1

PREFACE
Nowadays electronics is taking its part in every sector in day today life. TV, Radio and other various electronic equipments have influenced the development of the lifestyle of people. The main objective of science and specially electronics is to enhance the lifestyle of people. Now people will find hard time living without these things or say living without electronics. Electronics has played very important role in day today life. May it be communication, security or entertainment, electronics is playing very vital role. Various electronic equipments are need of today as they fulfill people's desires and interest. It is due to advancing electronics that we can launch rockets, satellites to space, moon, other planets. It is electronics that has established modern civilization of this time. As we are here to learn electronics, we had to design an electronic project that would be important. I have completed a project that is "Night Lamp with Automatic Battery Charger". This project is very interesting and is very useful in day today life. Night lamp operates automatically at night and Battery charging is automatic. Thus it is very helpful.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am very pleased that I completed my project and prepared report on basis of my project. I received many suggestions and advice during my project work and I found them handy. I had tried hard to include all the details required that would explain my project kit. All the details regarding the description of components, basic circuit units used in the project (like 555 as monostable mutivibrator, transistor as switch, op-Amp as voltage comparator, SR Latch, etc.), circuits explanation in depth. I think this report would be very helpful to gain complete knowledge on how my project kit works. I think this report is complete and I think anyone who would read this report would learn completely how the kit functions with no doubts. I thank all the teachers and my colleagues who were kind enough to guide me through my project and report work. Especially I would like to thank my supervisor Mr. Rishi Raj Dahal and Mr. Santa Maharjan who helped me through various confusions and problems which occurred during project as well as report making.

CONTENTS
Introduction and objectives Block Diagram Block Explanation Circuit Diagram Components Description of Components Basic Circuit Units a. Dc power supply b. 555 as monostable multivibrator c. op-Amp as voltage comparator d. Transistor as switch e. SR Latch 8. Circuit Explanation 9. Application and utilities 10. Problem faced 11. Cost estimation 12. Conclusion 13. Bibliography
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

4 5 6 8 9 10 21 21 23 24 25 26 28 30 30 31 32 32

1.

INTRODUCTION

I completed my project named "Night lamp with Automatic Battery charger" on the basis of course of study of II/II of diploma in Electronics Engineering. The project is very helpful as it is simple and useful in day today life. The night lamp and battery charger we generally use are of manually operation type. But my project saves time in manual operation as both units are automatically operated. When the lights falls or room light is turned off then the lamp circuit energizes automatically. Also the battery charger is automatic with detection and control over overcharging and deep discharging. The battery used gives the supply to the lamp circuit in case of mains supply failure. Thus there is always alternative supply. The project is mainly designed with 555 timer as Monostable Multivibrator, switching transistor comparators, SR Flipflop logic and relays.

OBJECTIVES
Electronics has become integral part of human life. Without electronic we would feel like going back to 15th century. Without advanced technologies people have facilitated from electronics in various fields. TV, DVD, VCD players, etc for entertainment, computers, telephones cell phones for communication and business purposes and advanced security systems are products of electronics that has made human life easy. The main objectives of electronic project in our course of study are as follows. i. To develop the practical idea on the electronic equipments. ii. To work with the electronic components and get knowledge on their working principle. iii. For fulfillment of course of study.

2.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

3.

BLOCK EXPLANATION

Battery: Here the battery used is 6v 4.5Ah type. This battery supplies the power to the circuit in case of mains supply failure. Otherwise if the battery is below 5.5, the lower comparator circuit energizes and the relay is turned on to charge the battery. If the battery voltage crosses the battery, then the upper comparator circuit activates to stop charging battery. Thus battery charging is automatic based on comparator circuit. Comparator: Here the comparator circuit is used for automatic charging of the battery. Comparator circuit comprises of two parts i.e. upper comparator and lower comparator. Lower comparator is used to compare lower voltage level while upper comparator is used to compare upper voltage limit. Comparator circuit is based on popular op-Amp configuration. When battery voltage falls below 5.5v, lower comparator output goes high thus SR Flipflop comes to set state and relay is activated and battery begins to charge. During charging process if battery voltage level and its output goes up to 6.5v, upper comparator detects the voltage level and its output goes high thus SR Flipflop comes to reset state and relay is deactivated and charging is stopped. Indicators: Indicators are used to indicate charging period of battery as well as upper and lower voltage levels. Whenever voltage level crosses upper voltage level i.e. 6.5v then the indicator 1 glows to indicate upper voltage limit. Similarly indicator 2 glows when battery voltage falls below lower voltage limit i.e. 5.5v. Again indicator 3 indicates to display charging period of battery. LEDs of different colors are used as indicators. SR Latch: The automatic control of the battery charging is around the unit SR Latch. The lower voltage comparator output is connected to set Pin of SR Latch and upper voltage comparator to reset pin of SR Latch. Thus whenever lower voltage limit is crossed, input to S is 1 thus SR Latch comes to set state and its output drives the Relay to charge the battery. Further when upper voltage limit is crossed R gets 1 and SR Latch comes to reset state and Relay comes to off state to stop charging process of Battery. Switching transistors: Here the switch used is not a mechanical switch but a transistor is used as switch to control the switch. The transistor is configured as a switch in cut off and saturated mode. The switching action of transistor is based on the voltage input to base of the transistor. The transistor configured as switch is reliable as it can be used for automatic operation. If high voltage is applied to the base of the transistor then the output voltage across the collector is low but if low voltage is input to the base, the output is high. Thus the switching operation can be accomplished.

Mains and Regulators: Transformer is used to step down mains ac voltage of 220v to 12v ac. Then it is rectified to dc using bridge rectifier, filtered by shunt capacitor filter and is regulated by Regulator IC's LM7807 and LM7812 to produce 7v and 12v dc respectively. 7v is used to power the circuit while 12v is used to energize relay that switches to charge battery. Relay: The relay is used to on and off charging of the battery. Relay is controlled by the switching transistor. The relay contacts are used as switch to turn on and off charging process of battery. Sensor: The sensor used in night lamp is most commonly used component i.e. LDR or Light Dependant Resistor. As we know the resistance of the LDR changes according to the light falling the component, its property is used to detect bright light and darkness to automatic switch on night lamp at night and to turn it off automatically at morning time. This part of sensor is specially used to sense darkness. Monostable Multivibrator: Monostable multivibrator is stable in only one stable state. A trigger in pulse is required to induce a transmission from a stable state to a quasi-stable state. The time period in which the multivibrator stays at quasi-stable state is determined by the circuit components R and C Here 555 timer is configured as monostable multivibrator. The time period of the output pulse depends upon the time constant determined by value of resistance and capacitance connected to its different pins. Here as long as it senses darkness the input pulse goes on and the output remains high, changed. But as the pulse ceases it return to its former low output state until next pulse start. Lamp: The lamp used in the project is white LEDs. 8 high intensity white LEDs connected in series parallel, are configured to provide white light which is used as night lamp. Other lads such as dc filament lamp etc also can be used depending upon the voltage and current limitations.

4.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

5.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED
UNITS 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 5 1 3 1 2 1 1 4 1 3 3 2 6 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 72inch2

S.N PARTS 1 Transformer 12v, 1Amp secondary 2 IC's i CD4093 ii NE555 iii LM324 iv LM7807 v LM7812 3 Transistor i BC547 ii BC337 4 Capacitor i 1000,25v ii 10 ,16v iii 47 ,25v iv 0.22 v 0.1 vi 0.01 5 Resistor i POT,100k and Preset,10k,20k ii LDR iii 5,2w iv 2,5w v 2k vi 10k vii 47k viii 1k ix 560 6 Diodes i Switching Diode IN4148 ii IN4007 iii White LEDs iv Zener Diode 3.6v v Red LED vi Green LED vii Yellow LED 7 Relay, 12 v 8 Multi-meter 9 Bread board 10 PCB Board

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6.

DESCRIPTION OF THE COMPONENTS

1. Transformer: Transformer is a static electrical device by which the voltage source of alternating current may be increase or decrease. Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction which state that induced emf is proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux. It consists of two windings primary and secondary wound around laminated iron core.

Let N1 be no fo turns in the primary coil N2 be no of turns in the secondary coil m be maximum flux in the core of transformer, and f be frequency of ac input then the flux grows from zero to maximum in one quarter of the cycle as in above figure. So average rate of change of flux = m/(1/4) = 4f m Wb. But in any ac wave of sinusoidal nature the form factor = rms value/ average value = 1.11 So rms value of emf induced per turn = 4f m*1.11 = 4.44f m Therefore rms value of induced emf in the entire primary windidng E1 = 4.44fN1 m Similarly the rms value of induced emf in the entirer secondary winding E2 = 4.44 fN2 m In case of ideal transformer on no load, V1=E1 and V2=E2] Now input voltage ampere = output voltage ampere V1I1 = V2I2 Or V2/V1=I1/I2=N2/N1=K Where K is voltage transformation ratio. 2. Resistor: Resistor is a passive component whose main job is to control energy .its main function is to drop voltage and limit current. Its value measured is resistance and its unit is ohm (). There are specially two types of resistor. i. Fixed Resistor ii. Variable Resistor i. Fixed Resistor: -

Symbol In fixed resistor its value is fixed and can't be changed. The value set during manufacturing is set all along with certain tolerances. Fixed Resistor is used where

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fixed resistance is required and variation resistance is unwanted. There are mainly 5 types of fixed resistors. 1. Carbon Composition Resistors 2. Wire wound Resistors 3. Film type Resistors 4. Surface mount Resistors 5. Thermistors In most of the cases Carbon composition resistors are used. It is composition of carbon, graphite and insulating materials. Carbon resistors are cheap and compact. ii. Variable Resistors It is also called POT or Potentiometer. Its value and be varied over a range specified during manufacture. It is used to vary amount of current and voltage for the given circuit. Another type of variable resistor is Preset type.

Symbol Generally it consists of 3 terminals. The fixed ends are connected across voltage source and the variable arm is used to vary the resistance. It can be wire wound or carbon composed. Light Dependant Resistor (LDR): LDR or Light Dependent Resistors are very useful especially in light/dark sensor circuits. Normally the resistance of an LDR is very high as high as 1m, but when they are illuminated with light resistance drops dramatically. LDR is a resistance whose resistance varies according to the light falling on the resistor. Thus this special resistor can be used in the circuits where light sensor is requirement.

P2 5k

Symbol 3. Capacitor: It is a component able to hold re store and electric charge. The charge remains even after the voltage source is disconnected. The measure of how much charge can be stored is the capacitance. Its unit is Farad. More charge for a given amount of applied voltage means more capacitance

Capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a insulating material called dielectric. The measure of capacitance is C=Q/V Where C=> Capacitance of capacitor in Farad

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Q=> Charge stored in dielectric V=> Voltage across plated of capacitor 1 Farad is the capacitance of capacitor that can store 1 coulomb of charge when 1 volt potential is applied The value of capacitance depends upon following term C=A/d Where A=> Area of the plate D=> Distance between the two plates => Permittivity of the dielectric medium Types of Capacitor i. Mica Capacitor ii. Ceramic Capacitor iii. Paper Capacitor iv. Electrolytic Capacitor v. Film Capacitor vi. Surface mount Capacitor vii. Variable Capacitor Among these the types of capacitor we used in our project is only ceramic and electrolytic, therefore we only describe these two types. i. Ceramic Capacitor: -

ii.

A ceramic disc is coated on two sides with a metal like copper, silver, etc. These coatings act as two plates. Leads are attached to two plates then the entire unit is coated with plastic and marked with each capacitance value either number or color code. Color coding is similar to that of resistance. Its leakage is very low. Electrolytic Capacitor: It consists of aluminium foil electrode which has an aluminium oxide film covering on one side. Aluminium lea serves as positive and oxide as dielectric. The oxide is in contact with paper saturated with an electrolyte. The electrolyte forms the second plate i.e. negative plate of the capacitor. Another layer of aluminium without oxide coating is used for making electrical contact between one of the terminals and electrolyte. In most cases negative plate is directly connected to the container of the capacitor. Aluminum oxide layer is very thin so large capacitance in small volume. Polar Capacitors are electrolytic capacitors.

4. Diode: -

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Diode is a semiconductor material or active component. The main property of the diode is unidirectional conduction. This property is implemented in several areas. i. PN diode: - P type semiconductor and N type semiconductor when fabricated together forms a PN junction diode . It may be Si or Ge or other materials depending upon the requirement. In forward mode PN diode conducts while during reversed biased it possess very high resistance. When P region is connected to +ve terminal of battery then the PN junction diode is said to be forward biased. As the applied voltage cross the potential barrier of the junction then the diode permits flow to current with low resistance.

But as the connection is reversed, the diode acts as high resistance and only negligible current in microampere flows through due to minority carriers. ii. Zener diode: Zener diode is same as PN junction diode. The only difference is that it is highly doped & used in reversed biased mode. In forward biased mode it works as a normal diode. During reverse bias mode as normal it doesnt break down in breakdown region. It has a sharp breakdown region and current in this region may change over wide range though breakdown voltage remains constant. The voltage at which Zener breakdown occurs is called Zener Breakdown voltage. This property of zener diode is use in voltage regulating device. iii. Light Emitting Diode or LED: When PN junction is forward biased electron from N region to P region and holes from P region diffuse to N region and recombination takes place. Each recombination radiates energy is in the form of heat. In light emitting diode, the radiated energy is in the form of light. Ge and Si diodes have less probabilities of radiating light. Using materials such as Galluim Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) and Galluim Phosphide (GaP), manufacturer can produce light emitting diode that can radiate Red, Green or Orange Lights. Infra red LEDs use Galluim Arsenide (GaAs) and they emit invisible IR radiations. Its application is in burglar alarm system and other areas where invisible radiation is required. Visible LED are used in instruments displays, multimeter, calculator, digital watches, etc. They work at low voltage and current thus require less power. They are also fast and easy to use.

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5. Transistors: It is a three layer semiconductor having two PN junction. It may be PNP or NPN depending upon the type of material. Among the three layers formed, the middle layer is called base and the side layers are called emitter and collector. Base is lightly doped and is thinner in shape. Emitter is highly doped and larger than base in shape. Collector is moderately doped and larger than emitter. The reason of its large size is to dissipate the heat.

For normal operation of transistor, the base-emitter junction is always forward biased and collector base junction is reversed biased. Transistor can be used in various purposes as amplifier, switch, etc.

Let us take a NPN transistor. The emitter-base junction is forward biased with biasing voltage VEE and collector base junction is reverse biased with VCC. The emitter base junction is forward biased and as supply voltage crosses barrier voltage, electron hole combination increases abruptly. The electron injected to base combines with holes. As there is lesser no of holes due to lightly doped base and large no of electron due to highly doped emitter, the injected electrons are transferred to the collector region. The collector-base junction in reversed bias only allows minority carrier to cross the junction. As electron injected from emitter to base acts as minority carrier for P-type base, it crosses the junction easily and is collected in collector to constitute collector current.Thus here three currents flow in transistor. Electrons emitted from emitter constitute emitter current IE, electron hole combination in base constitutes base current IB and the emitter injected to collector constitute collector current. The relation between these three currents is IE=IB+IC Here base current is negligible so IEIC 6. Relay:Basically, a relay is an electrically operated switch, and actually the predecessor of the transistor. Relays are the smaller types. Relays come in three types: electro mechanical, solid-state, and so-called hybrids which are a

15

combination of the first two. Lets take electro-mechanical types first, they are available in three main models; armature, plunger, and reed. The Armature Relays are the oldest (see Fig. 1) but elegant. Plenty turns of very fine magnetwire are wound around an iron core to form an electro-magnet. The movable metal armature has an electrical contact that is positioned over a fixed contact attached to the relay frame. A spring holds the armature up so that the movable and fixed contacts are normally separated (open). When the coil is energized, it attracts the pivoting armature and pulls it down, closing (make) the SPST contacts and completes the power circuit. Vice-versa, this relay can be made to open the contacts instead of closing them, or can do both either way. The armature relay is pretty old and no longer used in new applications, they do still exist however and are being used still at the time of writing this document. The Plunger-Relay type has a plunger instead of a pivoting armature, as shown in Fig. 2 and uses a solenoid action to close the contacts. The electro magnetic core is hollow and a metal rod or plunger extends halfway through it when the relay is not energized. When energized, the coil draws the plunger in and a shorting-bar, attached to the end of the plunger, closes the contacts. When the coil is de-energized, the spring (which is mounted over a section of the plunger) retracts the plunger and positions the assembly in the idle position breaking the contacts. The coil plunger design allows much greater contact travel than the pivoting armature design, thus allowing wide contact separation. The increased space allows plunger systems to be used with higher voltages than armatures. The higher closing force of the solenoid permits the use of larger contacts and provides greater current handling capability. One application of a plunger-type relay is an electronic lock or door opener. Since their inception, electro-magnetic relays have improved in sensitivity, switching complexity, current handling, response time, and reliability. It allowed for miniaturization in radios, cassette recorders, Radio Control(R/C), NASA, cameras, and other home electronics applications. Being relatively small, Reed Relays fill the demand for all sorts of 'small' stuff. The use of flexible reeds and self-attraction distinguishes the reed relay, see Fig. 3, from other electro magnetic relays. Note that the drawing shows the reed-relay without the actuator coil. The contacts are mounted on thin metal strips (reeds) and hermetically sealed in a glass tube. This tube is surrounded by a magnetic coil which, when activated, magnetizes the reeds and causing them to attract each other which closes the contacts. When the coil is de-energized, the spring tension in the reeds causes them

16

to separate again. This type of design has the advantages of high speed operation, long life, and very low price. One of the great advantages reed relays share with other electro magnetic relays is the relative ease with which they can be fitted with multiple contacts. As in the armature and plunger designs, the contact mechanisms can be stacked to provide multiple circuit-close or open designs, or even a combination of both, all activated by a single coil. In reed relays, multiple contact pairs, but in individual tubes, can be stacked and used with a single coil in a very small space. This is not a feature of solid-state relays. 7. Integrated circuits a. 555 timer :555 Timer IC is widely used IC. It consists of two comparators, RS Flipflop, discharge transistor, and three resistors of equal value in voltage divider network. It is widely used as astable and monostable multivibrator. Its basic internal diagram is given below.
8 4 6

5 2 7

DEFINITION OF PIN FUNCTIONS:Pin 1 (Ground): The ground (or common) pin is the most-negative supply potential of the device, which is normally connected to circuit common (ground) when operated from positive supply voltages. Pin 2 (Trigger): This pin is the input to the lower comparator and is used to set the latch, which in turn causes the output to go high. This is the beginning of the timing sequence in monostable operation. Triggering is accomplished by applying the trigger input voltage below voltage level of 1/3Vcc.

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Pin 3 (Output): It is the terminal through which we get output. This terminal is output of the SR Latch or Flipflop. When the threshold input is higher, Flipflop is in reset mode and output is low while if the trigger input is low Flipflop is in set mode thus we get high output in pin 3. Pin 4 (Reset): This pin is also used to reset the latch and return the output to a low state. The reset input is an overriding function; that is, it will force the output to a low state regardless of the state of either of the other inputs. It may thus be used to terminate an output pulse prematurely, to gate oscillations from "on" to "off", etc. In short, the reset pin is used to reset the flip-flop that controls the state of output pin 3. Pin 5 (Control Voltage): This pin allows direct access to the 2/3 Vcc voltage-divider point, the reference level for the upper comparator. It also allows indirect access to the lower comparator, as there is a 2:1 divider from this point to the lower-comparator reference input. Use of this terminal is the option of the user, but it does allow extreme flexibility by permitting modification of the timing period, resetting of the comparator, etc. ceramic capacitor is connected between this pin and ground to avoid false triggering. Pin 6 (Threshold): Pin 6 is one input to the upper comparator and is used to reset the latch, which causes the output to go low. Resetting via this terminal is accomplished by applying threshold input voltage level above 2/3Vcc. The voltage range that can safely be applied to the threshold pin is between Vcc and ground. Pin 7 (Discharge): This pin is connected to the open collector of an npn transistor, the emitter of which goes to ground, so that when the transistor is turned "on", pin 7 is effectively shorted to ground. The conduction state of this transistor is identical in timing to that of the output stage. It is "on" when the Q output is low (i.e. input to base of transistor is high) and "off" when the output is high (input to base is low). In both the monostable and astable time modes, this transistor switch is used to clamp the appropriate nodes of the timing network to ground. Pin 8 (Vcc): The Vcc pin is the positive supply voltage terminal of the 555 timer IC. Supply-voltage operating range for the 555 is +4.5 volts (minimum) to +16 volts (maximum), and it is specified for operation between +5 volts and + 15 volts. The device will operate essentially the same over this range of voltages without change in timing period.

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b. CD 4093:CD4093BM/CD4093BC Quad 2-Input NAND Schmitt Trigger

General Description
The CD4093B consists of four Schmitt-trigger circuits. Each circuit functions as a 2-input NAND gate with Schmitt-trigger action on both inputs. The gate switches at different points for positive and negative-going signals. The difference between the positive (VT+) and the negative voltage (VT-) is defined as hysteresis voltage (VH). All outputs have equal source and sink currents and conform to standard B-series output drive Features 1. Wide supply voltage range 3.0V to 15V 2. Schmitt-trigger on each input with no external components 3. Noise immunity greater than 50% 4. Equal source and sink currents 5. No limit on input rise and fall time 6. Standard B-series output drive 7. Hysteresis voltage (any input) TA = 25C Typical VDD = 5.0VVH = 1.5V VDD = 10V VH = 2.2V VDD = 15V VH = 2.7V Guaranteed VH = 0.1 VDD

Applications
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wave and pulse shapers High-noise-environment systems Monostable multivibrators Astable multivibrators NAND logic

Connection Diagram

As IC CD 4093 consists of NAND gates let us discuss about NAND gate too.

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NAND Gate: NAND gate is complement of AND gate. The output of AND gate when complemented we get NAND gate. NAND gate is also called universal gate as it can be used to form different other gates. In NAND gate when all the inputs are high output is low and when any one of the input is low output is high. The given truth table also explains its property.
A B X

Truth Table A B 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 c. LM 324:-

X 1 1 1 0

LM324 Low Power Quad Operational Amplifier

General Description The LM324 series consists of four independent, high gain, internally frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage. Application areas include transducer amplifiers, DC gain blocks and all the conventional op amp circuits which now can be more easily implemented in single power supply systems. For example, the LM124 series can be directly operated off of the standard a5V power supply voltage which is used in digital systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics without requiring the additional g15V power supplies.

Unique Characteristics
1. In the linear mode the input common-mode voltage range includes ground and the output voltage can also swing to ground, even though operated from only a single power supply voltage 2. The unity gain cross frequency is temperature compensated 3. The input bias current is also temperature compensated

Advantages
1. Eliminates need for dual supplies 2. Four internally compensated op amps in a single package 3. Allows directly sensing near GND and VOUT also goes to GND 4. Compatible with all forms of logic 5. Power drain suitable for battery operation

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Connection Diagram

d. LM 7807, LM7812:The LM78XX series of three-terminal positive regulators are available with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents. The number 78 denote positive voltage and the last two digits is the level of voltage at which the given IC produces output voltage. IC Regulators are very useful as they produce regulated voltage output FEATURES 1. Output Current up to 1A 2. Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 18, 24V 3. Thermal Overload Protection 4. Short Circuit Protection

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BASIC CIRCUIT UNITS

a. Dc power supply:Dc power supply is the basic power supply unit. Supply voltage is given by this dc power supply. It consists of mainly following units. 1. Mains 2. Bridge Rectifier 3. Shunt capacitor filter 4. Voltage Regulator They are described as follows i. Mains :The mains supply of 220 v ac is converted to 12 v ac by step down transformer. Transformer is described detail in the previous unit. ii. Bridge rectifier:Rectification is defined as the conversion of alternating voltage to direct voltage. Diode is used as rectifier. Full wave bridge rectifier is defined below.

As in the above figure four diodes are used to rectify ac voltage to dc. During the positive input half cycle, terminal M of the secondary is positive and N is negative as shown in figure. Diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased whereas D2 and D4 are reversed biased. Hence current flows along the path MEABCFN producing a drop across Rl. During negative half cycle, secondary terminal N becomes positive and M negative. Now D2 and D4 are forward biased whereas D1 and D3 reversed biased. Thus current flows through NFABCEM. Hence current flows along the load through same direction in both half cycles of the input supply. Consequently point A acts as anode and point B as cathode. The input and output cycles are shown below.

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iii. Shunt capacitor filter:The circuit that converts a pulsating output from a rectifier into very steady dc level is known as filter. Filter smoothens out the pulsations in the output. The figure shown below is the shunt capacitor filter.

In this circuit capacitor of suitable value is connected across filter. When positive half cycle voltage of Vm is appeared across load. This quickly charge the capacitor to Vm. During switching of next half cycle output, the voltage decreases but the charge stored by the capacitor is discharged across the load and maintains the output level to Vm until next half when the voltage level input rises and charge the capacitor to Vm. In same way capacitor discharges through load when the input voltage level decreases. It is seen that the discharging period is 100 times greater than the charger time thus capacitor cant discharge completely in a half cycle. In this way capacitor maintains smooth dc level output. The voltage output waveform is given below.

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iv. Voltage Regulator:In the electronic circuit we need constant dc voltage. We know that the output from the rectifier is not constant and may consist of voltage variations. Despite variations in input voltage, we need constant voltage for proper operation of our electronic kit. That requirement is met by the voltage regulator using regulating ICs LM 7807 and LM 7812. 7v is to power the circuit in the project and 12v is used to activate relay. b. 555 timer as monostable multivibrator:The comparator devices output is high when the voltage on +ve input is greater than the voltage in ve input and low when the voltage on +ve input is lesser than the voltage in ve input. Voltage divider network consisting of three equal resistances in series provides 2/3Vcc at threshold level and 1/3Vcc at trigger level. When normally high trigger input momentarily goes below 1/3Vcc, the output of lower comparator is high thus sets the SR Flipflop, causing the output on pin no 3 high and turning off the discharge transistor. The output remains high until the normally low threshold input goes above 2/3Vcc and causes the output of upper comparator high which reset the flipflop. Thus the output at pin no 3 is low.

Now let us discuss the 555 timer as monostable multivibrator according to the multivibrator used in the project. The diagram is given above. In the diagram given above, discharge terminal 7 is not used. Thus there is no case of charging time constant. Pin 2 and 6 are shorted and given to trigger input. Let us consider flipflop is in reset mode. Now if high input greater than 2/3Vcc is being given to trigger input. as trigger input and threshold pins are shorted , high input is given to both terminals, we see that upper comparator output is high and lower comparator is low thus flipflop remains in reset state and output at pin 3 remains low. Now if input is low below 1/3Vcc, then pin no 6 at low state gives upper comparator output low but pin no 2 at low i.e. less than1/3Vcc gives output of lower comparator high thus flipflop is set and output at pin 3 is high. The output remains high until high input is applied to input terminal i.e. 2 and 6 shorted points.

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As there is no discharge transistor in use there is no quasi-stable states determined by time constant RC. The output remains high as long as low input is applied and switches to low when high input is applied. This property is useful for we need lamp on for night long and off for day long. The function of the multivibrator is explained in following table. Input 1 0 Time graph Pin2 1 0 Pin 6 1 0 R 1 0 S 0 1 Output 0 1

c. Op-Amp as voltage comparator:Op-Amp is a very high gain high input resistance directly coupled negative feedback amplifier which can amplify signals from 0Hz to little beyond 1MHz. The op-Amp has mainly 5 terminals. They are as 1. inverting input 2. non inverting input 3. output 4. positive bias supply terminal 5. negative bias supply terminal When input signal is applied to the inverting input terminal then the amplified output obtained is antiphase with signal but the input signal applied to the noninverting input terminal is in phase with input. Op-Amp as voltage comparator:The voltage comparator compares the two voltage levels. The voltage levels are the voltage levels at the inverting and noninverting terminal. If reference voltage is given to any one of the terminal and the changing voltage at the other input is compared with the reference voltage. If the voltage at the inverting pin is higher than noninverting pin then the output voltage is low while if the voltage at the noninverting pin is higher than the inverting pin then the output is high. In the same way the voltage comparator of the circuit performs.

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The above figure is the voltage comparator used in the circuit to detect the voltage levels of the battery. Zener diode of 3.6v is used to provide reference voltage of 3.6v to inverting pin of upper comparator and noninverting pin of the lower comparator. The preset values are so adjusted that when battery voltage falls below 5.5v, then the voltage level at the inverting pin of the lower comparator falls below 3.6v thus the output is high. Similarly when the voltage level of the battery is greater than the 6.5v then the voltage level at the noninverting pin of upper comparator is high thus the output of upper comparator is high. In this way the voltage comparator functions in the circuit. d. Transistor as switch:From the previous study of Bipolar Junction Transistor we know that a transistor can work in following mode of operations. 1. Active mode 2. Cutoff mode 3. Saturation mode Out of these modes of operation the cutoff and saturation mode of operation used to operate BJT as switch . As we already know that the transistors do not conduct any current when it is in cutoff mode. So this mode of operation of BJT we can consider as "off " position. Now when base emitter junction voltage will be well beyond the cutin voltage the transistor enters into saturation mode and maximum current will flow in it. In this case we can consider the transistor switch is in "on" position. So considering these positions of the transistor it is possible to use the bipolar junction transistor as an electronic switch.

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Operation in Cut-off Region For the normal operation of the transistor the base emitter junction voltage (Vbe) must be greater than its threshold voltage which is approximately 0.7V for Silicon transistor. Actually in order to make flow appreciable amount of transistor current the base-emitter voltage must be greater than or at least equal to 0.7V. If the base-emitter junction voltage (Vbe) is less than 0.5V this junction is reversed biased and practically no current flows in the transistor. Therefore if Vbe < 0.5V then Ib = 0, Ic = 0 and Vout = Vc = Vcc Operation in Saturation region If the base emitter junction is well forward biased, then the transistor enters into active mode. If the base-emitter voltage is further increased then the transistor enters into saturation region by forward biasing collector base junction also. We have relation between Ic and Ib, Ic = Ib And Vc = Vcc-IcRc Thus base current Ib if increased by increasing input voltage then Ic increase according to the above relation. If the input voltage increases input current Ib to such value that Ic increases accordingly. Thus the drop across Rc is such large that the Vc is nearly 0 i.e. around 0.2, 0.1. We know that for active mode of operation CB junction must be reversed biased but in this case it is reversed biased. We can see this by the equation Vce =Vcb+Vbe or Vcb = Vce-Vbe=Vc - Vbe we know that the value of the Vbe = 0.7 then we see that if Vc attains value less than 0.7V then Vcb = -ve which means collector base junction is forward biased. Thus we can conclude that in cut off mode both emitter-base junction and collector-base junction is reversed biased. No current flows and output voltage Vc is high or Vcc. In saturation mode both junction are forward biased, current flow is maximum and output voltage Vc is low. e. SR Latch:To begin with we must first know that in NAND gate, if any one of the two inputs is 0, gives output 1 and if both inputs are high, output is low.

In SR Flipflop there are two inputs S, and R or set reset and outputs Q and Q'. Now if both inputs are 0 then input to G3 and G4 are 1 then at this condition the output can't be predicted. We need to know the previous latched output.

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If S=1 and R=0 then input to G3 and G4 are 0 and 1 respectively. As discussed earlier the input to G3 is 0 so its output becomes 1. Now this output is feed back to G4 input. Here inputs both 1 inputs to G4 gives output 0 which is fed back to G3 input. Both 0 input to G3 gives output 1. Thus value 1 is latched. Again if S=0, R=0 we have A=1, B=1. At this condition the output Q feedback to G4 input is latched at 1 thus its output is 0 which is feedback to G3 input. Thus the G3 inputs are 1 and 0 and its output is 1. We see that output is latched at 1. Now if S=0 and R=1 the reverse takes place. A=1 and B=0. Thus low input at G4 gives its output high which is feedback to G3 input. We see now that G3 inputs are at both high conditions. Thus its output is low. Now again if S=0, R=0 we have A=1, B=1. At this condition memory element Q is 0. This 0 feedback to G4 input gives high at Q' and thus low at Q. If S=1, R=1 we have A=0, B=0. At this condition both gates output tend to remain at high condition which is not our condition. We need both output complement of each other. This is ambiguous condition. Truth Table for NAND based SR Latch S R Q Q' Remark 0 0 Qn Qn' 1 0 1 0 SET 0 0 1 0 No change 0 1 0 1 RESET 0 0 0 1 No change 1 1 1 1 Ambiguous

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8.

CIRCUIT EXPLANATION

We have two basic parts in our circuit. They are battery charging control unit and night lamp unit. So let explain the entire circuit in two different parts. a. Night lamp:The night lamp is constructed around light sensing device LDR, switching transistors, 555 timer as monostable multivibrator and white LEDs as lamp. LDR as we know its resistance varies according to the intensity of the light falling on it is used as light sensor. At day time the light falling on LDR decreases its resistance and at night falling on LDR decrease thus its resistance increases. When the battery is fully charged, it gives supply voltage and when it is being charged the supply is given by dc power supply. At daytime when the light falling on LDR decreases its resistance voltage across it decreases thus voltage across variable POT increases and the transistor T1 is switched on. The collector voltage falls to zero which supplied to base of transistor T2 keeps it in cut off mode thus the collector voltage of T2 is high. This high voltage is given to trigger input and threshold level of 555 timer wired as monostable multivibrator. High voltage to trigger input gives low output from output of 555 timer. The output is given to the base of transistor T3 that keeps it in cutoff mode. Thus no current flows and the white LEDs arent ON. Now when the light falling on LDR decreases the resistance of LDR increases thus increase in voltage across it. Now the sensitivity is adjusted according to requirement just by varying POT. As voltage across LDR increases voltage across POT deceases and it bring transistor T1 to cut off mode. It results in high collector voltage. High voltage to base of transistor T2 keeps it in saturated mode. Thus its voltage falls to almost to zero level. Now low voltage to trigger input of 555 monostable multivibrator gives high output as discussed in earlier chapters. The high output to base of transistor T3 brings it to conduction and the white LEDs glow which gives light. b.Battery charging control:Battery charging control is mainly depended on op-Amp voltage comparator, SR Latch, switching transistor and Relay. We know that the battery charging starts when its voltage falls below 5.5v and after the voltage across it increases to 6.5 v the charging ceases automatically. We have two Preset resistors one of 10k and other of 20k to adjust lower and upper voltage levels as per requirement. The two presets are so adjusted that when the voltage falls below 5.5v the output of lower comparator is high and when the battery voltage crosses 6.5v the output of upper comparator is high. The lower and upper comparator outputs are given to SET and RESET inputs of SR Latch respectively and output of SR Latch is given to base of transistor T4 to switch the relay. Now let us consider the battery voltage falls below 5.5v then the output of lower comparator is high. This voltage is indicated by the indicator using LED. This output of lower comparator is given to SET of SR Latch. Thus SR Latch comes to SET state and its output is high. The high output to base of transistor T4

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conducts it and its relay is switched on. Then the regulated dc power supply given to normally open contact of relay through 2 3w resistor and a diode at common terminal charges the battery. During charging of battery if the battery, voltage crosses level 5.5v, the output of lower comparator comes to low. As the SR Latch is latched at high output the charging continues. Now if the battery voltage crosses voltage level 6.5v then the output of upper comparator is high. This high voltage is indicated by the indicator. This high voltage output of upper comparator is given to RESET input of SR Latch. High input to RESET pin brings the SR Latch to RESET state thus the output is low. The low output given to base of transistor T4 brings it to cut off and the battery charging ceases as the relay contacts comes to normally closed. After charging stops the supply usage by the circuit may decreases battery voltage and the output of upper comparator is low. Though the SR Latch output is remains low and relay is in off mode. This continues until battery voltage falls below 5.5v and the relay switches to charge the battery. The process of charging continues from 5.5v to 6.5v without single touch. In this way the night lamp and the battery charger control functions in the circuit of my project.

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9.

APPLICATION & UTILITIES

The application and the utilities of the project can be listed below. 1. This project can be used where people want their low power night lamp at night. 2. As day light indulges into darkness at night it switches on automaticlly thus manual effort is saved. 3. It also can be used as emergency lamp in case of mains failure as it has battery backup. Thus it would be very useful to country like us where load shading occurs frequently. 4. The battery charging is automatic. We dont need to check low voltage and shouldnt be afraid of overcharging. Its because if battery voltage crosses 5.5V charging starts and if it crosses 6.5V charging ceases automatically 5. It can be used to charge batteries of different voltage levels just by setting upper and lower voltage limits. Thus we see that the project is very useful in day today life as it is very simple and flexible.

10.

PROBLEM FACED

Various problems arose during starting project as it was first ever electronic project being started. During construction period of the project many disturbances arose. But they were duly solved from the kind guidance from the teachers. The battery charger in the starting was not automatic control. That is when the battery voltage fall below 5.5v it indicated and as charging began battery voltage crossed 5.5v and the charging stopped. Also if the battery voltage crossed 6.5v it indicated and the relay was energized. I added SR Latch in the output of the voltage comparator output such that lower voltage comparator output to set pin and upper voltage comparator output to reset pin. Then the charging control was automatic as desired and explained before. I got hard time in fixing comparator voltage levels. But that didnt trouble me much as Santa Sir gave me a simple trick to overcome this. Trick worked well and came handy further in other purposes and I didnt have to look back.

11.

COST ESTIMATION

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S.N PARTS 1 Transformer 12v, 1Amp secondary 2 IC's i CD4093 ii NE555 iii LM324 iv LM7807 v LM7812 3 Transistor i BC547 ii BC337 4 Capacitor i 1000,25v ii 10 ,16v iii 47 ,25v iv 0.22 v 0.1 vi 0.01 5 Resistor i POT,100k and Preset,10k,20k ii LDR iii 5,2w iv 2,5w v 2k vi 10k vii 47k viii 1k ix 560 6 Diodes i Switching Diode IN4148 ii IN4007 iii White LEDs iv Zener Diode 3.6v v Red LED vi Green LED vii Yellow LED 7 Relay, 12 v 8 PCB Board

UNITS 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 4 3 3 1 2 1 1 4 1 3 3 2 6 8 1 1 1 1 1 72inch2

PARTS(Rs) 200 40 15 30 20 20 6 10 15 5 5 6 8 6 25 20 10 10 6

6 6 24 4 2 2 2 30 40

Total Cost

573

12.

CONCLUSION

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In conclusion I can say the project is all great. The result output obtained was very excellent and satisfactory. The project was very much useful to us in day today life as it has automatic lamp circuitry as well as automatic charging control of the battery. When night falls the lamp circuit activates automatically to switch on the lamp and at morning time the lamp switches off automatically. The battery charging starts when its voltage falls below 5.5v and after the voltage across it increases to 6.5v the charging ceases automatically. Thus both processes went on well without touch. This would save our time very much. As it is automatic, it is certain to relax human life. Thus I felt my project very important. During the period many obstacles arrived but I learned how to tackle with them with the kindly support from the supervisors as well as other teachers. Coordination with the colleagues on the matter of the project was very much helpful. There was nothing to lose but to gain many more.

Things that could be done still

1. Instead of the LEDs as lamp we could add relay at the output circuit to switch on the bulb that powers by 220v ac. 2. We can add a morning alarm with timer so that the alarm rings at a desired time.

13.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
B.L. Theraja Bogart V.K. Mehta Thomas L. Floyd

A text book of electrical technology IV Electronic Devices and Circuits Principles of Electronics Digital Fundamentals