiments established in the region decades ago show no evidence of yield decline at the farmers field level (Abrol et al., 1997).
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The intensive cropping systems introduced by the Green Revolution impose much heavier demands on crop nutrients than traditional systems had; nutrient deficiencies, therefore, are a common problem. Intensive agricultural practices can also result in changes in soil physical and chemical properties. In irrigated rice, the formation of a plowpan is a frequent problem, impeding root growth and limiting access to nutrients. Irrigation can also cause salinization or water-logging. The yield declines observed in the IRRI long-term cropping trials are thought to result from anaerobic conditions in irrigated rice production leading to changes in soil physical and chemical properties which make it less able to supply nutrients to growing crops (Dey and Haq, 2009). Climate change is an important issue nowadays. Various human activities are making the world hot to hotter. The ultimate result is global warming, i.e. climate change. Rising temperature in the atmosphere causes sea level rise and affects low lying coastal areas and deltas of the world. In 1990, Intergovermental panel on climate change estimates that with business-as-usual scenario of greenhouse gas emission, the world would be 3.3C warmer by the end of the next country, with a range of uncertainty of 2.2 to 4.9C. With rise in Sea level rise will cause river bank erosion, salinity intrusion, flood, damage to infrastructures, crop failure, fisheries destruction, loss of biodiversity, etc. along this coast. Salinity intrusion due to sea level rise will decrease agricultural production by unavailability of fresh water and soil degradation. Salinity also decreases the terminative energy and germination rate of some plants (Warrick et al., 1993). Salinity is an environmental stress that limits growth and development in plants. The response of plants to excess NaCl is complex and involves changes in their morphology, physiology and metabolism (Hilal et al., 1998). Salinity is a very serious constraint to crop plant growth in about 100 countries of the world (Munns, 2002; Sadiq, 2003). It can inhibit plant growth by a range of mechanisms, including low external water potential, ion toxicity and interference with the uptake of nutrients (Munns and Schachtman, 1995; Taffouo et al., 2009). Salinity toxicity is a worldwide agricultural and eco-environmental problem. It is one of the most important problems in crop growth and production (Ashraf, 2009). Approximately one-third of the world land surface is arid and semi-arid, of which one half is affected by salinity (Liang et al., 1996). It is estimated that about a third of the worlds cultivated land is affected by salinity. The problem of salinity is of special importance in Egypt for both the old cultivated area as well as for the newly reclaimed lands. The major constraints for plant growth and productivity are ion toxicity with excessive
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uptake of mainly Cl- and Na+ as well as nutrients imbalance caused by disturbed uptake or distribution of essential mineral nutrients (Hu and Schmidhalter, 2005). Living with salinity is the only way of sustaining agricultural production in the salt affected soil (Al-Rawahy et al., 2011). Salinity stress causes a number of effects on plants such as osmotic effects, ion toxicity and nutrient imbalance. During a long time in salinity, therefore, the sodium toxicity cause to reduce the yield. There are antagonistic effects on nutrient uptake by plants that cause nutrient disorders particularly of K and Ca under salinity conditions (Castillo et al., 2003). The hypothesis therefore, is that fast population growth, rapid urbanization, increasing food demand, high cropping intensity, intensive cultivation practices and salinity in the study area may also entail negative impacts on soil fertility and nutrition and finally may perish sustainability in agricultural use. In this research work the focus mainly would be on impact of forgoing factors on some specific nutrient status in soils of studied unions of Kalapara Upazila. 1.1. Objective Objectives of this research work are To assess the rate of change of the triggering factors in the study areas To estimate the impact of the change of the factors on nutrient status in the studied unions of Kalapara Upazila. .

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CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

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2. Review of Literature Bangladesh is an agro-based developing nation where majority of the people directly or indirectly depend of agriculture. Crop agriculture in Bangladesh is constrained every year by challenges, such as a) Loss of Arable Land, b) Population Growth, c) Climate Changes, d) Inadequate Management Practices, e) Unfair Price of Produces, and f) Insufficient Investment in Research. Bangladesh has lost about l million ha of arable land from 1983 to 1996. Virtually, no step has been taken by the government to arrest this loss. The landuse policy prepared by the government several years back has not yet been implemented. Population growth poses another great threat to crop productivity. Besides, crop agriculture in Bangladesh has become regularly vulnerable to the hazards of climate changeflood, drought, and salinity in particular (Mondal, 2010). Bangladesh has one of the highest population densities in the world. The population of Bangladesh followed an exponentially increasing trend during the past century. Growth rate of population at present stands 1.42 % (BBS, 2011). Population is increasing at the rate of 2 million per year and the total population would be around 233 million by 2050 if the current growth rate continues. Such a growth rate of a country of 1,43,000 sq. km is viewed as a great challenge not only to different economic development activities but also as crisis to accommodation, environment and meeting other basic needs (food, education, and health). The rapid growth of population and land loss impedes the agriculture development of this country. For this reason the net cropped sown area of the country is decreasing but the cropping intensity is increasing over times (Mondal, 2010). Increased crop productivity from the shrinking land resources is the urgent need to meet the increased food demand of the swelling population of Bangladesh. Food requirement of the country is estimated to be doubled in the next 25 years. To feed the teeming million the land resources in Bangladesh is intensively used for crop production. Since land is a scarce resource in Bangladesh, the only choice is to increase in cropping intensity. This resulted in increasing demand for nutrients, which was reflected in more nutrient deficiencies exhibited by the crops (Islam and Haq, 1999).

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2.1. Coastal Areas of Bangladesh The coastal areas of Bangladesh is different from rest of the country not only because of its unique geo-physical characteristics but also for different sociopolitical consequences that often limits peoples access to endowed resources and perpetuate risk and vulnerabilities. Coastal areas include coastal plain islands, tidal flats, estuaries, neretic and offshore waters. It extends to the edge of a wide (about 20 km) continental self. A vast river network, a dynamic estuarine system and a drainage basin intersect the coastal zone, which made coastal ecosystem as a potential source of natural resources, diversified fauna and flora composition, though there also have immense risk of natural disasters (Islam et al., 2006). The coastal areas cover the nineteen districts in the south and south-east parts of Bangladesh. It occupies 32% of the total area and 28% of the population of Bangladesh (Islam, 2004). It covers an area from the shore of 37 to 195 km. whereas the exposed coast is limited to a distance of 37 to 57 km (Islam et al., 2006). The coastal belt of Bangladesh is divided into three distinct regions, that is, the western, central and eastern regions. The western and central zones are very flat and low. The land here is criss-crossed by numerous rivers and channels with a large number of islands. The western zone of Satkhira, Khulna, Bagerhat, Perojpur is home to the famous mangrove forest, the Sundarbans. A submarine canyon, Swatch of No Ground runs NE-SW upto about 24 km. south of the western coast of the country. The central region of Barguna, Patuakhali, Bhola, Barisal, Lakshmipur, Noakhali, Feni is geomorphologically most active land formation process making a new shape of land features. These areas are facing a lot of natural hazards that is salinity intrusion, cyclones, and tidal surges, floods almost every year (Ahmed, 2011). People living in different coastal areas have been suffering from lack of food security. There are many reasons behind that such as lower crop productivity and less fertility in soil due to increased salinity, increased cropping intensity, increased incidences of pests and diseases, erratic rainfall, higher temperature, drought, tidal surges, cyclone, submergence, large fallow lands/water bodies, land degradation, poor road network, poor marketing facilities and unemployment with long-term cumulative effects of soil-related constraints, climate risks and socio-economic problems (Miah, 2010).

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2.1.1. Population Pressure in Coastal Areas This coastal area represents an area of 47,211 km2, 32 percent of the countrys geographical area, wherein 35 million people i.e. 28 percent of the countrys total population live at 6.85 million households (Population census in 2001). In terms of administrative consideration, 19 districts out of 64 are considered as coastal district. A study of IPPC reveals that 20 percent and 40 percent of the world population live within 30 kilometers and 100 kilometers of the coast respectively, which is very true in regards to Bangladeshs perspective (Inter Governmental Panel of Climate Change, 2001). Again, population growth rate in the coastal areas is higher than the national average. In between 1991- 2001 the average population growth rate was 1.29, if so continued then by 2020 the coastal population will be 44 million, more people will be landless, and more people will be city bounded for livelihood earning. Official poverty indicators show a slightly higher percentage of the population living below the absolute poverty line in the coastal zone compared to the country as a whole (52 percent vs. 49 percent), while the GDP per capita and the annual GDP growth rates in the coastal zone are more or less similar to the national averages(Ahmad, 2005). Urban population in Bangladesh has increased at an annual exponential rate of 6.1 percent during the inter-census period of last forty years (1961-2001). Urban population growth has been slightly lower in the coastal zone with annual growth rate of 5.9 percent. With the increasing population, land is being converted from productive purposes, such as crop cultivation, to other uses. Bangladesh is losing good quality agricultural land by approximately 80,000 ha annually to urbanization, building of new infrastructure and implementation of other development projects (World Bank, 2005). Table 2.1. Population growth trend in the coastal area
Year Coastal rural 2001 2010 2020 27 25 22 8 14 22 Population(million) Costal urban 35 39 44 Total Urban population (%) 23 36 50

(Source: Coastal livelihoods, ICZM, 2003)

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2.1.2. Cultivable Land in Coastal Areas The coastal area covers about 20% of the country and over thirty percent of the net cultivable area. It extends inside up to 150 km from the coast. Out of 2.85 million hectares of the coastal and offshore areas about 0.83 million hectares are arable lands, which cover over 30% of the total cultivable lands of Bangladesh. A part of the coastal area, the Sundarbans, is a reserve natural mangrove forest covering about 4,500 km2. The remaining part of the coastal area is used in agriculture. The cultivable areas in coastal districts are affected with varying degrees of soil salinity. The coastal and offshore area of Bangladesh includes tidal, estuaries and river floodplains in the south along the Bay of Bengal. Agricultural land use in these areas is very poor, which is roughly 50% of the countrys average (Petersen and Shireen, 2001). Observations in the recent past indicated that due to increasing degree of salinity of some areas and expansion of salt affected area as a cause of further intrusion of saline water, normal crop production becomes more restricted. In general, soil salinity is believed to be mainly responsible for low land use as well as cropping intensity in the area. Salinity in the country received very little attention in the past. Increased pressure of growing population demand more food. Thus it has become increasingly important to explore the possibilities of increasing the potential of these (saline) lands for increased production of crops (Haque, 2006). 2.2. Cropping Pattern and Cropping Intensity in Bangladesh Physiographically, Bangladesh has three categories of lands: floodplains (80%), terraces (8%) and hills (12%). Crop cultivation is intense in floodplain soils. At present, rice covers about 79.4 percent of cultivated land. Area coverage by other crops is: pulses (4.64%), wheat (3.92%), oilseeds (3.77%), jute (3.71%), sugarcane (1.23%), potato (1.11%), fruits (0.84%) and vegetables (1.39%) (Fig. 2.1) This production system dominated by a single crop (i.e. rice) is neither scientific nor acceptable from the economic point of view. It is therefore necessary to increase the cultivation and production of other crops. However, considering the increasing demand for food grains and with a view to ensuring food security (forecast for 2012), production of rice will continue to have priority in the food grain production programmes (Roy and Farid, 2011). Rice production systems make a vital contribution to the reduction of hunger and poverty in Bangladesh. Total rice
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production in Bangladesh was 10.32 million tons in the year 1975-76 when the country's population was only 79.90 millions and cultivated rice area was 10.32 million ha (DAE, 2007). However, the country is producing 34.28 million tons rice in the year of 2008-09, where Boro rice contributed more than 55% (18.5 million tons). From the analysis of the last few years data we found that its contribution in total rice production follows an increasing trend. Fig. 2.1. Land coverage status of major crops in Bangladesh

(Source: Roy and Farid, 2011) Recently, the rate is increasing rapidly due to adoption of high yielding rice varieties, including modern rice cultivation technologies, improvement irrigation facilities and applications of fertilizer and pesticides. It has been broadly divided into three classes viz, aman (transplanted and broadcast varieties), boro, and aush according to the season in which they are harvested, namely, in December-January, March-May and July-August respectively. Again, of these varieties transplanted aman is the most important and covers about 46.30% of the paddy area, followed by boro (26.85%), aus (17.59%) and broadcast aman (9.26%) (Fig 2.2) (Basak, 2010). Fig. 2.2. Acreage of different types of rice cultivated in Bangladesh

(Source: BBS, 2008)

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Crops that are grown on less than one per cent of the gross cropped area (GCA) of a country are considered minor crops. In Bangladesh gram, millets and maize, onion, black gram, sweet potato, groundnut, green pea, sesame, linseed, garlic, pea and barley, etc. are usually considered as minor crops (Fig. 2.3) In addition some crops, including certain vegetables, spices, etc. occupy a very insignificant proportion of the GCA (i.e., less than 0.10 per cent to each crop), and they account for 1.57 per cent altogether (Mainuddin et al., 2011). Fig. 2.3. Land used under minor crops in Bangladesh

(Source: BBS, 2008) A spatial and temporal arrangement of crops within a cropping year is largely determined by physical, biological, and socio-economic factors. There are three cropping seasons (Rabi, Kharif-I or Pre-Kharif, and Kharif-II) during a year in Bangladesh (Banglapedia, 2006a). The major cropping pattern in Bangladesh agriculture mostly consists of rice based cereal crops. More than 60% of the total cropped area covered by Boro-T. aman rice cropping patterns in Bangladesh (FRG, 1997). Rice is grown in three seasons. Aman, grown during July/August to

December/ January, is part rain-fed (during early part of growth) and part dry season crop (during flowering and harvest time). This is followed by boro, grown at present under irrigated conditions during the laargely dry period from February/March to April/May. Aus are grown in rainfed conditions; it falls in between boro and aman season but may overlap with both. This means that the longer-duration varieties of rice do not allow for more than two rice crops per season on the same land, although other crops may be grown, depending on duration of the crop and other agronomic factors. The growth in rice output over the last quarter of a century has been characterized by increasing reliance on irrigated boro cultivation, using fertilizer20

intensive high-yielding varieties (HYVs). Boro rice now accounts for the bulk of rice grown in the country (Asaduzzaman et al., 2010). Table 2.2. Some dominant cropping patterns under variable crop production environments
Rabi Rainfed condition Irrigated condition Wheat/Boro/Wheat/Potato/ Tobacco/Vegetables Fallow T. Aus T.Aman Fallow Wheat/Potato/Pulses/Oilseeds/Sugarcane Kharif-I Boro Aus/Jute Kharif-II Fallow

(Source: Banglapedia, 2006a)

Depending on the land type, soil characteristics, and water availability, rice cropping may be single, double, or triple. In general, double or triple rice cropping is practised in high land areas. In medium lowlands, mixed cropping of Aus and broadcast Aman is a common practice, while in deeply flooded lands, single cropping of broadcast Aman (deepwater rice) in Kharif, or Boro in Rabi, is the common practice. Non-rice crops are generally grown as a sequential or intercrop with rice. Most non-rice crops are dryland crops, although some crops like jute (Deshi type), millets (Kaon), and sugarcane can tolerate some degree of submergence at later stages of growth. Jute is grown in the Kharif-I season, competes with Boro Aus for land, and is considered a substitute crop for Boro Aus in cropping patterns. The dry (Rabi) season crops included in cropping patterns may be early, middle, or late, depending upon land types, recessions of floods, and dates of harvests of the preceding crops (Basak, 2010). A change in cropping pattern thus implies a change in the proportion of area under different crops. The cropping pattern in an area depends largely on agro-climatic, technical and institutional factors (Vaidyanathan, 1987). The change of cropping pattern is basically the results of the adoption of new crops and the intensification of cultivation through multiple cropping. More precisely, changing in cropping pattern over time are also function of changes in the extent and quality of irrigation and the relative costs of and returns to competing crops and crop combinations (ghosh, 2011).

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Cropping intensity, defined as the ratio of gross temporary cropped area to net temporary cropped area per annum. Intensity of cropping represents the ratio of the gross cropped area to the net temporary cropped area expressed in terms of percentage. It indicates the extent to which the same area is used for cropping (Ahmed, 1992). Cropping intensities were calculated by the following formula as suggested by Sing (2004). Total cropped area Intensity of cropping = Net cultivated area Calculating cropping intensity Step1. Assign a number to each crop in the rotation based on its crop type. 0 1 1 1 = summer fallow = cool season crops (wheat, canola, lentil) = short season crops (millet, green fallow) = full season crops (corn, sunflower, sorghum, soybean) X 100

Step 2. Add the intensity values for all crops in the rotation and divide by the number of years in the rotation to obtain an intensity rating (Table 2.2)

Table 2.3. Cropping intensity rating

Examples of Cropping Intensity Rating Rotation Wheat-fallow Wheat-corn-fallow Wheat-corn-millet-fallow Wheat-corn-pea Springwheat-winter wheat-corn-sunflower Spring wheat-corn-soybean Corn-soybean Winter wheat-sorghum-corn-soybean (Source: Beck et al., 1998). Rating 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.33 1.5 1.67 2.0 2.33

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Bangladesh faces formidable challenges to feed its population in the future from an increasingly vanishing and degraded natural resource base for agriculture. The agriculture is still an important segment of the countrys economy though the contribution of broad agriculture sector in 2005-06 to GDP was 21.84%. Crops and vegetables accounted for about 12% of GDP. About 52 percent of the total labor forces of the country are engaged in agriculture (MOF, 2007). To feed the growing population of Bangladesh (at the rate 1.59% per year) increased agriculture production especially staple cereal rice is a must. In the year 2006-07, the staple cereal rice was grown in 11.30 million hectare. HYV (High Yield Variety) rice was produced on 8.50 million hectare. Of the total cropped area, 14.11 million hectares in 2004-05, the net cropped area was7.98 million hectare giving a cropping intensity of 1.77% (MOI, 2008). The Department of Agriculture Extension (DAE) claims that the current cropping intensity is 195%. Table 2.4. Last 10 years cropping intensity of Bangladesh
Year Total Land Area of the Country 14.85 14.84 14.84 14.84 14.84 14.85 14.45 14.85 14.85 14.85 Net Cultivable Land 8.40 8.48 8.42 8.40 8.44 8.29 8.29 9.09 9.09 9.23 % of Net Cultivable Land in Terms of Total Area 56.57 57.14 56.74 56.60 56.87 55.82 57.37 61.21 61.21 62.15 Net Area Sown Total Cropped Area 14.30 14.30 14.17 14.23 14.10 14.20 14.20 16.50 13.88 13.91 Cropping Intensity (%) 176.98 176.98 176.24 177.21 176.91 180.00 180.00 179.00 179.00 180.88

2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10

8.08 8.08 8.04 8.03 7.97 8.03 8.03 8.23 7.77 7.69

(Source: BBS, 2010)

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Bangladesh has made a remarkable progress in the last three decades towards achieving self sufficiency in food grains due to substantial intensification of cropping, introduction of high yielding crop varieties, and expansion of irrigated areas and increased use of chemical fertilizers. Among the factors, contribution of fertilizers leading to increased production is about 50 percent. But recently, declining or stagnation of major crop yields have been recorded due to cumulative effects of many soil-related constraints and climatic risks viz. depletion of soil organic matter, imbalanced use of fertilizers, nutrient mining, degradation of soil physical and chemical properties, erratic rainfall, temperature rise, droughts, floods, soil salinity, water salinity, tidal surges, water-logging, cyclone, scanty use of bio and organic fertilizers and poor management practices. The proportion of different nutrients used in agriculture without soil testing in recent years is highly deleterious to soil productivity. Nitrogen alone constitutes about 83 percent of total nutrient use in the country, while the use of phosphorus and potassium is limited to only about 7.75 and 9.1 percent respectively (Miah, 2010).

2.2.1. Cropping Pattern and Cropping Intensity in Kalapara Major crop cultivation in Kalapara is Transplant Aman (T- aman), Boro, potato and vegetables. Sesame, linseed, sugarcane, kaon are extinct or nearly extinct crops of the study area. Gher farming is done in some different land and also in some T-Aman cropland. T-Aman is mainly the cultivated in the Kharif-2 season. At present, about 100% cropland is used for T- aman cultivation (Banglapedia, 2006). The cropping pattern T. Aman Fallow Fallow has the highest coverage in the Kalapara upazila. Some areas were cultivated for production of high yielding

varieties during Boro season, where the irrigation facilities were available either from surface water or groundwater sources. The Boro area could be expanded by introducing salt tolerant Boro Variety BRRI Dhan 47, where the water salinity ranges upto 8 dS/m. Pulse followed by T. Aman pattern dominated in Kalapara upazila. The highest cropping intensity of 199% was observed in Kalapara upazila followed by other coastal upazilas (Bala and Hossain, 2009).

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Table 2.5. Major cropping patterns and cropping intensity in of kalapara upazila (2008)
Major cropping pattern % Coverage Cropping intensity (%)

T. Aman Fallow Fallow T. Aman Khesari Fallow/ T. Aus T. Aman Mung Fallow/ T. Aus T. Aman Fallow Aus T. Aman Cowpea Aus T. Aman Cowpea Fallow

27.7 18.9 6.8 13.0 12.7 11.0

199

(Source: Bala and Hossain, 2009)

2.3. Nutrient Status in Soils of Bangladesh Soil Fertility capability of soils to supply elements essential for plant growth without a toxic concentration of any element. It is the inherent capacity of a soil to supply 14 of the 17 essential nutrient elements to the growing crop. Fertility is the potential nutrient status of a soil to produce crops. Soil productivity is a measure of the soils ability to produce a particular crop or sequence of crops under a specified management system (Banglapedia, 2006). Nutrient status depends on nutrient balance of soil. Nutrient Balance is the sum of nutrients inputs minus the sum of nutrients outputs; the balance may be positive or negative. Positive balance indicates nutrient accumulation and negative balance shows nutrient depletion (mining). To achieve sustainability, the quantity of nutrients inputs and outputs could be equal. Nutrient mining may eventually cause soil degradation and affect crop production. On the other hand, excess nutrient accumulation may lead to soil and water pollution (BARC, 2005). Input = Output: Sustainable system Input > Output: Plant nutrient build-up/ Soil fertility increase. This may in Extreme cases eventually lead to soil and water pollution. Input < Output: Nutrient depletion or nutrient mining. May lead to serious soil degradation.

In calculating nutrient balance, fertilizer, manure, BNF, deposition (rain), sedimentation (flood) and irrigation water can be regarded as nutrients inputs, and the crop produce, crop residues, leaching, gaseous losses (leaching and denitrification)
25

and soil erosion as nutrients outputs (Fig. 2.4 ) Hence, these major inputs and outputs can be considered for calculating nutrient balance to understand partial or apparent nutrient balance. Although the nutrient balance value tells us little about available nutrient status of soils, it has important implications when considering the future longterm total status of nutrients in soils. Nutrient balance values varied with locations, cropping systems and nutrient management practices (BARC, 2005).

Fig. 2.4. Nutrient input-output system

(Source: FRG, 2005)

The role of macro and micronutrients is crucial in crop nutrition and thus important for achieving higher yields. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K), being primary essential nutrient, have prime importance in crop nutrition (Raun and Johnson, 1999). Bangladesh has wide variety and complexity of soils at short distances due to a diverse nature of physiography, parent materials, lands, and hydrology and drainage conditions. Due to intensive cropping to grow more food, continuous changes are taking place in the soil fertility status due to organic matter depletion, nutrient deficiencies, drainage impedance/water logging followed by degradation of soil physical and chemical properties as well as soil salinity/acidity. The fertility status of Bangladesh soils is extremely variable (Kafiluddin, 2008).

2.3.1. Nitrogen Nitrogen is generally considered as the key nutrient in Bangladesh agriculture because of its low supply in the soils. Portch and Islam (1984) reported that 100% of

26

Bangladesh soils studied contained available N below critical level. Most of the agricultural soils are critically deficient in this nutrient.

The main reasons for such deficiency are due to: - Intense decomposition of organic matter - Rapid removal of mineralized products under high leaching conditions and - crop removal. Total nitrogen content of Bangladesh soils range from 0.032% in the Shallow RedBrown Terrace Soils to 0.20% in Peat Soils. For wetland rice, soil test values for nitrogen interpreted as low, medium and optimum are 0.090-0.180, 0.181-0.271 and 0.271- 0.360%, respectively (Kafiluddin, 2008).

2.3.2. Phosphorus Phosphorus is recognized as an important mineral element limiting crop growth and production (Batten et al., 1984). It is generally considered as the second most limiting nutrient after N for plant growth (Vance, 2001). The available P in Bangladesh soils could be considered to be between low and medium. About 20.7% areas were reported to be predominantly low in available P and 21.2% were medium in available P which is limiting crop production. Therefore, one of the adverse effects in agriculture practice in Bangladesh is phosphorus deficiency. Plants cannot live at phosphate concentration below two parts per ten million in soil solution (Nautiyal et al., 2000). For wetland rice, soil P contents of 6.0-12.0 g g-1soil are considered as low, 12.1-18.0 g g-1 soil as medium and 18.0-24.0 g g-1 soil as optimum. The critical level of P by the Olsen method, which is extensively used for rice, has been considered as 8.0 g g-1soil in Bangladesh so long (Kafiluddin, 2008).

2.3.3. Potassium Potassium is the seventh most common element in the Earths crust and is essential for plant growth. Potassium, along with N and P, are the three major macronutrients contributing to many functions in plants. The essentiality of this macronutrient was known after Von Liebigs published work in 1840 (Sparks, 2000). Potassium is one of the major nutrients and absorbed in large quantities by crops. Intensive cropping with modern rice varieties is responsible for increasing the K deficiency in soil (Tiwari,
27

1985). Most of the north-western parts of Bangladesh are deficient in potassium (BARC, 2005). The critical levels of potassium for Bangladesh soils have been determined 0.09-0.18 meq/100g soil as low, 0.18-0.27 meq/100g as medium, 0.270.36 meq/100 g as optimum and above 0.36 meq/100 g high (Kafiluddin, 2008). Regmi et al. 2002 reported that depletion of soil K and inadequate K fertilization seem to be the primary reason of limiting and declining yield of the first rice and wheat crop. Shah et al. 2008 reported that continuous omission of K in fertilizer schedule for 23 yrs resulted in about 41% reduction of Boro rice yield over 100% NPKSZn fertilization. The general recommended dose of K fertilizer for MV rice in Bangladesh only around 35-40 kg K/ha (BARC, 1997), while an average rice yield (4.0 t/ha) removes at least 70 kg K/ha from the soil. This level of K fertilization may not be adequate for sustaining favorable K status of the soil in the long run.

2.3.4. Sulphur Sulfur (S) deficiency has been recognized as a constraint on crop production all over the world (Eriksen et al., 2004; Girma et al., 2005; Schonhof et al., 2007; Mascagni et al., 2008) becoming a limiting factor to higher yields and fertilizer efficiency. Sulphur has been recognized as the fourth major nutrient limiting crop production as early as 1980. In the past very little attention was paid to this nutrient until 1977 when sulphur deficiency in wetland rice was first detected at the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) farm and on nearby farmers fields (Kafiluddin, 2008). The main reasons are the reduction of sulfur dioxide emission from power plants and various industrial sources, the increasing use of high analysis low-S-containing fertilizers, the decreasing use of S-containing fungicides and pesticides and high-yielding varieties (Scherer, 2001; Eriksen et al., 2004). Until recently little attention has been given to the problem of sulfur deficiency in soils. Intensive cropping has been resulting higher removal of sulfur among the other nutrients rather its replenishment under natural process (Balsa et al., 1996). In Bangladesh about 7 M ha (about 52%) of agricultural lands are reported to consists of sulfur deficient soils in the Northern region of Bangladesh (SRDI, 1999). The current intensive use of agricultural land for crop production has extended the sulfur deficient areas to about 80% (Khan et al., 2007). The critical level of sulphur for Bangladesh soils has been determined as 10 g g-1 soil (Kafiluddin, 2008).

28

2.3.5. Zinc The importance of zinc in crop nutrition has received considerable attention during eighties in Bangladesh. This element deficiency has arisen in Bangladesh mainly due to continuous mining of soil nutrients for increase cropping intensity (180% at present). The availability of Zn in the soil varies widely depending on the soil properties. The calcareous soils have low to medium extractable Zn content (Jahiruddin and Islam, 1999). Zinc deficiency, together with sulphur deficiency, are recognized as limiting factors in crop production in Bangladesh. About 1.75 Mha of intensively cropped land are estimated to be affected by zinc deficiency, which mainly affects rice and wheat (Ahsan and Beuter, 2000). The incidence of zinc deficiency is widespread in most calcareous and alkaline soils. The problem is more acute in wetland rice culture. The critical levels of available soil zinc content as established by different extracting procedures are 1 ppm for light textured soils and 2 ppm for heavy and calcareous soils. The critical level of Zn in rice plant tissue is generally considered as 20 ppm. Yield responses of rice to zinc fertilization have been well documented in different soils of Bangladesh where zinc contents were below the critical level (Kafiluddin, 2008).

2.3.6. Calcium and Magnesium The pH values of Bangladesh soils generally range between 5.8 and 7.0 with exception observed in acid hill soils and calcareous soils. Thus, most of our soils have adequate Ca and Mg saturation on the exchange surface. Recent investigations have reflected that acid hill soils and Old Himalayan piedmont soils are extremely low in exchangeable Ca and Mg. The critical levels for these two nutrients are as 2.00 and 0.5 meq100g -1 (Kafiluddin, 2008).

2.3.7. Boron Although taken up in tiny quantities, boron deficiency may lead to serious consequences regarding economic yield of various crops. Boron deficiency in Bangladesh was first observed in reverine soils of Teesta on wheat causing sterility in grains (Islam, 2006). Light textured soils of the country are deficient in available boron where significant leaching loss of borate ions might have depleted soil boron level. The available boron content of the major soils of Bangladesh varies between 0.1 and 1.9 ppm. But most of the light textured soils of Rangpur, Dinajpur and terrace
29

soils of Gazipur and hill soils of Srimangal contain low level of available B (0.1-0.3 ppm). The critical level of available soil boron used to interpret the soil test result is 0.2 ppm (Kafiluddin, 2008).

2.3.8. Other Micronutrients Intensive cropping, imbalanced fertilization and no use of micronutrients, less or no use of organic manures resulting the depletion of soil fertility in Bangladesh. Consequently, micronutrients statuses have been decreasing day by day and finally fertility status of Bangladesh soils have been declining. Micronutrients like Fe, Mn, Cu, Mo and Cl have attracted less attention in Bangladesh agriculture. Generally they are seldom needed to be applied in crop production in most soils. However, recently Cu and Mn application in Calcareous Soils have appeared to be beneficial for higher yield in some field trials. Recent studies have also indicated that Mo deficiency is widespread in cabbage and legumes like groundnut acid soils. Appreciable yield increases of these crops in presence of added molybdenum have also been recorded (Kafiluddin, 2008).

2.4. Nutrient Status of Kalapara Upazila This region occupies an extensive area of tidal floodplain land in the south-west of the country. The greater part of this region has smooth relief having large areas of salinity. There is a general pattern of grey, slightly calcareous, heavy soils on river banks and grey to dark grey, non calcareous, heavy silty clays in the extensive basins. Non calcareous Grey Floodplain soil is the major component of General Soil Types. Acid sulphate soils also occupy significant part of the area where it is extremely acidic during dry season. In general, most of the topsoils are acidic and subsoils are neutral to mildly alkaline. Soils of the Sundarbans area are alkaline. General fertility level is high with medium to high organic matter content and very high CEC and K status but have limitations of high exchangeable Na and low Ca/Mg ratio. The Zn status is low to medium and the B and S status is high (BARC, 2005).

30

Table 2.6. Nutrient status of ganges tidal floodplain

Major Land type Medium Highland (78%) 4.28.1 L-M VLL VL-L Opt-H OptH Opt-H OptH L-M OptH Opt Soil pH Soil OM N P K Nutrient status S Ca Mg Zn B Mo

(Source: FRG, 2005) Average Height of Kalapara upazila, in the northern edge is about 2m and in the south is about lm high from mean sea level. But the maximum height is 6m. This area lies in the southwestern part of Bangladesh and downstream of the well known Ganges deltaic region. The area comprises a flat land with natural ground slopes are found. Kalapara Upazila is a Ganges Floodplain (SRDI, 2001a). In Kalapara Upazila most of the soil types are present deposits. In this region, pH varies from7.5-4.9. The color of the soil is light grey, grey and black. The soil salinity varies from Moderate to nil; (EC 0.37 to 15.2 dS m-1). The study areas are mainly located in Medium High land. Here soil is rich in Calcium, Magnesium, Boron, Copper, and Sulphate and moderately high in Manganese, Zinc and lower concentration of Phosphorus, Iron, and Nitrogen (SRDI, 2001). Table 2.7. Nutrient status of Kalapara Upazila
Depth Horizon pH N% Macro nutrient P S Mg/L 67.0 71.0 24.0 44.0 38.0 K Mg/100 Gm soil 0.07 0.05 0.17 0.12 0.11 Cu Fe Micro nutrient B Mg/L 0.92 0.88 1.44 1.41 1.46 Mn Zn

0-11 0-17 17-41 41-79 79130

Ap1 Ap2 Ap3 Ap4 Ap5

5.6 5.8 7.9 8.1 8.3

0.09 0.12 0.09 0.08 0.06

1.90 1.69 0.96 0.98 0.75

5.82 5.08 1.72 0.70 0.64

180.0 160.0 11.0 7.0 8.0

12.1 9.9 2.3 1.9 1.6

0.68 0.56 0.16 0.22 0.22

(Source: SRDI, 2009) 2.5. Cropping Intensity and Its Effect on Nutrient Status Cropping intensity and sequencing have significant effects on soil structure or soil tilth (Elliott, 1986). The intensive cropping systems introduced by the Green
31

Revolution impose much heavier demands on crop nutrients than traditional systems had; nutrient deficiencies, therefore, a common problem. Intensive agricultural practices can also result in changes in soil physical and chemical properties (Dey and Haq, 2009). With rising cropping intensities in South Asia, nutrient management is a major issue being addressed by agricultural scientists for understanding any decline in yields. Many long-term fertility experiments established in the region decades ago show no evidence of yield decline at the farmers field level (Abrol, et al., 1997). Conventional tillage with intensive soil disturbance promotes rapid decrease of soil organic matter and subsequent CO2 emission increase. A chemical, physical and biological soil degradation process then develops, negatively affecting crop productivity. Tillage is the principal agent producing soil disturbance and subsequent soil structure modification, increasing potential soil organic matter loss by erosion and biological decomposition (Langdale et al., 1992; Carter et al., 1994). Quantitatively, the latter is thought to be the primary source of organic matter loss triggered by soil tillage (Rasmussen et al., 1998). Nitrogen, P, K, S and Zn, of which three major elements are most important both in the terms of the extent of their deficiencies in the soils, and in terms of their potentials for crop yield increases or losses. Nitrogen is the nutrient element limiting growth in most of the rice soils (Savant and Datta, 1982), and there have been indications that many rice soils of Bangladesh are becoming deficient in P, K, S and Zn (BARC, 2005). The decline in productivity of rice and wheat with continuous cropping was related to deficiency of P, K, S, Zn and imbalanced nutrition (Kumar and Yadav, 2005). Nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient in crop production all over the world. Nitrogen deficiency occurs everywhere in Bangladesh. Understanding the behavior of N in soil is essential for maximizing crop productivity and profitability on one hand and for reducing the possible negative impact of N fertilization on the environment on the other hand. The loss of N from the soil is mainly due to crop removal and leaching (FRG, 2005). Phosphorus does not occur as abundantly in soils as N and K. Although the total concentration of P in the soil varies between 0.02 and 0.10%, it has no relationship with the availability of P to plants. The average concentration of P in soil solution is about 0.05 ppm which varies widely among soils while the level of organically bound P varies between a few ppm and 1000 ppm (FRG, 2005). Phosphorus is removed or lost from the soil by: 1) crop uptake and removal; 2) runoff
32

and erosion and 3) leaching. Harvested crops remove phosphorus from the soil and the farm. Phosphorus concentrations in plant tissues typically range from 0.1 to 0.5% on a dry weight basis and most crops utilize or take up between 20 and 90 pounds of P2O5 each year. Since soils are constantly subjected to changes due to the effects of cropping practices, it is impossible to totally eliminate phosphorus losses from soil. Water moving across the surface or through soils can remove both soluble (dissolved) and particulate (eroded soil particles) forms of soil phosphorus. Phosphorus can also loss by leaching (Mullin, 2009). Potassium (K+) is an essential element for plant growth and development and is the most abundant cation in plants, making up 35% of a plants total dry weight. Run-off of drainage water and migration of elements and matter depends on the amount of precipitation and cropping intensity. However, the results of a comparison of organic and intensive cropping systems showed that cropping intensity had no influence on potassium concentration in drainage and groundwater (Guzys, 2001). The balance of potassium in both cropping systems was negative and the average amounts of K+ leached were 3.5-3.8 kg. Micronutrient S and Zn deficiencies in particular have an adverse effect on yields, a common problem in intensive rice production, because conditions in flooded paddies have a strong negative effect on their availability (Day and Haq, 2009). Rapid decline of Soil fertility is a problem of crop production in Bangladesh. Soil fertility is a dynamic property which varies with crops, cropping intensity and input use. More than 50% of our cultivated soil contains organic matter below the critical level (1.5%). Annual depletion of plant nutrients in the intensively cropped area ranges from 180 to more than 250 kg/ha. High and medium high land comprises 60% of total cultivated land which is in most cases deficient in essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and Sulphur. The low organic matter content, higher cropping intensity, improper cropping sequence and faulty management practices are the major causes of depletion of soil fertility. Imbalance use of fertilizer is another serious problem for the country. Nutrients present in soil, added as inorganic and organic sources and the nutrient harvested by crops should be considered to develop a cropping pattern based fertilizer recommendation. Available data indicate that the soil fertility in Bangladesh is declining trend (Karim et al, 1994; Ali et al, 1997) which is responsible for declining crop yields (Cassman et al, 1995).

33

About 60% of arable lands of Bangladesh are deficient in N, P, and K. Organic matter content of soils is much below the critical level of 1.5%. Imbalance use of fertilizers, unplanned cultivation and improper management of soil have already caused not only stagnation but also declined in productivity of modern varieties. Intensive and continuous rice-based crop culture, replacement of local rice varieties by modern ones, decreasing jute cultivation, increasing adoption of power tillers for tillage operations and increasing use of dung and organic waste as fuel have been negatively affecting the status of soil organic matter. Increased cropping intensity and sustained productivity of the soil are the important options to achieve self-sufficiency in food. Sharp declining in soil fertility is a threat for sustainable crop production (Kashem et al., 2007). In irrigated rice, the formation of a plowpan is a frequent problem, impeding root growth and limiting access to nutrients. Irrigation can also cause salinization or water-logging. The yield declines observed in the IRRI long-term cropping trials are thought to result from anaerobic conditions in irrigated rice production leading to changes in soil physical and chemical properties which make it less able to supply nutrients to growing crops (Dey and Haq, 2009). Depletion of soil fertility is mainly due to exploitation of land without proper replenishment of plant nutrients. The problem is enhanced by intensive land use without appropriate soil management. The situation is worse in areas where HYV crops are being grown using low to unbalanced doses of mineral fertilizers, with little or no organic recycling. Because of increasing cropping intensity (presently 198%) and cultivation of modern varieties of crops, the net removal of plant nutrients is far from the nutrient supply through fertilizers and manures. Nitrogen status in this countrys soils resembles the results of SOM (Jahiriddin and Satter, 2010). Ali et al. (1997) reported that the total carbon content on an average decreased by 11%, the total N by 12%, pH decreased by 4% and the exchangeable acidity increased by 30%. The exchangeable K content in soil decreased by 31% and available P showed a 9% decrease over 27 years (1967-1995). The annual removal of nutrients from soil is higher compared to their addition. From an extensive review, Rijmpa and Jahiruddin (2004) reported that the overall N balances of Bangladesh soil were
-1 -1

negative (-10 to 100 kg N ha yr depending on the nutrient management and cropping systems), the P balances were near zero and the K balances were highly
-1 -1

negative (-100 to 225 kg ha yr ) (Fig. 2.5).

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Fig. 2.5. N + P + K inpute outpute in Bangladesh

(Source: Jahiruddin and Satter, 2010) Six mineral elements such as N, P, K, S, Zn and B are commonly deficient in Bangladesh soils. Of them, nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient in Bangladesh agriculture. Until 1980, deficiencies of three nutrients viz. N, P and K were identified in Bangladesh soils. In early 1980s, S and Zn deficiencies in rice were observed. In early 1990s, the B deficiency of some crops was reported. There is sporadic information of Cu, Mo and Mn deficiencies in crops. Deficiencies of Fe and Cl are not yet reported in this country. Magnesium is reported to be deficient in Old Himalayan Piedmont Plain and Tista Floodplain soils (Table 2.7) (Ferdoush et al., 2003). Table 2.8. Emergence of new nutrient deficiency with time
? Mg B Zn K P N 1951 N 1957 P N 1960 K P N 1980 K P N 1982 Zn K P N 1995 B Zn K P N 2000 Mg B Zn K P N 2011

(Source: Jahiruddin and Satter, 2010)

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2.6. Soil Salinity Salinity is a major environmental constraint for crop production throughout the world (Ashraf, 2004; Flowers, 2004; Munns et al., 2006). Salt-affected soils occupy more than 7% of the earth land surface (Munns et al., 2006; FAO, 2008). Reduction in the osmotic potential and toxic effect of excessive Na+ or Cl- on the plasma membrane are the direct effects of salts on plant growth that reduce the availability of water to plants. Now it is well known that salt stress causes a number of effects on plants such as osmotic effects, ion toxicity, hormonal imbalance, generation of reactive oxygen species and nutritional imbalance (Ashraf, 2004; Flowers and Flowers, 2005). Soil salinity is a widespread problem, restricting plant growth and biomass production especially in arid, semi-arid and tropical areas (Apse et al., 1999). On a global basis, salt affected soils occupy an estimated 952.2 M ha of land, constituting nearly seven per cent of total land area or nearly 33 per cent of the area of potential arable lands of the world (Gupta and Abrol, 1990). Bangladesh covers more than 30% of the cultivable lands of the country. About 53% of the coastal areas are affected by salinity (Haque, 2006). Out of 2.86 Mha of coastal and offshore lands about 1.056 Mha of lands are affected by different degrees of salinity. Out of 151 Upazilas (sub-districts) in 19 districts coastal 93 Upazilas under 18 districts are affected by salinity. As the cropping intensity and crop yields are well below the country average, the contribution to agriculture sector is not proportional to its land mass. The reason behind this is unfavourable agroecological conditions of the region. These include coastal flooding in the monsoon, higher levels of soil salinity in the winter and higher water salinity in winter reduces its potential for irrigation (Hussain, 2010).

2.6.1. Present Soil Salinity Status in Coastal Area A direct consequence of sea level rise would be intrusion of salinity with tide through the rivers and estuaries. It would be more acute in the dry season, especially when freshwater flows from rivers would diminish. According to an estimate of the Master Plan Organization, about 14,000km2 of coastal and offshore areas have saline soils and are susceptible to tidal flooding. If some 16,000 sq km2 of coastal land is lost due to a 45cm rise in sea level, the salinity front would be pushed further inland. The present interface between freshwater and saline water lies around 120 to 160km inland in the southwest, and this could well be pushed northward as far as central Jessore region in the event of a sea level rise . Increase in salinity intrusion and
36

increase in soil salinity will have serious negative impacts on agriculture (Uddin et al., 2011). In the winter months the areas suffer due to salinity related problems. In absence of appreciable rainfall the soil in the coastal areas starts to desiccate, and because of capillary actions salt comes up at the surface of the soil and accumulates in the root zones of crops. Many of the crop varieties are not tolerant to salinity, and as a result, a large area in the coastal districts becomes virtually unsuitable for a number of crops, while the production of a few other crops is lesser under saline conditions. Most of the land remains fallow in the dry season (January- May) because of soil salinity, lack of good quality irrigation water and late draining condition. Farmers cultivate mostly low yielding, traditional rice varieties during wet season. Only about six percent of the land types in coastal area are highland and 13% medium low land. The dominant land type in this region is medium highland, which is about 64% (Hussain, 2010). A comparative study of soil salinity maps of 1973, 2000 and 2009 shows the extents of soil salinity intrusion in the coastal region. The map shows that about 0.223 million ha (26.7%) new land is effected by various degrees of last four decades (Hussain, 2010).

Table 2.9. Extent of soil salinity during about last four decades (1973-2009) in coastal areas
Yrar Total Salt area(000 833.45 1020.75 1059.19 + 35.44 affected S1 287.37 289.76 328.39 +38.63 S2 Salinity class S3 79.75 336.58 351.68 + 15.1 S4 39.90 87.14 101.14 + 14.0

1973 2000 2009 Percent increase (+) or decrease (-) during 20002009

426.43 307.20 274.21 -32.99

(Source: Ahsan and Sattar , 2010)

It was also found that about 0.0354 million hectares of new land is effected by various degrees of salinity during last last 9 years only. Some of new land of Patuakhali, Borguna, Barisal , Jhalakathi , pirojpur, Satkira, Jessore, Gopalgang and Madaripur

37

districts are affected by different degrees of salinity, which reduces agricultural productivity remarkably (Hussain, 2010). Table 2.10. Estimation of Salt affected areas (in 000 ha) in Patuakhali District Year patuakhali 1973 2000 2009 (Souce: Miah, 2010) S1 68.50 40.11 57.73 S2 46.60 43.62 39.90 S3* 0.00 46.10 44.98 S4 0.00 9.52 15.77 Salinity Level* Salinity increase Remarks

over 4 decades Area (000ha) 43.28 % 37.60 Galachipa, Kalapara, Sadar, Dashmina

2.6.2. Effect of Salinity on Fertility Status of Soil Agriculture is a major sector of more than 30% of the cultivable land in Bangladesh is in the coastal area. About 1.0 million ha of arable lands are affected by varying degrees of salinity. Farmers grow mostly low-yielding, traditional rice varieties during the wet season. Most of the lands remain fallow in the dry season (JanuaryMay) because of soil salinity and the lack of good-quality irrigation water (Karim et al., 1990; Mondal, 1997). Nutrient uptake and accumulation by plants is often reduced under saline conditions as a result of competitive process between the nutrient and a major salt species. However, this depends on the type of nutrients and composition of soil solution (Grattan and Grieve 1999, Maas and Grattan 1999, Homaee et al., 2002). Although plants selectively absorb potassium over sodium, Na+-induced K+ deficiency can develop on crops under salinity stress by Na+ salt (Maas and Grattan 1999). Research revealed that salinity inhibits the growth of plants by affecting both water absorption and biochemical processes such as N and CO2 assimilation and protein biosynthesis. Under saline conditions plants fail to maintain the required balance of organic and inorganic constituents leading to suppressed growth and yield (Gunes et al., 1996). Plant performance, usually expressed as a crop yield, plant biomass or crop quality (both of vegetative and reproductive organs), may be adversely affected by salinity induced nutritional disorders. These disorders may be as a result of the effect of
38

salinity on nutrient availability, competitive uptake, transport or partitioning within the plant (Grattan and Grieve, 1999; Zhu, 2003; Ali et al., 2006; Nasim et al., 2008). Saline conditions drastically change the environment of root aeration, osmotic potential of soil solution and normal equilibrium of the dissolved ions. The availability of most micronutrients to crop plants mainly depend upon the pH of the soil solution as well as the nature of binding sites on organic and inorganic particle surfaces. In saline and sodic soils, the solubility of micronutrients (Cu, Mn, Fe, Zn and Mo) is particularly low, and plants growing on such soils often experience deficiencies in these elements (Page et al., 1990). Soil fertility is an important factor for crop production. In general the coastal regions of Bangladesh are quite low in soil fertility. Thus in addition to salinity, plant nutrients in soils affect plant growth. Soil reaction values (pH) range from 6.0-8.4 with the exception of Chittagong and Patuakhali, where the pH values range from 5.07.8. Most of the soils are moderate to strongly alkaline, the pH values of the surface soils being lower than those of the subsurface soils. In places with higher pH values, micronutrients deficiencies are expected (Haque, 2006). The total N contents of the soils are generally low, mostly around 0.1%. The low N content may be attributed to low organic matter contents of most of the soils. Available P status of the soils ranges from 15-25 ppm. Some deficient P soils are also found in Patuakhali, Barguna, Satkhira and Chttagong districts. Widespread Zn and Cu deficiencies have been observed in the coastal regions (Karim et al., 1990). Table 2.11. Agro-chemical characteristics of soils in some of the coastal and offshore areas (saline belt) of Bangladesh
District pH OM Total N (%) Satkhira Khulna Bagerhat Patuakali Barguna Bhola
Chittagong

CEC m.e.% 14.2-25.5 18.2-40.6 15.9-37.0 12.0-22 11.8-26 9.4-19.5 11.8-16.2

Na m.e% 0.5-0.6 1.6-33.3 0.6-7.0 2.5-21.7 0.6-3.4 0.4-39 0.8-3.8

K m.e.% 0.2-1.2 0.3-1.0 0.2-1.0 0.2-0.6 0.2-0.7 0.1-0.4 0.2-0.8 0.1-0.5 0.4-0.5

Ca m.e.% 6.3-16.2 8.3-22.5 9.4-24.2 2.7-7.5 11.5-28 7.2-20.8 2.7-7.1 5.3-12.4 7.8-8.0

Mg m.e.% 2.8-11.4 2.6-18.3 4.2-17.7 1.6-6.6 3.9-18.2 2-9.5 2.9-11.3 2.3-9.5 5.0-6.8

P ppm 12-24 8-36 6-26 10-28 4-28 4-14 8-30 4-11 8-24

Zn ppm 0.1-0.8 Tr-0.8 Tr-1.6 0.2-0.8 0.2-0.8 Tr-3.0 0.1-0.9 Tr-1.8 0.9

Cu ppm 0.08-0.30 Tr-0.20

Tr-0.40 0.06-0.39

6.2-8.4 6.2-7.9 6.0-7.8 5.0-7.8 6.3-8.0 6.3-8.0 5.0-7.4 6.0-7.5 6.0-7.5

1.8-2.2 0.1-0.3 0.3-2.8 0.1-1.0 1.2-2.3 0.4-7.1 1.0-2.9 0.8-3.1 0.9-2.9

0.9-0.3 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.1 0.1-0.2 0.1-0.3 0.1-0.2

Tr-0.70 0.3-1.0 Tr-0.70 -

Noakhali Feni

(Source: BARI, 1989)

39

The adverse effects of saline water intrusion will be significant on coastal agriculture and the availability of fresh water for public and industrial water supply will fall. Bangladeshs economy and the coastal area of Bangladesh is very fertile for growing rice. Increase in salinity intrusion and increase in soil salinity will have serious negative impacts on agriculture. Presently practiced rice varieties may not be able to withstand increased salinity. The food production does not seem to have a better future in the event of a climate change. In Bangladesh, rice production may fall by 10% and wheat by 30% by 2050 (IPCC, 2007). It is very likely that the soil salinity would increase due to climate change and consequential effects. Increased salinity would significantly decrease food grain production. Reduction in food grain

production would put additional pressure to the food security of the country (Habibullah et al., 1999).

40

CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

41

3. Materials and Methods Methodology is the guiding framework for researcher, which will be used to contain and harmonize the scientific investigation. According to the Dictionary of Social Science, methodology is the systematic and logical study of the principals guiding scientific investigation. For good accomplishment of the research work, a well arranged methodology is extremely needed. Methodology shows the total procedure and working plan of the research work. It is divided into three phases: conceptualization, data collection, and analysis. Methods involve processes or techniques in which various stages or steps are followed to conduct the research work. It is a logical as well as systematic part of the study to guide researchers to acquire necessary data or information and produce logical explanation to resolve the research goal. 3.1. Conceptualization and Work Plan Preparation The conception about the cultivable land reduction, cropping intensity and nutrient depletion was built up through literature review related papers, journals, books, dissertation papers etc. The work plan about the research that developed goals and objectives was prepared after achieving clear ideas. It refers to the process that how the study would be conducted or the steps required for conducting the study. In this phase, all the possible activities were incorporated. It emphasizes on the sequence of the activities that should be undertaken one after another. 3.2. Study Area 3.2.1. Area and Geographical Location Kalapara (also known as Khepupara) is an Upazila of Patuakhali District in the Division of Barisal. The upazila occupies an area of 492.102 Sq. km. The study area is located between 21.9861 N and 90.2422 E. The area is bounded by Amtali upazila on the north, the Bay of Bangla on the south, Rabnabad channel and Galachipa upazila on the east, Amtali upazila on the west. Kalapara Upazila consists of 9 Union Parishads, 57 mouzas and 247 villages with 4 property offices. Administration Kalapara thana was established in 1906 and was turned into an upazila in 1983. The average population of each union, mouza and village are 202078 (BBS, 2011).

42

Fig.3.1. Location map of the study area

(Source: Banglapedia, 2006)

3.2.2. Demography

The total population of Kalapara upazilla was 2, 20,074 in the year 2001. As of the 2011 Bangladesh census, Kalapara has a population of 2, 82,000. Males constitute are 52.85% of the population, and females 48.15%. Kalapara has an average literacy rate of 51.04% (7+ years), and the national average of 57.53% literate. The religious picture is Muslim 74.29%, Hindu 25.35%, others 0.36%; Density of population of the study area is 861 per sq. km, the growth rate is 39.10. The decadal population growth rate is 16.35% and annual compound growth rate is 2.53% (BBS, 2011).

43

Table 3.1. Represents increase of population in Kalapara Upazila after 10 years

Name of Union Chakamaya Teakhali Lalua Mithagonj Nilgonj Khaprabhanga Latachapli Dankhali Dulasor Total Population 2001 14859 11893 14139 23964 25553 28124 27004 22716 15199 183451 2011 19021 15225 18099 31952 34710 35847 36102 30078 19456 240490

(Source: Upazila Statistics Office, Kalapara, Patuakhali, 2011)

3.2.3. Topography and Relief

Average height of Kalapara Upazila, in the northern edge is about 2m and in the south is about lm high from mean sea level. But the maximum height is 6m. The study area lies in the southwestern part of Bangladesh and downstream of the well known Ganges deltaic region. The area comprises a flat land with natural ground slopes are found the main rivers are the Andharmanik, Agunmukha, Payra, Lohalia, Patuakhali and Tentulia (Banglapedia, 2006).
3.2.4. General Geology of the Study Area

The physiographic condition of Kalapara Upazila is broadly characterized by tidal flood plains having lower relief and crisscrossed by innumerable river channels. The study Area is located in the south-west part of the Bengal Basin, a long established area of subsidence and deposition containing an almost complete sequence from the Cretaceous to Recent alluvium. The surface topography of the quaternary deposits is very gentle. The whole of the south-west area is below elevation 17 m and 75% is below 5m. The surface geology consists mainly of quaternary sediments, although there are some tertiary deposits in the eastern flood belt. Clay soils are prevalent in the low laying areas, and medium textured soils at the higher grounds (SRDI, 2001).

44

3.2.5. Land Use Pattern

The land use pattern of an area depends upon the climate, geology, soil, surface and ground water availability and quality. Among the lands in Kalapara , there are 40,000 ha of cropland , 28 ha of gher, 386.20 ha of settlements and 70 ha of fallow land (Upazila Agriculture Office, 2011).
3.2.5.1. Cropland

Major crop cultivation in kalapara is Transplant Aman (T- aman), Boro, potato and vegetables. Sesame, linseed, sugarcane, kaun are extinct or nearly extinct crops of the study area (Banglapedia, 2006). Gher farming is done in some different land and also in some T-Aman cropland. T-Aman is mainly the cultivated in the Kharif-2 season. At present, about in 100% cropland is used for T- aman cultivation. Boro is cultivated in the Kharif-l season, Rabi crops are cultivated in the Rabi seasons and gher farming is done rest of the year (SRDI, 2001)
Table 3.2. Represents the cropland use of Kalapara Upazila Cropland information of 9 unions of Kalapara Upazila. Name of Union 2001 3438 3289 5219 7385 6343 5273 5720 5929 3251 45818

Crop land (ha)

2011 3364 2774 3615 6466 5313 5379 4794 5551 2743 40000

Chakamaya Teakhali Lalua Mithagonj Nilgonj Khapravanga Latachapli Dhankhali Dulasor Total

(Source: Upazila Agriculture Office, Kalapara, patuakhali, 2011) 3.2.5.2. Settlement

In Kalapara Upazila, about 19% land is used for settlements. There are about 56 markets, 243 education centers (7 Kindergartens, 8 community primary schools, 80 reg. primary schools, 78 govt. primary schools, 8 lower secondary schools, 29 secondary schools, 27 madrasas and 6 colleges ), 443 religious centers (387 mosques,
45

45 temples , 3 church , 4 buddhist vihara and 2 pagoda), 30 health centers (2 hospital, 6 family planning centers and 22 community clinics), 5 Launch ghat, 7 union complexes, 1 upazila complex, 1 customs office, 27 post offices, 1 food storehouse are in the study area (BBS, 2011). 3.2.5.3. Fallow Land The fallow lands of the study area are about 51ha. Most of this type of land use is seen in Nilgonj, Chakamaya, dhankhali and Mithagonj. In lalua most of the land remains submerged due to high and low tide. So, the soil salinity of lalua union is the most than others (Upazila Agriculture Office, 2011). 3.2.6. Soil type KalaparaUpazila is a Ganges Floodplain. In Kalapara Upazila most of the soil types are present deposits. In this region, pH varies from7.5-4.9. The color of the soil is light grey, grey and black. The soil salinity varies from Moderate to nil; (EC 0.37 to 11.2 dS m-1). The study areas are mainly located in Medium High land. Here soil is rich in Calcium, Magnesium, Boron, Copper, and Phosphorus and moderately high in Manganese, Zinc and lower concentration of Sulphate, Iron, and Nitrogen. There are rnainly three types of soil present in kalapara upazila. They are ramgoti, Jhalokathi and Barisal (SRDI, 2001). 3.2.7. Climatic Condition
3.2.7.1. Rainfall

The rain fall pattern is quite similar with the other location of the South-West coastal Belt. The rainfall pattern raises up to 350 mm in the rainy season and in the dry season the average rain fall is below 52 mm. But a heavy rainfall is common in the study area and that occurs four or five times in a year. In 2001, the maximum rainfall was 397 mm in June and the minimum rainfall was 0 mm in December. In 2011, the maximum rainfall was 344 in August and the minimum rainfall was 0 January (BMD, 2011). 3.2.7.2. Temperature Kalapara Upazila is located in coastal region and it falls on South-western climatic sub-zone of Bangladesh. In 2001, the average maximum temperature was 36.6oC in the month of April and average minimum temperature of 15.2oC in the month of
46

December. In 2011the average maximum temperature was 36.7oC in the month of April and average minimum temperature of 11.5oC in the month of January (BMD, 2011). 3.2.7.3. Humidity Humidity of the study area is completely high. In 2000, the maximum humidity was 88% in the month of July and lowest humidity is 68 % in the month of March .In 2010, the maximum humidity was 85% in the month of September and lowest humidity is 71% in the month of March (BMD, 2011). 3.3. Selection of the Study Area The following criteria are being considered for selecting the Kalapara Upazila as the study area: Kalapara Upazila is mostly affected by salinity intrusion, tidal surge and impact of sea level rise, because the people of Kalapara are living beside the coast of Bay of Bengal. This region is a well crop productive area of the southwestern coastal Bangladesh. Cropland condition have greatly hampered by increasing population and cropping intensity in study area Croplands are severely affected by salinity intrusion. Kalapara is severely affected by the devastating cyclone induced storm surge 3.4. Data Collection All data were collected from the various sources. They are as follows . Soil Nutrient data (2011) collection from Soil Resource Development Institute, Patuakhali. Soil Nutrient data (2001) collection from Soil Resource Development Institute, Barisal. Cropland and Crop production data collection from Upazila Agriculture Office, Kalapara, patuakhali. Demographic and Settlement information from Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Kalapara
47

 Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, community series, Patuakhali Zila Bangladesh Meteorological Department, Kalapara. Internet/journal Published/Unpublished report Upazila Agriculture Office and Upazila Parisad, Kalapara Upazila, Patuakhali. 3.5. Cropping Intensity Determination Data on cropping pattern and the land coverage for Aman, Aus, Boro and Vegetable crops were collected from Upazila Agricure Office. Cropping intensities of five different study unions of Kalapara Upazila were calculated by the following formula as suggested by Sing (2004). Cropping Intensity =
Aman Aus

Table 3.3. Cropping intensity of Kalapara Upazila

Union Net cultivated area

Total cropped area 100 Net cultivated area

, Boro Robi crops Total cropped area Cropping Intensity

2001 Chakamoia Nilgonj Latachapli Dhankhali Mithagonj 3438 6313 5720 5929 7385

2011 3364 5313 4794 5551 6466

2001 3435 6310 5697 5925 7383

2011 3364 5313 4794 5551 6466

2001 75 101 53 65 105

2011 215 301 101 190 295

2001 50 75 30 70 45

2011 103 200 80 125 105

2001 1607 3295 1923 3071 3172

2011 2975 4290 2875 4507 4972

2001 5167 9781 7703 9131 10705

2011 6657 10095 7850 10373 11838

2001 150% 155% 135% 154% 145%

2011 186% 190% 164% 187% 183%

(Source: Upazila Agriculture Office, Kalapara, Patuakhali, 2011)

3.6. Data Interpretation

All data were compiled, processed and interpreted for discussion and analysis. The collected secondary data were grouped, categorized and interpreted according to the objectives as well as the indicators. Some data contains numeric and some contains narrative facts. For measurable and indicative answer data have been grouped in the tabular forms.

3.7. Data Processing and Analysis Data were statistically processed, analyzed and interpreted by using computer programs- MS WORD and MS EXCEL 2007.
48

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

49

4. Results and Discussion This chapter contains the presentation of results (data and information that was collected and that was generated) and their analysis. The study was conducted at five unions of Kalapara Upazila in Potuakhali District. In a view to meet the objectives of the research paper the results were tabulated, interpreted and analyzed in the following ways: 4.1. Increasing in Population Fig. 4.1 presents the population growth of the studied unions of Kalapara upazilla during 2001- 2011. The growth rate in 10-year period is 35.8% in Nilgonj, 33.6% in Latachabli, 33.3% in Mitagonj, 32.4% in Dhankhali and 28% in Chakamoia, respectively.
40000 30000 34710 30078 25553 19021 14859 22716 36102 27004

31952 23964

Population

20000 10000 0

2001 2011

Fig.4.1. Population growth of five unions in Kalapara upazilla

Data presentation in fig. 4.1 shows that the highest population growth rate was found in Nilgonj whereas the lowest growth rate was observed in Chakamoia union. The highest population growth of Nilgonj union might be due to migration of the rural people to town areas to enjoy the urban facilities as it is the nearest union of the pourashava likewise Latachabli is the most distant and remotest union from pourashava. So, people intended to dwell in Dhankhali. The total population of Kalapara upazilla was 2,20,074 in the year 2001 and 2,83,000 in 2011(BBS, 2011). Rapid population increase is one of the major problems of Bangladesh. The population growth rate is about 1.42 %, which translates into about two million additional new mouths every year need to be fed (BBS, 2011).

50

4.2. Reduction of Cultivable Land Fig. 4.2a presents the shrinkage of cultivable land and Fig. 4.2b represents the per capita land reduction of the studied unions of Kalapara upazilla during 2001- 2011. In 2001, the cultivable land of Chakamoia, Nilgonj, Dhankhali, Latachabli and Mitagonj were estimated to be 3438 ha, 6333 ha, 5929 ha, 5720 ha, and 7385 ha respectively whereas in 2011 cultivable land reduced by (2.15 %), (16.23 %), (6.37 %), (16.18 %) and (12.44 %) ha in the respective unions.
7385 5929 6343 5720 6466 5551 4794 6000 5313 3438 3364 4000 2001 2000 2011 0 8000 Land in hectare 0.3

Per capita land (ha)

0.3 0.2 0.1 0

0.23

0.25 0.26

0.18

0.21 0.21 0.18 0.15 0.13

2001 2011

Fig. 4.2a. Reduction of Cultivable land

Fig. 4.2b Reduction of per capita land

The order of cultivable land reduction was Nilgonj> Latachabli> Mitagonj> Dhankhali> Chakamoia. Thus the increased pressure on the cultivable land entailed per capita land reduction. Homestead and other settlements in Nilgonj and Latachabli occupied much valuable cultivable land higher than other unions. The population added by 10-year time is 63,000; the average per capita land therefore, reduced in a 10-year time from 0.21ha to 0.14 ha. The per capita land reduction was observed in all the studied unions provided that highest reduction in Nilgonj and the lowest reduction in Chakamoia unions. The country has a land area of 148.4 million hectares (Mha), population of over 142.32 million with a density of about 1000 persons per km2, which is one of the highest in the world (BBS, 2011). With the growing population, and their increasing needs in various sectors, land use patterns are undergoing a qualitative change in which the area under the net cropped land is gradually shrinking (BARC, 2011).

51

4.3. Increase in Cropping Intensity Fig. 4.3 represents the increase of cropping intensity in 10-year period of the studied unions of kalapara upazila. In 2001, the cropping intensity of Chakamoia, Nilgonj, Dhankhali, Latachabli and Mitagonj was 150%, 154%, 155%, 135% and 145% respectively while in 2011 it was increased to 186%, 190%, 187%, 164% and 183% of those unions. The order of increase cropping intensity was Nilgonj> Dhankhali> Chakamoia > Mitagonj> Latachabli. Increased population and land shrinkage might be the cause of increasing cropping intensity to meet up the food demand.
186% 150% 190% 154% 187% 155% 183% 164% 145% 135%

Cropping Intensity (%)

200% 150% 100% 50% 0%

2001 2011

Fig.4.3. Increase in Cropping Intensity

Increased crop productivity from the shrinking land resources is the urgent need to meet the increased food demand of the swelling population of Bangladesh. Food requirement of the country is estimated to be doubled in the next 25 years. To feed the teeming million the land resources in Bangladesh is intensively used for crop production (Islam and Haq, 1999). Since land is a scarce resource in Bangladesh, the only choice is to increase in cropping intensity (Ahmed et al., 2001).The net cropping intensity of Bangladesh in 2009-10 was 180.88% (BBS, 2010) and the highest cropping intensity of 199% was observed in Kalapara upazila followed by other coastal upazilas (Bala and Hossain, 2009). 4.4. Increase in Salinity Fig. 4.4 showed the increasing trend of salinity of the studied unions of kalapara upazilla. In 2001, the salinity of Chakamoia, Nilgonj, Dhankhali, Latachabli and Mitagonj was 4.48 dS/m, 3.79 dS/m, 3.21 dS/m, 6.67 dS/m and 3.48 dS/m respectively but in 2011 it was increased to 7.60 dS/m, 5.88 dS/m, 7.26 dS/m, 8.87
52

dS/m and 6.91dS/m. The order of increasing salinity was Dhankhali> Chakamoia> Mitagonj> Latachabli> Nilgonj. Due to salt water intrusion from river in Dhankhali and chakamoia unions, were found to be the highest increase in salinity.

10 Salinity (dS/m) 8 6 4 2 0

8.87 7.6 5.88 4.48 3.79 3.21 7.26 6.67 6.91 3.84 2001 2011

Fig. 4.4. Increase in Salinity

A comparative study of soil salinity maps of 1973, 2000 and 2009 shows the extents of soil salinity intrusion in the coastal region. It was also found that about 0.0354 million hectares of new land is affected by various degrees of salinity during last 9 years only. Some of new land of Patuakhali, Borguna, Barisal, Jhalakathi, pirojpur, Satkira, Jessore, Gopalgang and Madaripur districts are affected by differerent degrees of salinity, which reduces agricultural productivity remarkably (Hussain, 2010). The study area is not out of this effect. 4.5. Depletion of Major Nutrients Intensive cultivation practice and mismanagement of cultivable land reducing the nutrient content of Kalapara Upazilla. The trends of major nutrients depletion are discussed in this section. 4.5.1. Nitrogen Depletion Fig. 4.5 demonstrates the depletion of nitrogen percentages of soil of the studied unions of Kalapara upazilla during 2001- 2011. In 2001, the nitrogen status of Chakamoia, Nilgonj, Dhankhali, Latachabli and Mitagonj were 0.099 %, 0.097%, 0.125 %, 0.118 % and 0.093% and the maximum value (0.125%) was found in Dhankhali union while in 2011 and the levels were 0.057 %, 0.081%, 0.086 %, 0.076 % and 0.062 %.
53

0.14 0.12 0.1 Nitrogen (%) 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 0.099 0.097 0.057

0.125

0.118 0.086 0.093 0.076 0.062 2001 2011

0.071

Fig.4.5. Depletion of Nitrogen

The maximum reduction of nitrogen was observed in Chakamoia union and the lowest change was found in Nilgonj union. Nitrogen was reduced in 10-year period by the sequence of Chakamoia> Latachabli> Dhankhali> Mitagonj> Nilgonj. Cultivable land shrinkage and increasing cropping intensity of five unions might be the cause of Nitrogen depletion in soil of those unions. Though population growth rate and cropping intensity of Nilgonj was higher than other unions but nitrogen depletion rate was found the lowest. It might be caused by high input of organic manure and inorganic nitrogen fertilizer to get higher crop production to meet up the food demand of boosting population. Nitrogen is generally considered as the key nutrient in Bangladesh agriculture because of its low supply in the soils. Portch and Islam (1984) reported that 100% of Bangladesh soils contained available N below critical level. Nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient in crop production all over the world. Nitrogen deficiency occurs everywhere in Bangladesh (Kumar and Yadav, 2005). They conclude that the depletion of N from the soil is mainly due to crop removal and leaching for increase cropping intensity.

4.5.2. Phosphorus Depletion In 2001, the phosphorus levels of Chakamoia, Nilgonj, Dhankhali, Latachabli and Mitagonj were 7.63 ppm, 4.86ppm, 8.64 ppm, 2.56 ppm and 6.74 ppm while in 2011 the levels were 6.6 ppm, 0.5 ppm, 6.2 ppm,1- and 5.1 ppm. However, in 2011 phosphorus was depleted by the order of Nilgonj> Dhankhali> Mitagonj> latachabli>
54

Chakamoia (Fig. 4.6). Cultivable land shrinkage and increasing cropping intensity of Nilgonj might be the cause of higher phosphorus depletion in Nilgonj.

Phosphorus conc. (ppm)

10 8 6 4 2 0 Chakamoia Nilgonj 0.5 7.63 6.6 4.86

8.64 6.2 6.74 5.1 2.56 1 2001 2011

Dhankhali

Latacabli

Mitagonj

Fig. 4.6. Depletion of Phosphorus

Phosphorus is recognized as an important mineral element limiting crop growth and production (Batten et al., 1984). It is generally considered as the second most limiting nutrient after N for plant growth (Vance, 2001). Phosphorus depletion in soil due to the current intensive use of agricultural land for crop production (Nautiyal et al., 2000). 4.5.3. Potassium Depletion Fig. 4.7 represented the depletion of potassium concentration in soils Kalapara upazilla. In 2001, the potassium levels of Chakamoia, Nilgonj, Dhankhali, Latachabli and Mitagonj were 0.42ppm, 0.47ppm, 0.37ppm, 0.31ppm and 0.35 ppm while in 2011 and the phosphorus levels were 0.3 ppm, 0.27 ppm, 0.29 ppm, 0.19 ppm and 0.24 ppm. The maximum depletion of potassium was observed in Nilgonj union and the lowest depletion was found in Dhankhali union. Potassium depletion in Nilgonj was mainly caused by high cropping intensity. Although cropping intensity of other unions were also high but potassium level didnt change more due to salinity.

55

Potassium conc . (ppm)

0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

0.42 0.3

0.47 0.37 0.27 0.29 0.31 0.19 0.35 0.24 2001 2011

Fig. 4.7. Depletion of Pottassium

Tiwari (1985) concluded that Intensive cropping with modern rice varieties is responsible for increasing the K Depletion in soil. Most of the north-western parts of Bangladesh are deficient in potassium (BARC, 2005). 4.5.4. Sulfur Depletion Fig. 4.8. represents the depletion of potassium levels of soils of the studied unions of kalapara upazilla. In 2001 the sulfur contents of Chakamoia, Nilgonj, Dhankhali, Latachabli and Mitagonj was 61.1ppm, 59.03 ppm, 51.85 ppm, 48.32 ppm, and 54.5 ppm respectively where as in 2011 it decreased to 23.7 ppm, 20.5 ppm, 23.9ppm, 21.5 ppm and 25.4 ppm and sulfur depletion trend was Nilgonj > Chakamoia> Mitagonj> Dhankhali> Latachabli.

70 60 Sulfur conc. (ppm) 50 40 30 20 10 0

61.1

59.03 51.85 48.32

54.5

23.7

20.5

23.9

21.5

25.4

2001 2011

Chakamoia

Nilgonj

Dhankhali

Latacabli

Mitagonj

Fig. 4.8. Depletion of Sulfur

The maximum depletion of Sulfur was observed in Nilgonj union and the lowest depletion was found in Latacabli union. Sulfur depletion in Nilgonj was mainly
56

caused by high cropping intensity. Intensive cropping has been resulting higher depletion of sulfur among the other nutrients rather its replenishment under natural process (Balsa et al., 1996). The current intensive use of agricultural land for crop production has extended the sulfur deficient areas to about 80% (Khan et al., 2007). Bangladesh is not free from this threat. About 7 M ha (about 52%) of agricultural lands are reported to consists of sulfur deficient soils in the Northern region of Bangladesh (SRDI, 1999).

4.5.5. Calcium Depletion Fig. 4.9 presents the depletion of Ca contents in soils of the studied unions of Kalapara upazilla. The contents of Ca in Chakamoia, Nilgonj, Dhankhali, Latachabli and Mitagonj unions were 6.3 ppm, 4.3 ppm, 5.1 ppm, 5.91ppm and 4.58 ppm in 2001 but it decreased sharply in 2011 and the Ca contents were observed 4.4 ppm, 2.9 ppm, 4.5 ppm, 4.7 ppm and 2.58 ppm. The maximum depletion was found in Chakamoia union and the lowest depletion was found in Dhankhali. Due to lower cropping intensity and higher rate of increasing salinity, Ca depletion rate was also found lower in Dhankhali union. Jahiruddin and Islam (1999) reported that Zinc depletion in Bangladesh is mainly due to continuous mining of soil nutrients for increase cropping intensity (180% at present).

7 Calcium conc. (ppm) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

6.3 4.4 5.1 4.3 2.9 4.5

5.91 4.7 4.58 2.58

2001 2011

Chakamoia

Nilgonj

Dhankhali

Latachabli

Mitagonj

Fig.4.9. Depletion of Calcium

57

4.5.6. Zinc Depletion Fig. 4.10 shows the depletion of Zn contents in soils of the studied unions of Kalapara upazilla. The contents of Zn in Chakamoia, Nilgonj, Dhankhali, Latachabli and Mitagonj unions were 0.74 ppm, 0.79 ppm, 0.64 ppm, 0.68 ppm and 0.91 ppm in 2001 while in 2011 it decreased dramatically and the Zn contents were observed 0.45 ppm, 0.28 ppm, 0.45 ppm, 0.39 ppm and 0.42 ppm. The order of depletion was Nilgonj > Chakamoia > Mitagonj > Latachabli > Dhankhali. Intensive cultivation of crops in Nilgonj might be the fact that reduced the Zn level.
0.74 0.45 0.28 0.79 0.64 0.45 0.68 0.39 0.6 0.42 2001 2011

0.8 Zinc conc. (ppm) 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

Fig. 4.10. Depletion of Zinc

Zinc deficiency, together with sulphur deficiency, are recognised as limiting factors in crop production in Bangladesh. About 1.75 Mha of intensively cropped land are estimated to be affected by zinc deficiency, which mainly affects rice and wheat (Ahsan and Beuter, 2000). Jahiruddin and Islam (1999) reported that Zinc depletion in Bangladesh is mainly due to continuous mining of soil nutrients for increase cropping intensity (180% at present). They also said that availability of Zn in the soil varies widely depending on the soil properties and the calcareous soils have low to medium extractable Zn content.

4.5.7. Boron Depletion Fig. 4.11 demonstrates the depletion of Zn contents in Kalapara upazilla. The contents of Boron in Chakamoia, Nilgonj, Dhankhali, Latachabli and Mitagonj unions were 0.56 ppm, 0.49 ppm, 0.41 ppm, 0.45 ppm and 0.59 ppm in 2001 but after 10 years Boron contents were observed 0.27 ppm, 0.19 ppm, 0.31 ppm, 0.23 ppm and 0.29

58

ppm and the order of Boron depletion was Nilgonj, Mitagonj> Chakamoia> Latachabli> Dhankhali.
0.56 0.49 0.41 0.27 0.19 0.31 0.23 0.45 0.29 2001 2011 0.59

0.6 Boron conc. (ppm) 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Chakamoia

Nilgonj

Dhankhali

Latachabli

Mitagonj

Fig. 4.11. Deplition of Boron

This might be the effect of high cropping intensity in Nilgonj and Mitagonj. Although taken up in tiny quantities, boron deficiency may lead to serious consequences regarding economic yield of various crops. Boron deficiency in Bangladesh was first observed in reverine soils of Teesta on wheat causing sterility in grains. Boron depletion in Bangladesh is mainly due to continuous mining of soil nutrients for increase cropping intensity (Islam, 2006).

59

CHAPTER 5

Summary and Conclusion

60

5. Summary and Conclusion Rapid population increase has been the most persistent problem of Bangladesh since last 50 years or more. All the triggering factors discussed in the scope of this research paper are the outgrowth of the biggest trigger factor swelling population. Growing population entails increase in food demand, migration and settlement in town areas, land use, cropping intensity and many such other factors that trigger nutrient depletion or imbalance leading to degradation. That may halt sustainability in agricultural use of the land of Kalapara upazila as this might be projected that the picture of other unions are similar to the studied unions. However, from the study it can be summarized that Population increased in all the studied unions but the highest population growth was found in Nilgonj. Estimated cultivable land reduction and cropping intensity both were highest in Nilgonj. The highest per capita land reduction was found in Mitagonj and the lowest of the same was observed in Chakamoia unions. The maximum depletion of P, K, Zn and B was observed in Nilgonj. The maximum depletion of N, S and Ca found in Chakamoia. Salinity was increased in all the studied unions

Study showed that land use patterns are undergoing a qualitative change in Kalapara upazila as cultivable land is gradually shrinking. This research paper projects that much alike in the other areas in Bangladesh, increasing food and shelter demand of Kalapara upazila would be met by increasing cropping intensity from the ever shrinking land resources without considering the nutrient balance in the soil that may soon lead to the degradation. That is the ultimate threat is imminent. It can also be concluded from the observed facts of the nutrient status that Nilgonj and Chakamoia are the most vulnerable unions among the studied ones.

61

CHAPTER 6 REFERENCES

62

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