construction types of HV Testing Transformer Tank type Insulated enclosure type Two characteristic of the straight transformer.

r. -Concept similar to the normal step-up transformer. -The transformer is having a single phase HV potential at one-end side winding and usually being earthed on the other end-side winding. -The iron-core and the enclosure / tank also being earthed. -The low voltage winding maybe fed to the voltage regulator for producing variable high voltage level. -The rating of the primary winding is usually up to 230 V r.m.s and the high voltage output rating can be up to 200 kV r.m.s. Elements that HV testing will depend on -Type of equipment (transformer, insulator, cct breakers) -Voltage rating (Um, TOV, BSL, BIL etc.) -Location in which is to be placed (indoor or outdoor, altitude, coastal, industrial etc.) HVDC test concept -The methods of the tests are typically similar to the AC tests, except the voltage supply is in DC (magnitude equivalent to AC peak (voltage). -The observation result on the sample (damage on the surface) usually worst than the one shown in AC. -Can be costly as power rectifier system is required together with normal power supply. Isolation of the circuit may be hard and dangerous (non sinusoidal / zero crossing waveform). -Test may be limited to small scale project ( <100 kV HVDC). -Less popular for higher / whole scale test due to cost, safety, less application etc. If so, interest may come from the high equipped laboratory with high budget -Usually considered as focus project that testing the high durable insulation material /product. -They also used to test alternating equipment where it not possible to test with an alternating voltages. -Normally occurs when on-site tests of highly capacitive loads such as power cables are required. -By using direct voltages, these loads may be tested using test equipment a fraction of the size of the alternating voltage required HVDC Cockcroft-Walton Doubler (no load condition.)

arranged with position of the diodes D1 and D2 and the capacitance C1 and C2 are arranged -the diode D1 prevents the voltage at point A from becoming negative with respect to earth. -This results in sine wave of 0V to twice the peak of transformer secondary appearing at this location (e.g. if Vpeak ac output HV side = 100 kV gives positive sinusoidal voltage output of +200 kVmax). -The changing of the positive and negative half cycles of ac sinusoidal supply voltage allows (depending on components position) the conduction / non-conduction of these diodes and charging / discharging process of capacitances. -These configurations enable the production of a DC waveform with an output voltage of +2Vmax. -The produced DC waveform voltage having a +2Vmax at no loading condition. HVDC Cockcroft-Walton Doubler (under load condition.)

-Voltage drop occurs during loading condition (load resistance) resulting in voltage output less than +2Vmax -caused by 2 reasons i.During the conduction period, the smoothing capacitor C2 supplies the load current will be less than +2Vmax due to ripple. ii.During each cycle, the capacitor C1 replenishes the charges lost by C2 in supplying the load, causing the VA to never attain a potential +2Vmax . So the capacitor C2 is not charge to +2Vmax at all. cascaded transformer (3V of HVAC)

-One input of the HV winding is earthed. The circuit is

Stage-I -The low-voltage winding is connected to the primary of the first transformer and its one-end terminal is connected to the earthed transformer tank. -Also one-end of the high-voltage winding is earthed through the tank. The high- voltage output from this first stage is V (e.g. 100 kV).

-The exciting winding of this stage supplies (e.g. 1 kV) the low-voltage winding of stage-II. Stage-II -The high-voltage winding in this stage and that for the previous stage-I are connected in series so that voltage 2V is produced / available at the end of the high-voltage winding of stage-II. (e.g. 2 x 100 kV = 200 kV) -The tank of the stage-II must be insulated (separated) from earth (bear in mind that tank in stage-1 is earthed). -This condition provides the HV output potential of 2V with respect to earth at one-end of the stage-II high-voltage winding. Stage-III -Similar condition as stage-I, an exciting winding tapped from HV-winding supplies in stage-II potential to the lowwinding of stage-III transformer. -The high-voltage winding in this stage and that for the previous stage-II are connected in series so that voltage 3V is produced / available at the end of the high-voltage winding of stage-III. (e.g. 3 x 100 kV = 300 kV) -Similar as stage-II, the tank of the stage-III must be insulated (separated) from earth, to ensure voltage 3V is obtained. StageIV, V and so on(if any) -Processes / conditions follow the concepts shown in previous stages (stage-II and stage-III) -The exciting winding tapped from HV-winding in the previous stage transformer ensures a potential is supplied to the low-winding of the next transformer. -Also the tank of the every stage in this case and so on must be insulated from earth, to ensure voltage increment of 1V in every stages with respect of earth (i.e 4V, 5V and so on) is obtained. implication if the voltage is generated by a normal straight transformer, not the cascaded Generating higher voltages require large insulation level placing inside the straight transformer (cost increases rapidly with voltage). Therefore not practical. 2 common types of HV generators. HVAC Generators, HVDC Generators, Impulse Generators 2 general characteristics HVDC Full-Period type transformer. -The concept is similar to single-phase full-wave / bridge rectifier circuit. -This is also among simplest and most basic rectifier circuit. It is adequate for large amount of testing and uses relatively simple component. ~Connection: -Both ends of high-voltage winding of the transformer are connected with individual diode D1 and D2. -Each of diode D1 and D2 conduct one cycle. -In the circuit, the ripple is reduced. The ripple frequency is

twice the value of the supply frequency. Four-stage Marx generator

-These damping resistors (or front resistors) RD are small in comparison to the tail resistors Rt, (e.g. the RD is about 40ohm in comparison to 540 ohm of Rt). -The front capacitor Cf is used in creating the wavefront impulse and also react as a voltage divider that measure the waveshape produced by the generator. test setup of the tracking test.(small scale)

-Use the working(normal) and abnormal voltage stress level. Duration lasted about a minuteor more. Example: breakdown test, corona test.

-Fig.shows the schematic diagram of a four-stage Marx generator, consisting of four stage capacitors Cs and resistors Rs and four associated tail resistors Rt and damping/front resistors RD. -The DC voltage Vc charges the stage capacitors Cs (four number in parallel) through the high value charging resistor Rs as well as through tail resistors Rt, which are smaller value than Rs. -These charging resistors Rs act in the same way as the tail resistors Rt when the generator discharges but are usually of high enough value to allow the tail resistors to dominates. -After long time period (e.g. 1 minute charging), a point A,B,C,D will acquire the potential DC source Vc with respect the point G. -The points H,I,J,K will remain at earth potential, as the voltage drops across the tail resistors Rt are negligible during charging time. -Therefore, the load capacitance Cf remains at earth potential (0V) during charging of stage capacitors Cs. -The spark gaps G1,G2,G3,G4 basically are set to spark almost simultaneously. -The discharge of the generator is accomplished by applying an additional impulse voltage around 15 kV (sparking voltage, e.g. battery operated) to the spark gap (triggered gap). -Since the sphere gap are normally set to just hold-off the charging voltage, the presence of this additional impulse spark causes the first gap (G1) to breakdown. -When this occur, the potential at the base of the second stage capacitor (point H) is changed from 0Vc to Vc. -Due to stray capacitance effects, the second gap (G2) still has earth potential at the tail resistor Rt side but the voltage of 2Vc across it causing immediate breakdown. -This situation continues across all the way to the top of the generator whereas spark gap G3 breakdowns and potential across point C is at 3Vc, then spark gap G4breakdown and potential across point D is at 4Vc. -Also contained in the generator design are damping resistors, RD. This actually form part of the front resistance that is install externally to the generator. -These resistors help in controlling oscillations in the voltage waveform that may arise when inductance is contained in test leads and /or test object.

-A transformer (415 V / 11 kV) was used to supply power to the test circuit and its output voltage was measured using a high voltage probe. -Each sample was fed from this supply via a high voltage relay and a resistance. This resistance value is depended on the test voltage and the flow rate of the contaminant. -The test is conducted could lasted up to 6hours (depending on the test method)or to be cut off during overcurrent. The circuit may also have additional protection scheme in place in case of emergency. The current flowing across the sample is measured using a resistive shunt. -Overcurrent protection operated, should the current exceed 60x10-3 A 6x10-3 A for 2 s to 3 s. A peristaltic pump was used to create a water flow across the inclined sample at the flow rate stated in the standard. -The current and voltage are monitored using a LabVIEW system having an appropriate resolution (e.g. 12 bits) and sampling rate (e.g. 10,000 rate per second). -An optional measurement device such as a video or thermal camera can be used to provide visual data. one implication if no sufficient electrical clearances. Sufficient electrical clearances of the testing area and actual application are required to prevent unnecessary flashover to nearby equipment, object that could cause damage or danger to them and most importantly to life. Testing Method using HVAC i.Whole scale insulator test -Typically conducted on ready-made product (transformer, insulator) -Can be categorized as dry and wet tests. Indoor equipment is maybe tested in a dry condition but the external insulation of outdoor equipment is usually wet-tested by applying standardised rain to a test object.

-The test carried out to investigate any possibility visual corona, flashover, survival system voltage, TOV etc. -A resonant transformer (415 V / 650 kV) is used to supply power to the test circuit and its output voltage is measured using a capacitance divider. -The volume-controlled artificial rain (with specific conductivity and flow rate according to standard) is generated by nozzles that entirely covered the sample surfaces -The HVAC voltages (normal system or TOV level) are supplied to each test for about 1 3minutes duration. -In dry condition test, no artificial raining is provided to the sample surface (therefore it must be the first one to be conducted). -When HVAC voltage is supplied to the specimen (for both dry and wet tests) and data is collected through the current and voltage measurement, visual corona built-up on fittings / surface, flashover, occurrence of damage etc. ii.Small scale insulation test -Use small scale HV voltage on small scale sample. Conducted to testing new product, verify characteristic, scientific analysis etc. -Very popular as they are more economic(small scale test, reliable, many options). -Duration varies from few second, minutes to long hours or days. Example: tracking test, electrical treeing test, partial discharge test, corona test, electromagnetic test etc. iii.Long duration insulation test (small scale) -Typically in small scale but could also be full scale size sample. Due to time limitation, the samples always being tested in large number (bulk). -Testing the durability of the product/ sample. Sometime represent acceleration of aging concept of the particular product over years of service. -Require sustainable supply of power and other resources for a long duration. May also require large space and long occupation of the test cage / chamber. -Test could be costly. Typically have group participant (join venture companies / utilities). Testing could lasted around 1000hrs duration or more. Example: the salt fog and atmospheric chambers tests

-The salt fog was generated by nozzles located inside the chamber using a combination of pressurised air and salt water. -The test object was placed horizontally on vertical blocks in the chamber between the earthed frame and the bushing. -Electrodes were applied to the two ends of the sample and connected to the high voltage and earth conductors. -The high voltage was supplied to the conductor from an HVAC transformer set located outside the chamber. - ballast current limiting water-based resistor of 1.0 Mohm was used to reduce currents to a maximum of 15x10-3 A at 15 kV AC voltage for intense low current arcs. -The tests were conducted by applying the HVAC voltage (value and duration depending on the test method) to the specimen that being sprayed continuously with controlledvolume salt fog. -Data are collected as voltage and leakage current measurement through the data acquisition system (e.g. Labview) and also from the damage observed on the sample surface. Impulse voltage -Apart from HVAC continuous and TOV, electrical transmission and distribution system are subjected to transient overvoltages, amplitude of which may exceed the peak value of the normal system voltage by a large amount. -The transient overvoltagesare due to two reasons; ~lightning stroke(direct strikes on lines conductor causing shielding failure, induced to equipment etc.) -switching(improper opening / closing circuit breaker, isolator, switching etc). ~Overvoltages due to lightning are considered as an external overvoltages and are dependent on the system voltages. Also known as the fast-front overvoltages or FFO. Low system voltages less than 132 kV or distribution lines are more prone to lightning overvoltages impact(failure by flashover). Switching overvoltages are internal overvoltages cause by switching operations and are also always related to systemoperating voltages. High voltage equipment or system voltages above132 kV are proneto switching overvoltages impact. Also known as slow-front overvoltages or SFO. Oil insulated transformer

Tank Type -The core and the windings are enclosed in a metal container, the surface which provides natural cooling. -Problem with high voltages due to high cost of bushing and the large space requirement. -May contain less quantity of oil than the insulated enclosure type, thus have small thermal constants. -Heat dissipation through insulated enclosure is high. -Require bushing Insulated Enclosure type -The core and the winding are surrounded by an insulating cylinder.-Contain a relatively large quantity of oil and so have large thermal time constants. -The heat dissipation through the insulated enclosure is small.-No bushing is required Straight Transformer -Concept similar to the normal step-up transformer. -The transformer is having a single phase HV potential at one-end side winding and usually being earthed on the other end-side winding. -The iron-core and the enclosure / tank also being earthed. -The low voltage winding maybe fed to the voltage regulator for producing variable high voltage level. -The rating of the primary winding is usually up to 230 V r.m.s and the high voltage output rating can be up to 200 kV r.m.s. Cascarded Transformer -Generating higher voltages requires large insulation level placing inside the straight transformer (cost increases rapidly with voltage). -Typically to generate a voltage level above 200 kV, it is more economical to cascade more than one transformer in series. -In this case, by insulating the tank of the second (and any subsequent) transformer from earth, can significantly reduce the insulation level in this transformer (thus reduce the cost!). Resonant Transformer -Also known as series resonant set or series and parallel resonant sets. -These transformers are designed to overcome two shortcoming straight transformer that are: i. resonance is used to reduce the voltage supply demand at the primary winding of the transformer

ii. it also used to ensure that a pure 50 Hz is delivered from a transformer -In effect, resonant set make used the one that previously stated as disadvantages (resonance condition) for the straight transformer set. -Resonance condition in this transformer allows higher voltage to be produced using significantly lower current that would otherwise be needed. -The development of fundamental frequency resonance condition in this transformer ensures a waveform low in total harmonics distortion. -This also reduces the maximum power requirement from the voltage winding of test supply. HV Test Method -Non-Destructive Method -The test is conducted on the material / apparatus without destroying their internal and external physical characteristic. -This test is used to ensure that the apparatus has not deteriorated after a high voltage test even though it has withstood the test successfully (post-durability test). -Test also provides the information of the quality of insulation before it forms part of an equipment (predurability test). -The common tests are such like: Measurement of the Tan of the material Partial discharge measurement

tan C X RX C4 R4
-In practice, R4 value is constant and C4 is variable. -This C4 bridge value is calibrated /tuned to obtain a constant value of frequency (may be observed by a detector). -From the circuit, the dissipation factor (tan ) can be determined based on the observed frequency, the C4 and R4 values from using an equation above. -Destructive test -The test is conducted on the material / apparatus with a possibility destroying / altering their internal and external physical characteristic. -This test is used to ensure that the apparatus has an ability to withstand the normal and abnormal system voltage (meet requirement by standard). -Test also provides the information of the quality of insulation an equipment / material. There are many laboratory test types available for the destructive tests depending on their application conducted on the gaseous, liquid and solid materials.