Revolutionary Changes in the Atlantic World, 1750-1850

Prelude to Revolution: the Eighteenth-Century Crisis The American Revolution, 1775-1800 The French Revolution, 1789-1815 Revolution Spreads, Conservatives Respond, 1789-1850

Learning Objectives: After reading and studying this chapter you should be able to discuss: 1. Be able to discuss the causes, course, and importance of the French and American revolutions. 2. Be able compare and contrast early independence movements in Spanish South America, Mexico, and Portuguese Brazil. 3. Be able to describe late eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury efforts to end slavery and achieve equal rights for women and blacks.

Focus Questions: How did the costs of imperial wars and the Enlightenment challenge the established authority of monarchs and religion in Europe and the American colonies? What were the direct causes of the American Revolution? What were the origins and accomplishments of the French Revolution? How did revolution in one country help incite revolution elsewhere?

Prelude to Revolution: The Eighteenth-Century Crisis

Path to the Enlightenment

18th century philosophical movement of intellectuals who were greatly impressed with achievements of the Scientic Revolutions
Isaac Newton and John Locke

Newton: the worldmachine Locke: theory of knowledge and tabula rasa People believed that they could discover the natural laws to produce an ideal society

Philosophes and Their Ideas

The intellectuals of the Enlightenment were called *philosophes Writers, professors, journalists, economists, etc. Most were French with a few important English thinkers Three key thinkers: Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot

Montesquieu
Came from French nobility, writing The Spirit of the Laws Tried to use the scientic method to nd the natural laws that govern the social and political relationships of human beings Wrote on governments: republics, despotism, and monarchies *separation of power

Voltaire
Came from prosperous middle-class wrote pamphlets, novels, plays, letters, essays, and histories especially well known for his criticism of Christianity *deism

Author of the rst Encyclopedia He wrote the text to change the general way of thinking Many articles attacked religious superstition and supported religious toleration Consumed by doctors, clergy, teachers, and lawyers

Diderot

Toward A New Social Science Economics

The Physocrats, a French group interested in identifying the natural economic laws that govern human society *Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations wrote on *laissez-faire, let it be the state should not interfere in economic matters

The Later Enlightenment

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind People adopted laws and governments to preserve private property The Social Contract Entire societies agree to be governed by its general will

Social World of the Enlightenment The Growth of Reading

The number of published titles issued each year by French publishers rose from 300 in 1750 to about 1,600 in the 1780s Along with magazines came daily newspapersa relatively cheap and even free publication at coffeehouses

The Salon
Salons were elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy upper class in which writers and artists gathered together with aristocrats, government ofcials, and wealthy middle-class people

The cost of wars fought among Europes major powers over colonies and trade precipitated the revolutionary era Unpopular and costly wars funded by new taxes, fueled by changes in Western intellectual thought, led to revolution

Colonial Wars and Fiscal Crisis

As Dutch power ebbed, Britain and France began a long struggle for political preeminence in western Europe Territory and trade outlets in the Americas and Asia precipitated massive wars

War of the Austrian Succession

In 1740, a major war broke out in connection with the succession to the Austrian throne Maria Theresa took the throne when her father, Charles V, died Prussia invaded because a women ruled Austria. France allied with Prussia. Austria allied itself with Great Britain

The War expanded and was fought in other parts of the world, the far east, India, and North America

The Seven Years War New Allies

A great reversal occurred in alliances France allied with Austria Russia allied with France Britain allied with Prussia The reversal was precipitated by colonial rivalries between Britain and France

The War in Europe

Europe witnessed the clash of the two major alliances: the British and prussians against the Austrians, Russians, and French This conict spread, creating a global war

The War in India and North America

The struggle between Britain and France in the rest of the world had more decisive results The greatest conicts arose in the North America French North America was run by the French government as a vast trading area: fur, leather, sh, and timber

The British and French fought over two primary areas in North America: the water ways of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Ohio River valley The French were able to gain the support of the Indians. As traders and not settler, the French viewed by the Indians with less hostility than the British

The American Revolution, 1775-1800

Britain and British North America

A new dynasty came to powerthe *Hanoverians George I, from the German state of Hanover, became king *Robert Walpole served a s head of cabinet (Prime Minister) pursued a peaceful foreign policy

The American Revolution

After the Seven Years War, British leaders wanted to get new revenues from the colonies a source to fund the cost of war and defense of the colonies 1765, Stamp Act, required on all printed materials, newspapers, etc. Rebellion erupted

The War Begins

The colonies organized the First Continental Congress of 1774 to consider to take up arms and organize militias War erupted in 1775 at Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts 1776, Second Continental Congress approved a declaration of independence written by Thomas Jefferson, an Enlightened thinker

Foreign Support and British Defeat

Of great importance to the colonies cause was support from foreign countries during their rebellion The French supplied arms and money to the rebels from the beginning of the war

Spain and the Dutch Republic also entered the war against Great Britain The Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, recognized the independence of the American colonies

The Birth of a New Nation

The states feared concentrated power and each one was primarily concerned for its own interests The Articles of Confederation did little to provide for a strong central government The Constitutional convention in 1787 drafted a new national government

The Constitution
The new system created a federal system in which power would be shared between the national government and the state governments The federal governments powers were broken into three separate branches to prevent a monarchy: executive, legislative, and Judicial

The Bill of Rights

The new congress created a Bill of Rights10 amendments (changes) to the constitution granting freedom of religion, speech, press, etc. Many of these rights directly derived from the European intellectual during the Enlightenment

The French Revolution, 1789-1815

Background to the Revolution

1789: the beginning of a new United States of America and the beginning of the French Revolution The French Revolution was more complex, more violent, and far more radical It created both a new political and social order

The causes of the French Revolution include both longrange problems and immediate forces French society was based on inequality: the three estates

The Three Estates

The First Estate consisted of the clergy and numbered about 130,000 people and were exempt from the taille (Frances chief tax) Parish priests were often poor and from the class of commoners Higher clergy came from aristocratic families

The Second Estate, the nobility included about 350,000 people They held many of the leading positions in the government, the military, the law courts, and the higher church ofces They were exempt from the taille

The Third Estate, or the commoners of society, made up the overwhelming majority of the French population This estate was divided by vast differences in occupation, level of education, and wealth

Peasants, (75 to 80 percent of the total population) Serfdom no longer existed on any large scale in France, but obligations were owed relics of feudalism Skilled craftspeople, shopkeepers, and wage earners

The *bourgeoisie, or middle class, was another part of the Third Estate; merchants, bankers, and industrialists, and professional people lawyers, doctors, and writers 8 percent of the population

Members of the middle class were unhappy with the privileges held by nobles Aristocrats and members of the bourgeoisie were drawn to the new political ideas of the Enlightenment Many were upset with the abuses by the monarchical system

Financial Crisis
The immediate cause of the revolution was the near collapse of government nances Bad harvests in 1787 and 1788 and a slowdown in manufacturing led to food shortages, rising prices for food, and unemployment

In spite of these economic problems, the French government continued to spend enormous sums on costly wars and court luxuries The government had also spent large amounts to help the American colonists against Britain Louis XVI was forced to call a meeting of the Estates-General to raise new taxesthe French parliament

From Estates-General to National Assembly

The Estates-General was composed of representatives from the three orders of French society: the rst and second held the majority despite the third estate holding the majority The 3rd wanted to establish a constitutional government and equal taxes The king and the 1st and 2nd maintained the traditional system

The 3rd estate rebelled and held a meeting in the Tennis Court, having been locked out of the assembly The storming of the Bastille Royal authority soon collapsed Popular rebellions emerged The Great Fear

The Destruction of the Old Regime

The establishment of the National Assembly One of the assemblys rst acts was to destroy the relics of feudalism, or aristocratic privileges

The Declaration of the Rights of Man

The National Assembly adopted the *Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizeninspired by the American Declaration, Constitution, and English Bill of Rights Reecting the Enlightenment, equal freedom was declared for all men

*Olympe de Gouges saw this as an incomplete declaration and penned the Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizenwomen should have all the same rights as men The National Assembly ignored her demands

The King Concedes

He refused to accept the National Assemblys decrees on the abolition of feudalism and the Declaration of Rights

Church Reforms
The National Assembly seized and sold the lands of the Church The Church was secularized: bishops and priests were elected by the people The French government now controlled the Church

A New Constitution and New Fears

The National Assembly set up a limited monarchy but the Legislative Assembly would make the laws Afuent members of society were still elected and controlled France Many claimed the old order had been destroyed

War with Austria

The rulers of Austria and Prussia threatened to use force to restore Louis XVI to full power Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria in the spiring of 1792

Rise of the Paris Commune

Defeats in war and economic shortages resulted in new political demonstrations Radical political groups in paris organized a mob attack on the royal palace and Legislative Assembly They forced the Legislative Assembly to suspend the monarchy

A radical phase in the French Revolution emerged The *sans-culottes (without breeches) patriots without ne clothes took the lead in the radical movements Power was transferred from the Assembly to the Paris Commune

The Move to Radicalism

The sans-culottes sought revenge on those who had aided the king and resisted the popular will *Jean-Paul Marat, a revolutionary, published a radical journal called Friend of the People This publication, read by many, encouraged the rebellion further

The Fate of the King

The newly elected National Convention acted as the sovereign ruling body of France Lawyers, professors, and property owners National Conventions rst major act was the abolishment of the monarchy and establishment of a republic Factions split the Convention: All were members of the *Jacobin club

*Girondins represented the provinces and outside the city, fearing and supported the king *The Mountain represented the interests of the radicals, largely from Paris The latter condemned Louis XVI and sentenced him to death This execution created many enemies abroad

Crisis and Response

The Commune, another fraction, favored radical change and put constant pressure on the National Conventions to adopt ever more radical positions A foreign crisis also loomed an informal coalition of Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Dutch Republic took arms against France

The National Convention gave broad powers to a special committee of 12 known as the *Committee of Public safetylater run by *Maximilien Robespierre

The Reign of Terror

The Committee acted to defend France from foreign and domestic threats *Reign of Terror During the course of the Reign of Terror, close to 40,000 people were killed 16,000 people died under the blade of the guillotine

Crushing Rebellion
Revolutionary armies were set up to bring rebellious cities under the control of the National government Robespierre enacted harsh punishments to control the radical elements People from all classes were killed during the Terror

The Republic of Virtue

Under Robespierre, the title republic of virtue was given to the state Slavery was abolished in French colonies Price limits on goods considered necessities were establishedbut ultimately failed

A new order that reected reason, the National Convention pursued a policy of dechristianization The priests were encouraged to marry Notre Dame was converted to the temple of reason New Calender, 10-day weeks (the elimination of Sunday) and months were renamed France remained overwhelmingly Catholic

A Nation in Arms
To save the republic from its foreign enemies, the Committee of Public Safety declared for the mobilization of the nation The French raised a huge army, conquered the *Austrian Netherlands

The End of the Terror

Robespierre, who had become very powerful, was obsessed with ridding France of all its corrupt elements Robespierre was guillotined in 1794, the result of the National Conventions condemnation Jacobins lost power

The Directory
The National Convention reduced the power of the Committee of Public Safety A new constitution was established, 500 leaders were elected The new centralized power, the Directory, ruled with the legislature In 1799, a *coup detat led by a popular general, Napoleon Bonaparte, overthrew the Directory

The Rise of Napoleon

*Napoleon Bonaparte dominated French and European history from 1799 to 1815 I am the revolution

Early Life
Napoleon was born in 1769 in *Corsica, an island in the Mediterranean Sea Received a royal scholarship to study at a military school in France Student of the French Enlightenment

Military Successes
Napoleon rose quickly through the ranks of the French army Made commander of the French armies in Italy, where he used speed, deception, and surprise to win a series of victories He attacked Britain indirectly by invading its colony in Egypt

Consul and Emperor

Napoleon aided the coup that overthrew the Directory The new governmentthe *consulatewas proclaimed Napoleon held absolute power, controlling the entire government 1802, he named himself ruler for life 1804, he crowned himself Emperor

Napoleons Domestic Policies

The idea of republican liberty had been destroyed by Napoleons takeover of power

Peace with the Church

Napoleon himself had no personal religious faith, but made an agreement with the pope He recognized Catholicism as the religion of a majority of the French people The Catholic Church was no longer an enemy of the French government

Codication of the Laws

Napoleons most famous domestic achievement was his codication of the laws The *civil code, or Napoleonic code preserved most of the gains of the revolutionequality under the law, choose a profession, religious toleration, abolition of serfdom

A New Bureaucracy
Development a bureaucracy of capable ofcials Promotion was based on ability, not rank or birth Napoleon also created a new aristocracy based on merit in the state service

Preserver of the Revolution?

In his domestic policies, Napoleon did preserve aspects of the revolution Napoleon shut down 60 of Frances 73 newspapersall manuscripts must be subjected to government scrutiny

Napoleons Empire
Building the Empire
When Napoleon became consul in 1799, France was at war with the coalition of Russia, Great Britain, and Austria Napoleons Grand Army defeated the Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies, trying to create a new European order French Empire created dependent states and allied states

Spreading the Principles of the Revolution Napoleon sought to spread some of the principles of the French Revolution He tried to destroy the old order of other nations The spread of French revolutionary principles was an important factor in the development of liberal traditions in these countries

The European Response Britains Survival

Napoleon hoped that his Grand Empire would last for centuries The British navys decisive defeat of a combined FrenchSpanish eet at Trafalgar in 1805 Economic blockade The Allied States resented Napoleons economic regulations

Nationalism
*Nationalism is the unique cultural identity of a people based on common language, religion, and national symbols Napoleon established Nationalism in France and to other regions: They were hated as oppressors, stirring patriotism

The Fall of Napoleon

Disaster in Russia
The Spanish debacle The Grand Army and Russia Russian forces retreated for hundreds of miles, burning their own villages The Grand Army discovered Moscow ablaze, lacking food and supplies Great Retreat

This military disaster led other European states to rise up and attack the crippled French Army Exile on the island of Elba The Bourbon monarchy was restored to France under Louis XVIII

The Final Defeat Napoleon escaped from Elba, rallying France to his side again Mustering another army, Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo, Belgium He was exiled to the island of St. Helena, a small island in the South Atlantic

Revolution Spreads, Conservatives Respond, 1789-1850

News of revolutionary events in France destabilized the colonial regime in Saint Domingue (present-day Haiti), a small French colony on the western half resulting in the rst successful slave rebellion

The Haitian Revolution, 1789-1804

The colonys high mortality and low fertility rates created an insatiable demand for African slaves The gens de couleur, the free mixed-race population sought an end to race discrimination, not for slaves but for themselves Open conict between the white elite and gens de couleur led to destabilization

A slave rebellion began on the plantations of the north and spread throughout the colony In 1802, Napoleon sent a large military force to Saint Dominque to reestablish both French colonial authority and slavery

The Congress of Vienna and Conservative Retrenchment, 1815-1820

*Congress of Vienna, a convention to reestablish political order in Europe The French Revolution and Napoleons imperial ambitions had threatened the very survival of Europes old order French monarchy was reestablished Liberal and Conservative Nationalism contested for dominance

Nationalism, Reform, and Revolution, 1821-1850 Greece had been under Ottoman control until patriots launched and independence movement After years of struggle, Russia, France, and Great Britain forced the Ottoman Empire to recognize Greek independence in 1830

*Revolutions of 1848 The desire for democratic reform and national selfdetermination and the frustrations or urban workers Reforms swept through France, Hungary, Italy, Bohemia, and Russia Class conict erupted