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INDIPENDENT SURVEYORS

1. Statistics is concerned with scientific procedures and methods for collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting and analyzing data, as well as obtaining useful information, drawing valid conclusion and making effective decisions based on the analysis. 2. The basic steps in statistical problem-solving are outlined below. a. Identifying the problem or opportunity. b. Gathering available facts. c. Gathering new data. d. Classifying and organizing data. e. Data presentation. f. Making decision. 3. Statistical techniques can be divided into two categories: a. Descriptive statistics b. Inferential (or inductive) statistics. 4. Descriptive statistics: involves data that are compiled, organized, summarized and presented in suitable visual forms which are easy to understand and suitable for use.
Various tables, graphs, charts and diagrams are used to exhibit the information obtained form the data.

5. Inferential statistics: In inferential statistic, we take generalizations about a population by analyzing samples. If a sample is a good representation of a population, accurate conclusions about the population can be inferred from the analysis of the sample. {inferred = guess or interpretation} 6. Population and sample Population: is used to designate the complete set of items that are of interest in the research. Sample: The term Sample is used to designate a subset of items that are chosen from the population.

A set of all items (population)

A set of items selected form the population (sample). Hence, the sample is a subset of the population.

7. Statistic: A summary measure such as mean, median, mode, or standard deviation, computed form sample data is called a statistic. 9. Parameter: population. A summary measure for the entire

10. Census: A study that measures a variable for every unit in the population is called Census. 11. A sample survey : involves a subgroup (or sample) of a population being chosen and questioned on a set of topics. 12. A pilot study is a study done before the actual field work is carried out.

DATA Data is a measure on variables of interest obtained from a sample. Example: researchers may collect data on the amount of money spent by secondary school students on textbooks, the brand of detergents most preferred by housewives in Seremban, the monthly income of rubber smallholders in Malaysia, the average length of stay of foreign tourists in Malaysia and their favorite places of. Data can be obtained from primary as well as secondary sources. PRIMARY DATA Researchers collect primary data from primary sources or from samples. For example, a researcher interviews the respondents and records their responses. A researcher may go to a supermarket and observe the buying habits of the public during festive seasons.

SECONDARY DATA Secondary data is normally published data collected by other parties. For example government agencies such as Bank Negara, the Department of statistics, Ministry of International Trade and Industry and other agencies publish their data regularly and provide secondary sources of data to many researchers. In addition bulletins, journals, newspapers and other publications also provide useful secondary data to researchers. VARAIBLES A variable measures a characteristic of the population that the researcher wants to study. For example, variables of interest may be the monthly income of respondents, respondents age, gender, level of education, number of children and type of house owned by respondents. VARAIBLES
Quantitative or Numerical
Measure on Numerical scale Yields numerical response

Qualitative or Attributive
Measured with non-numerical scale Yields categorical response

SCALE OF MEASUREMENT

Data can be divided into numerical and categorical data. Numerical data contains numbers that we can manipulate using ordinary arithmetical operations. For example, counting the number of cars that pass through a toll-booth for three consecutive days. Categorical data can be sorted into categories. For example, data on the marital status of respondents can be classified into single married, widow or widower, or divorced. Usually, data are classified as nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio.
Nominal- level date Zip code Gender(male,femaele) Eye color (blue, brown, green, hazel) Major field ( mathematics, computer,etc) Nationality Ordinal- level data Grade (a,b,c,d) Judging (first place, second place) Rating scale (poor, good, excellent) Interval- level data IQ Temperaturea Ratio- level data Height Weight

SAT score

Time

Ranking of players

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Salary

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Age

SAMPLING AND DATA COLLECTION METHODS Sampling is the process of selecting a sample from a population. The sample must be selected in such a way so that it will accurately represent its population. Sampling techniques: Sampling techniques can be classified broadly into two categories: 1. Non-probability sampling techniques. 2. Probability sampling techniques.

Non-probability sampling techniques

Convenience sampling Snowball sampling Judgmental sampling Quota sampling

Probability sampling techniques.

Simple random sampling Cluster sampling Systematic sampling Stratified sampling

Data collection methods After the sample is identified and selected by using the appropriate sampling technique is to determine the best way to reach the respondents in order to obtain the required data. There are several methods of collecting data and each has its own advantages and disadvantages. A researcher must choose the methods that provide the most information at minimum cost. The common method of collecting data is as follows. 1. Face to face interview. 2. Telephone interview. 3. Direct questionnaire. 4. Mail or postal questionnaire. 5. Direct observation 6. Other methods (e-mail, video recording)

CHAPTER 3 DATA PRESENTATION

SEEING IS BELIEVING Survey show that the majority of shareholders prefer to look at visual presentations of the companys performance instead of listening to verbal reports to evaluate performances before giving their votes. Data presentation is an essential step before further statistical analysis is warranted. Data are summarized and displayed enabling researchers, managers and decision-makers to observe important features of the data. Some common data presentations include frequency table, bar chart, pie chart, histogram, frequency curve, line graph, pictograph, stem-and-lead display, box plot and ogive.

Qualitative data can be classified into

categories or classes. They can best be presented in the form of frequency distribution, bar chart, pie chart and contingency table. 1. Frequency distribution or frequency table { Frequency (occurrence, incident, rate, regularity)} One simple way of presenting qualitative data is by frequency distribution. A frequency distribution is a table consisting of columns and rows.
For example a car dealer in Kuala Lumpur makes the sales for the flowing types of cars in the month of January 2010. Car model Number of cars Waja 66 Wira 50 Saga 39 Gen-2 25 Total 180 The first
column of the table is qualitative variables that is the car models, while the

second column Is the frequency of the types of cars sold.

2. Pie chart A pie chart can be used to represent Categorical data. It consist of one or two circles that are divided into sectors. The sectors show the number of objects or percentage of each group or category. Guidelines for constructing a pie chart are as follows: a. Choose a small number of categories (say 3-10) b. Partition the circle to match the percentages for each of the categories. Example: NZ holdings current assets in RM (million) for the year 2010 are given in the table below Current asset Stocks Cash Others RM (million) 1520 720 860

A pie chart for the information above is constructed as follows

Solution: a. Number of categories = 3 b. Percentages ( to nearest whole number). c. i). Stock= ii). Cash = iii). Others= 1520/ (1520+720+860)x100=49% 720/(1520+720+860)x100=23% 860/(1520+720+860)x100=28%

Convert the % in Degrees (total 360 ) before drawing. 49 %=176.4 , 23%=82.8, 28%=100.8

RM (million)
Stocks Cash Others

28% 49% 23%

3.Bar chart: A bar chart is another graphical method for describing data that can be divided into categories. Bar charts are frequently used in newspapers, magazines, companies annual reports and other presentations to convey and highlight information. Guidelines for constructing a bar chart: a. Label the vertical axis with the number of objects that fall into each category; and label the categories along the horizontal axis. b. Construct a rectangle over each category with the height of the rectangle equal to the number of objects in that category. The base of each rectangle should be of the same width. c. Leave space between each category on the horizontal axis to distinguish between the categories and to clarify the presentation.
PROFIT RM (MILLLION)
60 40 20 0 1ST 2ND 3RD 4TH PROFIT RM (MILLLION)

ORGANISING AND GRAPHING QUNATITATIVE DATA