International Journal of Pavement Engineering Vol. 12, No.

2, April 2011, 121135

Geogrid mechanism in low-volume exible pavements: accelerated testing of full-scale heavily instrumented pavement sections
Imad L. Al-Qadia*, Samer Dessoukyb, Erol Tutumluera and Jayhyun Kwonc
a Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA; bDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas-San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA; cTensar International Corp., Atlanta, GA 30328, USA

(Received 22 December 2009; nal version received 2 September 2010) This study uses full-scale accelerated testing to provide new insight into the effectiveness of geogrids on the performance of low-volume exible pavements. Although several previous studies reported that geogrids improve pavement performance by enhancing its structural capacity and reducing distress potential, this study goes further to quantify the effectiveness of geogrids, specify the mechanism of the reinforcement they provide and identify the optimum placement of geogrid in lowvolume exible pavements. Full-scale, low-volume exible pavement sections were constructed on weak subgrade (California bearing ratio 4%) and heavily instrumented with 170 sensors. The pavement was divided into three cells with each cell having three sections. The granular base and hot-mix asphalt layer thicknesses varied, and each cell had at least one control and one geogrid-reinforced pavement section. The instruments were embedded to measure stress, strain, deection, moisture, pore-water pressure and temperature and were used to monitor pavement response to a moving load using the Accelerated Transportation Loading ASsembly (ATLAS). The testing programme was divided into two parts: response testing and performance testing. The response testing considered tyre conguration, loading, ination pressure, speed and travelling offset. The performance testing considered number of passes to failure. This paper presents the various pavement responses to different loading congurations and pavement performances when a repetitive moving dual-tyre assembly at 8 km/h and 44 kN was applied. Based on the performance testing and visual observation of the pavement cross sections after excavation, the reinforced sections showed reduced rutting and delayed surface cracking compared to the control sections. Specically, the pavements measured response showed that geogrid-reinforced pavement sections exhibited less vertical pressure and less vertical deection in the subgrade when tested at a low speed. Therefore, the studys most notable conclusion is that geogrid reinforcement reduces the horizontal movement of the granular material, especially in the longitudinal direction. The study also concludes the following about geogrid placement: (1) for a relatively thick granular base layer, placing the geogrid in the upper one-third of the base reduces the shear strains in the longitudinal and transverse directions. (2) For weaker pavements, the geogrid reinforcement at the base subgrade interface reduces the vertical deection. In the second case, the effectiveness of geogrid shall be compared to the increase in pavement structure or using other geosynthetic materials such as geotextiles. Keywords: geogrid; full scale; instrumentation; pavement reinforcement

Introduction Unbound materials in pavement systems usually show evidence of incremental degradation under repeated loading. Giroud et al. reported that deterioration in granular base layers occurs due to cycles of lateral displacement at the bottom of the layer. The movement of aggregate weakens the interface with subgrade, as ne particles contaminating the granular layer also cause the penetration of base course materials into subgrade (Al-Qadi et al. 1998, Al-Qadi and Bhutta 1999, Al-Qadi 2002). In addition, aggregate particles may break due to repeated loading. Selig (1987) noted that the lateral displacement tends to lower the base layer stiffness and induce local failure. Leng and Gabr (2002) remarked that the degradation is

manifested by the reduction of the base layers ability to spread a load, which increases the vertical stress transferred to the subgrade. Geogrid base reinforcement appears to have the potential for successful and benecial application in lowto-moderate volume roads with thin hot-mix asphalt (HMA) surfaces. When placed in a granular base course, geogrids are thought to provide tensile reinforcement by preventing lateral spreading of the base layer. In addition, the interlock provided by geogrids may cause a relatively stiffer layer to develop around the geogrids (Kwon et al. 2008, Kwon and Tutumluer 2009). The other possible benets from using geogrid in pavements, which have been reported in previously published literature, include the following:

*Corresponding author. Email: alqadi@uiuc.edu

ISSN 1029-8436 print/ISSN 1477-268X online q 2011 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/10298436.2010.535534 http://www.informaworld.com

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I.L. Al-Qadi et al. addition, the optimum location for installed geogrid in the granular layer has been debated among researchers. Broms (1977) demonstrated that geogrids provide improvement if placed at the centre of the layer. Barksdale et al. (1989) supported this nding for thin pavement sections constructed with low-quality aggregate bases; but for pavements constructed on soft subgrade, they suggested the bottom of the base as the preferred position. However, Chan et al. (1989) recommended that geogrids be placed as high as possible in the granular base to reduce rutting. Al-Qadi (2002) and Al-Qadi et al. (2006) suggested that the optimum location of geogrid is at the upper one-third of the granular layer thickness for low medium volume pavements and at the bottom of the granular layer for low-volume pavements constructed on a very weak subgrade. Monitoring in situ pavement response and performance is crucial to understanding geogrids mechanism in pavements. Geogrids effect on the performance of exible pavement can be quantied by measuring the responses of instrumented full-scale pavement sections that are exposed to various vehicular and environmental loading conditions. The rst full-scale instrumented and geosynthetically stabilised low-volume exible pavement section was constructed in Bedford, Virginia, and monitored over several years (Brandon et al. 1996, AlQadi et al. 1997, and Al-Qadi and Appea 2003). However, that study did not measure the lateral movement of aggregate or install geogrids within the granular base layer. In addition, the effect of truck tyre conguration becomes important for thin pavements due to the effect of non-uniformity of vertical and tangential surface contact stresses (Al-Qadi et al. 2005, 2007, 2008, Yoo et al. 2006, Yoo and Al-Qadi 2007, 2008). Objective and scope The main objectives of this study were to quantify the effectiveness of geogrid in low-volume exible pavements, to understand its reinforcing mechanisms and to identify its optimum placement location in a granular base layer. To accomplish the objectives of this study, nine heavily instrumented full-scale low-volume exible pavement sections were designed and constructed on a weak subgrade to measure pavement responses, monitor pavement performance and quantify the effectiveness of geogrid-reinforced exible pavements. The sections were exposed to various accelerated loading levels using the Accelerated Testing Loading ASsembly (ATLAS) at the Advanced Transportation Research and Engineering Laboratory (ATREL) at the University of Illinois in Urbana-Champaign.

(1) Serving as a construction platform over weak subgrade as it facilitates compaction (Al-Qadi et al. 1994, Bloise and Ucciardo 2000). (2) Extending pavements projected service life (Barksdale et al. 1989, Cancelli et al. 1996, Collin et al. 1996, Cancelli and Montanelli 1999, Jenner and Paul 2000, Al-Qadi and Appea 2003, Watts et al. 2004, Yang and Al-Qadi 2005, 2007). (3) Reducing granular base course thickness for a given design and service life (Miura et al. 1990, Valentine et al. 1993). (4) Increasing soil and base-bearing capacity (Floss and Gold 1994, Appea et al. 1998, Appea and Al-Qadi 2000, Huntington and Ksaibati 2000). (5) Reducing base soil contamination, depending on the aperture size of geogrids and the increase in particles interlocking at interface (Austin and Coleman 1993, Loulizi et al. 1999, Ghosh and Dey 2009). (6) Delaying and reducing rutting deformations (Chan et al. 1989, Knapton and Austin 1996, Cancelli and Montanelli 1999, Appea and Al-Qadi 2000, Jenner and Paul 2000). Geogrid is believed to increase the life of pavements through several mechanisms including interlocking unbound materials that results in restricting lateral strain, improving its bearing capacity and providing a membrane effect (Bender and Barenberg 1978, Giroud et al. 1985, Hass et al. 1988, Wong and Small 1994, Moghaddas-Nejad and Small 1996, Perkins and Ismeik 1997). Interlocking controls the rotation and movement of aggregate and, hence, could cause local stiffening and greater friction at the interface. This may result in reduced secondary deformation in the subgrade. Lateral restraint restricts the horizontal ow beneath repetitive vertical loading. Moreover, the possible increase in the stiffness of the unbound material just above the geogrid could improve pavement-bearing capacity. The membrane effect of geogrid is believed to improve the vertical stress distribution due to the presence of a deformed membrane. A recent national survey in the USA pointed out the following reasons for the limited extent of using geogrids for unbound aggregate base course reinforcement in exible pavement: a lack of detailed knowledge on the mechanisms by which geogrids provide reinforcement, a lack of established cost benet information and no available acceptable design solutions (Christopher et al. 2001). These situations still exist as indicated by a recent study conducted by the Federal Highway Administration that will be available in 2010. Although geogrid could provide benets when used in granular materials in exible pavements, the complexity of its mechanism in pavements is yet to be quantied. In

International Journal of Pavement Engineering Pavement site description The constructed pavement sections consist of three cells, A, B/C and D, with various layer thicknesses, lengths and reinforcement types and locations. Each cell is divided into three sections as shown in Figure 1. The HMA layer thickness is maintained constant at 76 mm except for section C1, which has a HMA thickness of 127 mm. The granular base layer thicknesses are 203, 305 and 457 mm for the three cells, A, B/C and D, respectively. As shown in Figure 1, a transition zone (T) was built to taper out the depth change in pavement thicknesses between the different pavement cells. The transition zones along with extensions at both ends of the pavement testing cells are used as supporting pads for ATLAS. The constructed pavement is 88 m long by 3.2 m wide. Geogrids were installed at the granular base subgrade interfaces and at one-third of the base thickness from the HMA layer interface. The experimental design considered the effect of the following variables on low-volume pavement performance: geogrid type (two geogrids with different strengths were evaluated), location of geogrid in the granular layer and HMA thickness. The HMA layer was constructed with two lifts of a 9.5mm nominal maximum aggregate size (NMAS) wearing surface mix. In section C1, an additional 25-mm NMAS HMA layer was used to increase the layer thickness. The granular base layer is A6 crushed limestone in accordance with the Illinois Department of Transportation dense-

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graded base specications. The subgrade was prepared to achieve and maintain 4% California bearing ratio (CBR). To maintain the subgrade CBR constant during construction and testing, the water content was carefully controlled through the construction of a drainage system at both sides of the pavement and transversally between the pavement cells. In addition, a prime coat was applied to the subgrade surface after compaction to prevent water evaporation from the subgrade or water entrance from possible rain. The moisture change was monitored throughout the testing period using a time domain reectometer (TDR) and porewater pressure sensors. Instrument installation During construction, more than 170 sensors were embedded in the pavement sections to monitor pressure, deection, strain, temperature, moisture and pore-water pressure (Figure 2). A total of 18 pressure cells, 49 linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs), 12 strain gauges, 82 thermocouples, 10 TDRs and 2 peizometers were installed. The pressure cells, LVDTs and strain gauges were installed at the centreline of the pavement lane, while environmental sensors were embedded at 1 m offset of the centreline. The details of instrumentation and material testing can be found elsewhere (Al-Qadi et al. 2008). All instruments survived until the study was completed; no instrument failed during construction or testing.

Figure 1.

The three cells pavement test sections.

Figure 2.

Example of embedded LVDT, pressure cell and strain gauge.

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Testing programme The accelerated loading tests were applied using ATLAS. ATLAS is a movable loading facility supported by two winches at each end to hold a steel frame structure that houses a tyre carriage. The loading system is capable of applying vehicular loading in a span of 25.90 m, which includes acceleration and deceleration distances of 1.5 m at each end. Loading was applied by pulling the tyre carriage in one direction (Figure 3). However, as a common drawback of most accelerated pavement testing (APT), the exerted torque in the tyre axles was not simulated. The pavement section lengths and transition areas were designed to allow each cell to be loaded separately and to support ATLAS winches during loading, respectively. The pavement instrument responses were obtained from three-tyre congurations: a dual-tyre assembly 11R22.5, a wide-base tyre 425/65R22.5 (old generation) and a wide-base tyre 455/55R22.5 (new generation). During testing, ve loading levels at 26, 35, 44, 53 and 62 kN at two speeds (8 and 16 km/h) were applied in one direction. Three-tyre ination pressures were considered: 550, 690 and 750 kPa. During pavement loading, the centre of each tyre conguration was aligned with the centreline of the pavement. In addition, the loading was applied at two offsets from the centreline, 150 and 230 mm. Each individual test was repeated for 5 10 cycles at each loading condition. All loading conditions were operator controlled, except for the eld temperature. After completing the above pavement response programme, the performance testing programme was performed. The dual-tyre assembly was used to load the pavement sections using 44 kN at a tyre pressure of 690 kPa and a speed of 8 km/h. Testing was terminated at 50 mm surface rutting. However, section C1 did not show any sign of failure after relatively signicant loading, and the testing of sections D1 D3 was terminated at approximately 25-mm of rutting.

Figure 4. tyre.

Tyre imprints for dual-tyre assembly and wide-base

Data collection and processing Instruments were connected to a data acquisition system to collect and lter signal noise and store and plot the collected data. An in-house programme for data acquisition was developed using Labvieww. The loadassociated instruments were only activated during load application, while the environmental instruments were activated continuously to monitor temperature and moisture changes. Normalisation of the instrument loading response was achieved by subtracting the value before the initiation of the response from the peak response. Collected data were corrected to a HMA reference temperature. During testing, the temperature ranges for cells A, B/C and D were 12 22, 8 35 and 19 478C, respectively. An exponential function was developed to shift measured loading responses at various temperatures to values at a reference temperature of 258C (Al-Qadi et al. 2007). Validation was conducted by comparing measured and predicted responses at the reference temperature. Loading offset was considered in this study (Figure 4). Offsets were located at zero (centre of tyre conguration), 150 mm (centre of single dual-tyre assembly), 230 mm (edge of wide-base 455 tyre) and 305 mm (edge of dual-tyre assembly, but off the edge of the wide-base tyre).

Loading response analysis Inuence of tyre conguration and loading parameters Compared to the conventional dual-tyre assembly, wide-base tyres are reported to improve truck fuel

Figure 3.

ATLAS with the dual-tyre assembly (left) and wide-base tyre hooked up to the carriage (right).

International Journal of Pavement Engineering efciency, reduce emission, increase payload, exhibit superior braking and comfort and reduce repair and maintenance cost (Al-Qadi and Elsei 2007). However, concern about the damage wide-base tyres could cause to exible pavements which has discouraged state agencies from widely promoting the use of wide-base tyres. Conventional wide-base tyres sustained high-operating ination pressure to minimise tyre deection; however, high vertical contact stresses resulted at the pavement surface. This shortcoming has been resolved in the new generation of wide-base tyres. The new generation of wide-base tyres is inated at the same tyre pressure as dual tyres. However, the reduced contact area of a wide-base tyre compared to the dual-tyre assembly is still a concern in spite of the fact that a wide-base tyre provides signicantly better contact stress uniformity (Al-Qadi et al. 2005). The majority of the studies comparing conventional wide-base tyres (425 or 385) to a dual-tyre assembly have reported that wide-base tyres cause more damage to pavement systems (Huhtala et al. 1989, TFHRC 2006). This study investigates the impact of tyre conguration (old generation 425/65R22.5 and new generation 455/55R22.5 wide-base tyres) on the constructed lowvolume pavement sections. In case the wide base tyre becomes more widely implemented, it is important to know how it would affect geogrids performance. Imprints of the dual-tyre assembly and the two widebase tyre congurations showed that the WB425 has the smallest contact area at the surface. This results in relatively greater response on the pavement. This is evident in Figure 5 where the response of WB425 is 32% higher than that of the dual-tyre assembly. The gure presents the responses from the sensors under the centreline of the wide-base tyre and the centreline between the two tyres for the dual-tyre assembly. WB455 has shown an average of 10% less response than the WB425 and 14% greater response than the dual-tyre assembly. The maximum response from the dual-tyre assembly at the interface is between the tyres, while at shallow depths it is under the centre of one tyre. At shallow depth, the HMA response for the WB455 is approximately 33 and 8% less
26 kN 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
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Figure 6. Strain responses at the bottom of HMA at 8 km/h and 750 kPa.

than that from the WB425 and dual-tyre assembly, respectively, under the same loading conditions (Figure 6). However, the pavement sections, control and geogridreinforced, showed the same trend in response to various tyre types, although WB425 was concluded to be the most damaging tyre to low-volume exible pavement sections. Vehicle speed has signicant effect on the pavements strain and deformation (Figure 7). In addition, Figure 7 shows no signicant inuence (# 2%) on ination pressures at deep layers, while at shallow layers strain responses vary within 7%. Stress distribution under a tyre has been traditionally considered uniform within the tyre imprints vicinity. This approximation has been used in many multilayer analysis techniques. However, in reality, stress distribution varies along the tyre width and length. Using an instrumented pad, the contact stresses in 3D were measured for each tyre at various loading and tyre pressures. This study also examined the effect of wandering on pavement response. Results show that as a tyre deviates from the instrument positions, pavement responses decrease. This validates that stresses and strains under the tyre centre are greater than those measured under the edge of the tyre. The most critical tyre positions depend on the pavement depth of interest. At shallow depth, under the centre of one tyre of the dual-tyre assembly and the centre of WB455 are the most critical positions; while deep in the pavement, under the centre of the WB455 and the dual-tyre assembly (due
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Deection and pressure responses at base subgrade interface at 8 km/h and 750 kPa.

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Ination pressure and speed inuence in pressure responses.

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Tyre offset inuence on subgrade pressure and HMA strain for (a) dual-tyre assembly and (b) WB455.

HMA transverse strain (micro)

to stress distribution overlap) is the most critical position. In general, the effect of limited wander is more pronounced at shallow depths (Figure 8). Figure 9 illustrates the responses of HMA strain gauges due to temperature variation. The data presented in Figure 9 were obtained using the exponential correction factor for three reference temperatures: 15, 25 and 358C. As the base layer increases, the effect of tyre conguration at the base subgrade diminishes (Figure 10). Inuence of pavement layers To evaluate the effectiveness of geogrid in pavements, the granular base and HMA thicknesses are also considered. The granular base thickness has shown an effect on both the HMA strain and subgrade pressure and deection. When the base layer was increased by 50%, the subgrade

deection was reduced by 60%. However, the impact of increasing the HMA thickness was much more pronounced (Figure 11).

900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 D1

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35C 25C 15C 35C 25C 15C 35C 25C 15C D2 D3

Figure 9. Temperature inuence on pavement responses.

International Journal of Pavement Engineering

Subgrade vertical deflection (mm) 26 kN HMA transverse strain (micro) 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 Dual WB455 Dual WB455 Dual WB455 A3 (203 mm) B1 (305 mm) D3 (457 mm) 35 kN 44 kN 53 kN 62 kN Base vertical deflection (mm) 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 Dual WB455 Dual WB455 Dual WB455 A3 (203 mm) B1 (305 mm) D3 (457 mm) 26 kN 35 kN 44 kN 53 kN 62 kN 26 kN 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 35 kN 44 kN 53 kN

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Figure 10.

Effect of base thickness on pavement responses for control sections.

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Effect of HMA thickness on pavement responses for control sections.

Inuence of geogrid reinforcement The insertion of geogrids in the granular base layer has improved the performance of the tested pavement sections in this study. The reinforced sections showed a reduction in pavement responses in the range of 23 31%, depending on the pavement structure. The improvement was obviously more pronounced for weak pavements compared with thick pavements (Figure 12). In addition, for a relatively thick granular layer, single reinforcement at the top one-third of the base layer improved the base resistance to transverse and longitudinal deformation, while addition of a geogrid at the base subgrade interface improved subgrade stability. To investigate the effect of the geogrid type, two distinctive geogrids, GG1 and GG2, were installed in cell A (Table 1). The GG2 has a 50% higher modulus, tensile strength and thicker rib than GG1. GG2 has shown slightly

better performance by minimising the base layer responses (Figure 13). Similarly, Collin et al. (1996), Hirano et al. (1990) and Miura et al. (1990) have suggested that reinforcement affects the granular base stability and is proportional to the tensile stiffness of the geogrids.

Performance testing analysis Performance testing was conducted after the response testing was completed. Loading conditions using dual-tyre assembly were xed throughout the testing programme. The tyre offset was also kept unchanged at the centreline to monitor the maximum instrument response. Due to the fact that tests were conducted at various temperatures, data normalisation was necessary. It was evident that the pavement damage was in the form of rutting and cracking. However, section C1, which has 127 mm of HMA,

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Effect of geogrid reinforcement and its location on granular base layer responses.

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Table 1. Geogrid properties.

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Properties GG1 Load capacity Initial modulus Tensile strength at 2% strain Tensile strength at 5% strain Ultimate tensile strength Test method ASTM D6637-01 ASTM D6637-01 ASTM D6637-01 ASTM D6637-01 Units kN/m kN/m kN/m kN/m MD 250 4.1 8.5 850 TD 400 6.6 13.4 1300 MD 400 6.0 11.8 1315 GG2 TD 650 9.0 19.6 1975

Note: MD, machine direction (along roll length); TD, cross-machine direction (across roll width).

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Figure 13.

Effect of geogrid strength on pavement responses.

experienced only tyre imprint marks on the surface. Control sections, in general, showed excessive shear deformation in the granular base layer compared with their reinforced counterparts (Figure 14).

Reinforced sections performance In general, granular base deformations were less in the geogrid-reinforced sections. Results obtained from sections B1 and B2 suggest that reinforcement could signicantly reduce granular base lateral shear movement. Similarly, for pavement with a thick granular base layer, such as in section D, reinforcing the upper part of the base could be very effective in reducing lateral shear. The double reinforcement may improve long-term performance more than the single layer. However, the use of a double layer depends on cost and pavement structure.

Surface cracking Tyre pavement contact stresses are three dimensional (Al-Qadi et al. 2005). In addition to pavement surface, these stresses are affected by the tyre tread structure, conguration, position, speed, material and ination pressure. The tangential stresses have a signicant effect at shallow depths and diminish with pavement depth. The WB455 tyre resulted in greater longitudinal than transverse strains as illustrated in Figure 15 for section D2. The transverse strain reects a tension-only response,

while the longitudinal strain reects a compression followed by a tension peak as a tyre moves over the sensor. In general, the HMA longitudinal strain is usually greater than the transverse strain, especially for thick HMA layers. The difference between them decreases as the structure becomes weaker. In addition, because of the relatively signicant longitudinal granular base movement, a series of transverse cracks, 0.15 0.30 m apart, along the wheel path as well as two longitudinal cracks at the path edges, have appeared due to the tyre loading repetitions. The severity of the cracks increases, as the load repletion increases. In addition, the crack severity progressed more rapidly in the case of thin granular base layer and almost did not exist in the case of relatively thick granular or HMA layers. The initiation and propagation of transverse cracks are believed to be due to the high shear in the pavement as well as the base subgrade deformation. This could be more manifested in the eld, as the APT does not provide a driving gear or braking, which can signicantly increase the shear stresses in pavements (Figure 16).

Permanent deformation The loading of a section was terminated at 50-mm rutting, except when the rutting rate was relatively very low as in section C1 and the D sections. Rutting was measured at two zones in each section. The sections with the 150-mm granular base layer showed signicant rutting at a rapid rate. To compare section performance, the rate of rutting

International Journal of Pavement Engineering

Base transverse deformation (mm) Base transverse deformation (mm) 2 A1 1.5 A2 A3 Base transverse deformation (mm) 0.2 B1 0.15 B2 C1 0.20 D1 0.15 D2 D3

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0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 No. of passes

0 0 200000 40000 No. of passes 60000 80000

0 0 200000 40000 60000 80000 100000 No. of passes

Figure 14.

Trafc testing responses of pavement sections.

(RR) was determined for all sections. Table 2 presentsthe rutting and corresponding number cycles for each section. The relation between RR and pavement section design is shown in Figure 17. The calculated RR showed clearly that the most rapid rutting development was noted for the lowest unreinforced granular base layer thickness, while the slowest rutting development was

noted for the section with the thickest HMA layer. In each cell, the reinforced section showed better performance; this improvement diminishes as the granular base layer thickness increases. Although the reinforced section showed a signicant improvement, increasing the HMA layer thickness is the most signicant method to sustain pavement integrity.

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(a) HMA transverse/ longitudinal strain (micro) 1000 750 500 250 0 250 0 5 10 15 20 25 D2-Long D2-Trans. Dual-tyre (b) HMA transverse/ longitudinal strain (micro) 1000 750 500 250 0 250

I.L. Al-Qadi et al.

WB425 D2-Long D2-Trans. (c) HMA transverse/ longitudinal strain (micro) 1000 750 500 250 0 250 0 5 10 15 20 25 D2-Long D2-Trans. WB455

10

15

20

25

Tyre position (m)

Tyre position (m)

Tyre position (m)

Figure 15.

Longitudinal and transverse HMA strain responses to various tyre congurations for section D2 at 44 kN loading.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Cell A

Cell B

Cell D

Figure 16.

Pavement transverse cracking at the loading path due to the surface longitudinal strain.

Table 2.

Rutting measurements and number of passes at two locations in each section. A1-1 4456 19 B1-1 48,390 49 D1-1 89,155 22 22 23 49 D1-2 39 D2-1 89,155 23 29 20 B1-2 19 B2-1 50,003 32 D2-2 5 D3-1 89,155 32 A1-2 A2-1 4456 30 B2-2 33 C1-1 62,297 8 D3-2 A2-2 A3-1 4456 31 C1-2 A3-2

Cell A Number of passes Final rut depth (mm) Cell B/C Number of passes Final rut depth (mm) Cell D Number of passes Final rut depth (mm)

Geogrid placement The optimal geogrid placement position is dependent on the subgrade, the base thickness and the tyre loading magnitude. Hirano et al. (1990) reported that geogrids
10.00 Rate of rutting, RR (0.001 mm/cycle)

8.00

6.00

4.00

2.00

0.00 A1 RR 4.36 A2 6.35 A3 9.07 B1 1.34 V2 0.50 C1 0.11 D1 0.27 D2 0.28 D3 0.40

Figure 17.

Comparison of RR among pavement sections.

must be covered by a minimum base layer of 200 mm to control damage during trafcking. Cancelli and Montanelli (1999), Hass et al. (1988), Miura et al. (1990) and Walters and Raymond (1999) suggested that the optimal position of geogrid is at the bottom of the base for a soft subgrade with a base thickness less than 400 mm. However, for relatively higher subgrade-bearing capacity and thicker base, the optimal position is at 250 350 mm below the surface (Hass et al. 1988, Moghaddas-Nejad and Small 1996, Perkins et al. 1999). However, in this study, the placement of additional reinforcement layer at the bottom of a thick base layer with geogrid in the top onethird was found not to reduce the rutting potential. For comparison, the response difference at the beginning and end of performance testing for each sensor was divided by the total number of passes. This allows normalisation of data for each cell (Table 3).

International Journal of Pavement Engineering

Table 3. Ultimate difference in sensors responses normalised to the number of passes. Sensors HMA Sections A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 C1 D1 D2 D3 Transverse strain 197 530 260 11 25 NA 14 8 7 Subgrade Pressure (kPa) 9244 9154 8748 2038 1753 971 574 612 855 Vertical deection (mm) 536 307 74 22 20 7 5 6 4 Base deection (mm)

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Vertical NA NA NA 13 9 4 2 2 3

Transverse 101 79 370 4 3 1 1 1 6

Longitudinal 263 94 606 15 9 6 2 2 4

Comment Different GG product Control Control Thick HMA layer Reinf. at 1/3 base layer Double reinf. Control

Note: All numbers are multiplied by 1026 except transverse strain that is multiplied by 1023.

Pavement trenches After testing was completed, deep trenches were cut in the zones that showed severe distress (Figure 18) to quantify layer thicknesses, interface locations and conditions and geogrid depth. Considering variation in layer construction processes, most layer thicknesses were within 10% of the proposed design shown in Figure 1. The layer prole at that base subgrade interface was found to be highly affected by loading, especially for the control and thinbase sections (Figure 19). This is in agreement with previous suggestions that as the granular base thickness increases, the impact of reinforcement lessens (Gobel et al. 1994, Collin et al. 1996, Posposil and Zednik 2000, AlQadi et al. 2007). The layer thickness prior to loading was measured at the edge of the trench. Deformed layers were measured at the centre of the trench. Depression was noticed in the HMA and base layers as well as in the subgrade. As the number of passes increased, the thickness of each layer varied. Hence, normalisation of thickness reduction and subgrade rutting was used to compare section perform-

ances. The change in layer thickness was divided by the layer thickness and the number of passes, as presented in Table 4. In general, the control areas revealed a higher rate of depression in HMA and base layers in all sections except D3. The subgrade rutting in these sections was twice as severe as in the reinforced ones.

Summary The conclusions from this study build on previous research that has presented geogrid as a worthy reinforcement for exible pavement by going further to explain the mechanisms involved. To conduct this necessary research, a heavily instrumented low-volume exible pavement structure, consisting of three cells, was constructed on a weak subgrade (CBR 2 4%). Each cell contained three pavement sections including control and geogridreinforced sections. The sections were exposed to pavement response-measuring and performance test programmes using the Accelerated Transportation Loading ASsembly (ATLAS). The response programme considered tyre conguration, loading, ination pressure, speed and travelling offset. The performance programme considered the number of passes to failure. The various layers were instrumented with 170 sensors to monitor environmental and load-associated responses. Three-tyre congurations, wide-base tyres 425 and 455 and dual-tyre assembly, were used in the response testing programme. Pavement sections, controlled and reinforced, showed the same trend in response to various tyre types. WB425 was concluded to be the most damaging tyre to low-volume exible pavement sections. Loading wander has signicant impact on pavement response. Maximum pavement responses are associated with the centre of the wide-base tyre and are depth dependent on the dual-tyre assembly. Tyre ination pressure is signicant at the

Figure 18.

Trench cut in section D2.

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Surface GG2 100 0 100 Profile (mm) Profile (mm) 200 300 400 500 600 700 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Transverse distance (m) D1 Surface Bottom of HMA Bottom of base 100 0 100 Profile (mm) 200 300 400 500 600 700 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Transverse distance (m) B1 Surface Bottom of HMA Bottom of base/GG1 100 0 100 Profile (mm) Profile (mm) 200 300 400 500 600 700 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Transverse distance (m) A1 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Profile (mm) 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 Bottom of HMA Bottom of base 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

I.L. Al-Qadi et al.

Surface GG2 Bottom of HMA Bottom of base 100 0 100 Profile (mm) 200 300 400 500 600 700 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Transverse distance (m) D2 Surface Bottom of HMA Bottom of base/GG2 Transverse distance (m) D3 Surface Bottom of HMA Bottom of base

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

Transverse distance (m) B2 Surface Bottom of HMA Bottom of base/GG2 100 0 100 Profile (mm) 200 300 400 500 600 700 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 Transverse distance (m) A2 Transverse distance (m) A3 Surface Bottom of HMA Bottom of base

Figure 19.

Pavement layers prole across the trenches.

shallow depth and its inuence diminishes as the depth increases within the pavement. Response testing also indicated that increasing granular base layer and HMA thicknesses would reduce pavement response. Although increasing HMA thickness was concluded to be the most effective way to reduce pavement responses, geogrid also decreased pavement response. In general, geogrid-reinforced pavement sections constructed on soft subgrade exhibited less vertical pressure on subgrade and less vertical deection in the subgrade when tested at a low speed. In particular, this observation was more manifested in weak pavement

structures. It needs to be noted that although geogrid tends to improve overall low-volume exible pavement performance, it is not recommended to use a geogrid in under-designed pavement with hope of meeting the design requirements. For a relatively thick granular base layer, placing the geogrid at the upper one-third of the base reduces the shear strains in the longitudinal and transverse directions. On the other hand, for weak pavements, the reinforcement at the base subgrade interface reduces the vertical deection. Thus, the study reveals a notable mechanism of geogrid

International Journal of Pavement Engineering

Table 4. Layers thickness and deformation at the termination of trafc testing. Thickness after construction (mm) Section A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 D1 D2 D3 HMA 81 76 76 76 76 85 85 76 Base 209 206 228 345 316 455 463 476 Thickness change/(layer thickness number of passes) ( 106) HMAa 213.85 217.72 2 17.72 0 0.00 0.00 20.13 0.00 Basea 29.66 28.72 2 13.78 2 0.84 0.00 20.35 20.17 2 0.07

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Thickness after loading at loading path, mm (thickness change or rut, mm) HMA 76 (2 5) 70 (2 6) 70 (2 6) 76 (0) 76 (0) 85 (0) 84 (2 1) 76 (0) Base 200 (2 9) 198 (2 8) 214 (2 14) 331 (2 14) 316 (0) 441 (2 14) 456 (2 7) 473 (2 3) Subgrade 2 10 2 16 2 25 2 24 2 12 28 28 2 28

Rut/ number of passes Subgrade (%) 20.22 20.36 2 0.56 2 0.05 20.02 20.01 20.01 2 0.03

Notes: Italicised values are control. a Normalised values multiplied by 106.

reinforcement: It reduces the horizontal movement of the granular material, especially in the longitudinal direction. For the performance programme, APT was conducted until pavement failure. Distress was observed in all sections except section C1, which has 127 mm of HMA. The control sections exhibited relatively unstable shear deformation in the granular base layer resulting in early distress compared to their reinforced counterparts. The distress was mainly in the form of longitudinal and vertical deformations. Pavement transverse cracking, perpendicular to loading direction, occurred in the pavement sections having relatively thin granular layers. The RR parameter was used as a performance indicator. In general, high RR was obtained for unreinforced thin sections, while low RR was obtained for reinforced sections with thick bases. This study brought to light a specic benet of geogrid: It minimises the lateral deformations in the base layer. This result emphasises the outcome of the response testing programme. Trenches dug in the sections revealed that both base and subgrade were deformed. The deformation was localised under the loading path resulting in soil contamination of the base aggregate. The rutting in the subgrade of control sections was twice that of the reinforced sections for the weak structure and became less as the pavement structure improved. In conclusion, geogrid shows great potential to reduce shear ow and lateral deformations in the granular base layer which results in increasing the strain at the bottom of HMA and minimising rutting and/or cracking in a thin pavement structure. The effectiveness of geogrid starts in early stages of loading and continues by controlling the granular material movement due to shear.

Acknowledgements
The assistance of J. Baek, P.-J. Yoo, E. Fini, J. Meister, M. Elsei, B. Harkanwal, J. Anochie-Boateng, C. Montgomery, K. Jiang and Z. Leng during pavement construction and instrumentation is greatly appreciated. The content of this paper reects the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts and the accuracy of the data presented herein. This paper does not constitute a standard, specication or regulation. The nancial support provided by Tensar International Co. is greatly appreciated.

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