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1. INTRODUCTION
Since most loads in modern electrical distribution systems are inductive, there is an ongoing interest in improving power factor. The low power factor of inductive loads robs systems capacity and can adversely affect voltage level. As such, power factor correction through the application of capacitors is widely practiced at all system voltages. As utilities increase penalties they charge customers for low power factor, system performance will not be the only consideration. The installation of power factor correction capacitors improves system performance and saves money. A number of manufacturers have catalogs and design manuals to assist in the application of their products. These publications provide guidance in the selection and placement of capacitors and discuss general provisions that will affect the overall performance of the installation. Although the methodology for applying capacitors is relatively straight forward, there are a number of influencing factors that must be considered. To ensure that the capacitor installation does not create more problems than it solves, consideration must be given to non-linear loads, utility interaction and system configuration.

1.1. What is Electric Power?

Electric power is defined as the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt. In alternating current circuits, energy storage elements such as inductance and capacitance may result in periodic reversals of the direction of energy flow. The portion of power flow that, averaged over a complete cycle of the AC waveform, results in net transfer of energy in one direction is known as real power (also referred to as active power). That portion of power flow due to stored energy, which returns to the source in each cycle, is known as reactive power.

2 Power triangle The components of AC power The relationship between real power, reactive power and apparent power can be expressed by representing the quantities as vectors. Real power is represented as a horizontal vector and reactive power is represented as a vertical vector. The apparent power vector is the hypotenuse of a right triangle formed by connecting the real and reactive power vectors. This representation is often called the power triangle. Using the Pythagorean Theorem, the relationship among real, reactive and apparent power is: (apparent power)2 = (real power)2 + (reactive power)2 Real and reactive powers can also be calculated directly from the apparent power, when the current and voltage are both sinusoids with a known phase angle between them: (real power) = (apparent power) * cos() (reactive power) = (apparent power) * sin()

1.2. Significance of reactive power

1.2.1. Engineering talk

Reactive power is a quantity that is normally only defined for alternating current (AC) electrical systems. Our Indian interconnected grid is almost entirely an AC system where the voltages and currents alternate up and down 50 times per second (not necessarily at the same time). In that sense, these are pulsating quantities. Because of this, the power being transmitted down a single line also pulsates - although it goes up and down 100 times per second rather than 50. This power goes up and down around some average value

3 - this average value is called the real power and over time you pay for this in kilowatthours of energy. If this average value is zero, then all of the power being transmitted is called reactive power. You would not normally be charged for using reactive power because you are consuming some energy half the time, and giving it all back the other half of the time - for a net use of zero. To distinguish reactive power from real power, we use the reactive power unit called VAR - which stands for Volt-Ampere-Reactive. Voltage in an electrical system is analogous to pressure in a water system. Current in an electrical system is analogous to the flow of water in a water system. Lets go back to this notion that voltage and current may not go up and down at the same time. When the voltage and current do go up and down at the same time, only real power is transmitted. When the voltage and current go up and down at different times, reactive power is being transmitted. How much reactive power and which direction it is flowing on a transmission line depend on how different these two times are. Two extreme examples of the time relationship between voltage and current are found in inductors and capacitors. An inductor is a coil of wire that is used to make motors. A capacitor is made of parallel conductive plates separated by an insulating material. The electrical properties of these two devices are such that if they are both connected to the same AC voltage source, the inductor absorbs energy during the same half cycle that the capacitor is giving energy. And similarly, the inductor produces energy during the same half cycle that the capacitor absorbs energy. Neither of them absorbs any real power over one complete cycle. Thus, when a motor needs reactive power, it is not necessary to go all the way back to electric power generators on the transmission grid to get it. You can simply put a capacitor at the location of the motor and it will provide the VARs needed by the motor. This relieves the generator and all the lines between the generator and the motor of having to transmit those VARs. They are provided locally by the capacitor. This means that with the capacitors installed, the current in the lines will be smaller than when the capacitors are not installed. This is a good thing because current in the lines causes heat and every line can only handle a limited amount of current. Since the line current is smaller when the capacitors are installed, the voltage drop along all the lines is also less, making it more likely that the motor will have a voltage closer to the desired value. When there are not enough VARs flowing locally to the loads, the generators must supply them remotely,

4 causing unnecessarily large currents and a resulting drop in voltage everywhere along the path.

1.3. A physical analogy for reactive power

While there are numerous physical analogies for this quantity called reactive power, one that is reasonably accurate is the process of filling a water tower tank with water - one bucket at a time. Suppose you want to fill a water tower tank with water, and the only way that you can do that is by climbing up a ladder carrying a bucket of water and then dumping the water into the tank. You then have to go back down the ladder to get more water. Strictly speaking, if you simply go up a ladder (not carrying anything) and come back down (not carrying anything), you have not done any work in the process. But, since it did take work to go up the ladder, you must have gotten all that energy back when you came down. While you may not feel that coming down the ladder completely restores you to the condition you were in before you went up, ideally, from an energy conversion viewpoint, you should! If you dont agree, get out your physics book and check out the official definition of doing work. OK, if you still dont agree that walking up a ladder and coming back down does not require any net work, then think of it this way. Would you pay anyone to walk up a ladder and back down without doing anything at the top? Probably not. But, if they dumped a bucket of water in the tank while they were at the top, then that would be something worth paying for. When you carry a bucket of water up the ladder you do a certain amount of work. If you dump the water at the top and carry an empty bucket down, then you have not gotten all your energy back (because your total weight coming down is less than going up), and you have done work during that process. The energy that it takes to go up and down a ladder carrying nothing either way requires reactive power, but no real power. The energy that it takes to go up a ladder carrying something and come down without carrying anything requires both real power and reactive power. A reminder here is that power is the time rate of energy consumption, so consuming 500 Watts of real power for 30 minutes uses 250 Watt-hours of energy. The analogy is that voltage in an AC electrical system is like the person going up and down the ladder. The

5 movements of the water up the ladder and then down into the tank is like the current in an AC electrical system. Now, this pulsating power is not good in an electrical system because it causes pulsations on the shafts of motors and generators which can fatigue them. So, the answer to this pulsation problem is to have three ladders going up to the water tower and have three people climb up in sequence (the first person on the first ladder, then the second person on the second ladder, then the third person on the third ladder) such that there is always a steady stream of water going into the tank. While the power required from each person is pulsating, the total result of all three working together in perfect balanced, symmetrical sequence results in a constant flow of water into the tank this is why we use 3-phase electrical systems where voltages go up and down in sequence (first A phase, then B phase, and finally C phase). In AC electrical systems, this sequential up/down pulsation of power in each line is the heart of the transmission of electrical energy. As in the water tower analogy, having plenty of water at ground level will not help you if you cannot get it up into the tower. While you may certainly be strong enough to carry the bucket, you cannot get it there without the ladder. In contrast, there may be a ladder, but you may not be strong enough to carry the water. However, the people do take up room around the water tower and limit how much water can go up and down over a period of time - just as reactive power flow in an electrical system requires a larger current which limits how much real power can be transmitted. To make the system more reliable, we might put two sets of three ladders leading up to the tank on the tower. Then, if one set fails (maybe the water plus the person get too heavy and the ladder breaks), the other set picks up the slack (that is, has to carry more water). But, this could eventually overload the second set so that it too fails. This is a cascading outage due to the overloading of ladders.

1.4. How is reactive power related to the problem of voltage collapse?

In terms of this water-carrying analogy, the frequency of going up and down the ladder should be nearly constant (that, is like our 50 cycles per second electrical frequency).

6 So, when more water is needed, the amount that each person carries up the ladder must get bigger (since they are not allowed to go faster or slower). Well, if this water gets too heavy, either the ladder might break, or the person might get too tired to carry it. We could argue that if the ladder breaks, that is like the outage of a transmission line that either sags or breaks under the stress of too much current. There are devices called relays in an electrical system that are supposed to sense when the load is too much and send a signal to a circuit breaker to remove the line from service (like removing the set of three ladders). If the person gets too tired, we could again stretch this analogy to say that this is like not having enough reactive power (resulting in low voltage). In the extreme case, the person might collapse under the weight of the water that the person is being asked to carry. If it happens to one person, it will probably happen to many of them. In the electrical system this could be considered a voltage collapse. While there are under voltage relays, there are no relays in the system to directly sense the problem that the voltage is about to collapse. Another analogy that says that reactive power is the foam on the beer is fairly good here because the space in the glass is taken up by the useless foam - leaving less room for the real beer. Remember, the people going up and down the ladders do not absorb or produce energy over a complete cycle and are therefore analogous to reactive power. It is the water going up the ladder to fill the tank that absorbs real power that must be paid for. But, the real power cannot be delivered without the reactive power. And, if there is not enough reactive power (like with people going up and down the ladders), the real power delivery will eventually fail. In summary, a voltage collapse occurs when the system is trying to serve more load than the voltage can support. A simulation has been prepared to illustrate voltage collapse by simply using a system with an Eastern generator and customer load, a Western generator and customer load, and East to West transmission lines. In the simulation, the Eastern generator has a constrained supply of reactive power and progressive line outages for unspecified reasons lead to a voltage collapse even when reactive power supply is ample at the Western generator. In contrast to all of this, you could route a hose up the side of the water tower and simply turn on the water and let the water flow in the hose to fill up the tank. The water pressure is like voltage, and the water flow is like current. This type of system would be a

7 direct current (DC) system and would not involve reactive power at all. However, the concept of voltage collapse is not unique to AC systems. A simple DC system consisting of a battery serving light bulbs can be used to illustrate how too much load on a system can lead to a condition where voltages drop to a critical point where adding more load results in less power transmission - a form of voltage collapse.

2. WHAT IS POWER FACTOR ?

8 The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power, and is a number between 0 and 1. A measure of the effectiveness with which an electrical device converts voltamperes to watts; devices with power factors >0.90 are "high power factor" devices.

Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power can be greater than the real power. In an electric power system, a load with low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor. Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors. On-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases, active power factor correction is used to counteract the distortion and raise power factor. The devices for correction of power factor may be at a central substation, or spread out over a distribution system, or built into power-consuming equipment AC power flow has the three components: real power (P), measured in watts (W); apparent power (S), measured in volt-amperes (VA); and reactive power (Q), measured in reactive volt-amperes (VAr).In the case of a perfectly sinusoidal waveform, P, Q and S can be expressed as vectors that form a vector triangle such that: If is the phase angle between the current and voltage, then the power factor is equal to cosine(), and: Since the units are consistent, the power factor is by definition a dimensionless number between 0 and 1. When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive, and stored energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1, all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Power factors are usually stated as "leading" or "lagging" to show the sign of the phase angle. If a purely resistive load is connected to a power supply, current and voltage will change polarity in step, the power factor will be unity.

The electrical energy flows in a single direction across the network in each cycle. Inductive loads such as transformers and motors (any type of wound coil) consume reactive power with current waveform lagging the voltage. Capacitive loads such as capacitor banks or buried cable generate reactive power with current phase leading the voltage. Both types of loads will absorb energy during part of the AC cycle, which is stored in the device's electric field, only to return this energy back to the source during the rest of the cycle. For example, to get 1 kW of real power, if the power factor is unity, 1 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW 1 = 1 kVA). At low values of power factor, more apparent power needs to be transferred to get the same real power. To get 1 kW of real power at 0.2 power factor, 5 kVA of apparent power needs to be transferred (1 kW 0.2 = 5 kVA).This apparent power must be produced and transmitted to the load in the conventional fashion, and is subject to the usual distributed losses in the production and transmission processes.

The apparent power is the vector sum of real and reactive power

Real power (P) - unit: watt (W) Reactive power (Q) - unit: volt-amperes reactive (var) Complex power (S) - unit: volt-ampere (VA) Apparent Power (|S|) , that is, the absolute value of complex power S - unit: voltampere (VA)...

To understand power factor, well first start with the definition of some basic terms:

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KW is Working Power (also called Actual Power or Active Power or Real Power).It is the
power that actually powers the equipment and performs useful work.

KVAR is Reactive Power. It is the power that magnetic equipment (transformer, motor and
relay) needs to produce the magnetizing flux.

KVA is Apparent Power. It is the vectorial summation of KVAR and KW.

Let s look at a simple analogy in order to better understand these terms .Let s say you are at the ballpark and it is a really hot day. You order up a mug of your favorite brewsky. The thirst-quenching portion of your beer represented by KW (Figure 1). Unfortunately, life is not perfect. Along with your ale comes a little bit of foam. (And let s face it that foam just does not quench your thirst.) This foam is represented by KVAR. The total contents of your mug, KVA, is this summation of KW (the beer)and KVAR (the foam).

So, now that we understand some basic terms, we are ready to learn about power factor:

Power Factor (P.F.) is the ratio of Working Power to Apparent Power. Looking at our
beer mug analogy above, power factor would be the ratio of beer (KW) to beer plus foam (KVA).

11 Thus, for a given KVA: The more foam you have (the higher the percentage of KVAR), the lower your ratio of KW (beer) to KVA (beer plus foam). Thus, the lower your power factor. 0 The less foam you have (the lower the percentage of KVAR), the higher your ratio of KW (beer) to KVA (beer plus foam). In fact, as your foam (or KVAR) approaches zero, your power factor approaches 1.0.Our beer mug analogy is a bit simplistic. In reality, when we calculate KVA, we must determine the vectorial summation of KVAR and KW. Therefore, we must go one step further and look at the angle between these vect Lets look at another analogy Mac here is dragging a heavy load (Figure 2). Mac s Working Power (or Actual Power) in the forward direction, where he most wants his load to travel, is KW. Unfortunately, Mac can t drag his load on a perfect horizontal (he would get a tremendous backache), so his shoulder height adds a little Reactive Power, or KVAR. The Apparent Power Mac is dragging, KVA, is this vectorial summation of KVAR and KW.

3. STUDY OF TRANSMISION LINS & SUB-STATIONS

I. Most of the a.c. appliances have induction motor as their main drive which works as lagging power factors, and they mostly contribute for the lagging power factor of the station II. The transformers at sub-stations have lagging power factor because they draw magnetizing current to lag behind the voltage.

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III. The industrial heating furnaces have very low lagging factor. IV. Arc lamps which operate at low power factor.

4. EFFECTS OF LOW POWER FACTOR

Consider an alternator (single phase), having full load rated capacity of 1,000 A at 500 V. Rating of the alternator = (1,000 x 500)/1,000 = 500kVA If the alternator is operating at unity p.f., load supplied = 500 X 1 = 500kW. If the p.f. is 0.6, load supplied = 500x 0.6 = 300kW.

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Although the alternator is fully loaded i.e., developing its maximum current and

voltage, yet when the p.f. is 0.6 it is supplying only 60% of its full load capacity. So in order to supply 500 kW at 0.6 p.f the alternator must be overloaded and the conductors connecting the alternator to load must be made of much larger crosssection to carry the overload current. Hence for a given power the lower the power factor the larger must be the size of the alternator and larger must be the size of the conductors of transmission ; or, in other words, the greater will be the cost of generation and the transmission. That is the reason why supply undertakings always stress upon the consumers to increase their p.f

5. DISADVANTAGES WITH LOW POWER FACTOR

There are many serious defects of low power factor over the plants which are summarized as follows:

Effect on transmission lines: For the same power to be transmitted over the
line, it will have to carry more current at low power factors. As the line is to carry

14 more current, its cross-sectional area will have to be increased which increases the capital cost of the lines. Also increased current increases the line loss or the efficiency of the line is lowered, and the line drop is also increased.

Effect on Transformers: For decreased power factor, the kW capacity of the

transformer is decreased and the voltage in it is increased.

Effect on Switchgear and Bus bars: The cross-sectional area of the bus bar, and the contact surface of the switchgears must be enlarged for the same power to be delivered at low power factors.

Effect on Generators: With the low power factor the kVA as well as kW capacities are lowered. The power supplied by the exciter is increased, as well as the generator copper losses are increased, so their efficiency decreased.

Effect on Prime Movers: When the power factor is decreased the alternator develops more reactive kVA or the wattles power generated is more, but certain energy is required to develop it which is supplied by the prime mover. That is the part of the prime mover capacity is idle and represents dead investment. Working at low power factors also decreases the efficiency of prime mover.

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6.ADVANTAGES IMPROVEMENT

OF

POWER

FACTOR

The kW capacity of the prime movers is better utilized. This increases the kilowatt capacity of the alternators. The kW capacity of transmission and the lines are increased. The efficiency of every plant is increased. The overall cost per unit decreased. The regulation of the lines is improved.

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7. METHODS OF IMPROVING POWER FACTOR

Following are the methods of improving the power factor:

With the use of capacitors:

They are connected in parallel with the supply mains and take current leading by 90 degrees from the mains which neutralize the reactive lagging. Installing capacitors decreases the magnitude of reactive power (KVAR or foam), thus increasing your power factor Reactive power (KVARS), caused by inductive loads, acts at a 90-degree angle to working power (KW). Capacitors store KVARS and release energy opposing the reactive energy caused by the inductor .The presence of both a capacitor and inductor in the same circuit results in the continuous alternating transfer of energy between the two. Thus, when the circuit is balanced, all the energy released by the inductor is absorbed by the capacitor

With the help of a synchronous condenser: The synchronous confessor is also

called as synchronous motor. This is the only motor which can also be worked at leading r factor at the same time this can supply mechanical power.

Phase Advancers: These are special commutator machines which improve the power.
There are some other methods other than the above mentioned one, they are as follows Minimizing operation of idling or lightly loaded motors. We already talked about the fact that low power factor is caused by the presence of induction motors. But, more specifically, low power factor is caused by running induction motors lightly loaded. Avoiding operation of equipment above its rated voltage. Replacing standard motors as they burn out with energy-efficient motors. Even with energy-efficient motors, power factor is significantly affected by variations in load.

17 A motor must be operated near its rated load in order to realize the benefits of a high power factor design.

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8. LOCATION OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT APPARATUS

Power factor improvement apparatus should always be located near the equipment/machinery which is responsible for low power factor. If synchronous condensers are to be used for improving the power factor of the transmission line, then the best location for these will be at the receiving end. Synchronous condensers thus installed will relieve both the transmission line and generators form the excessive current. However, if synchronous condensers are installed near the generators then only generators will be relieved from the excessive lagging current component and the transmission line will have to carry more than normal current.

NEAR THE SOURCE -- MORE LOSSES

NEAR THE LOAD --- LESS LOSSES

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9. REACTIVE CURRENT REQUIRED FOR POWEIMPROVEMENT

Consider a circuit which is red through an A.C. supply. Let the current supplied to the circuit be I amperes and let this current be lagging the voltage by an angle phi. The current supplied to this circuit can be resolved into two components, one along the voltage vector and other in quadrature to the voltage vector. The component along the voltage vector is known as in phase or active component and the other component is known as reactive component of current. Active and the other components of currents are shown in fig. In order to improve the power factor, angle phi should be increased and for unity power factor, angle phi is decreased to zero, I sin x ( Ir) is to be decreased . This is achieved by introducing leading current Ie of magnitude equal to the reactive component, in the circuit as shown by OA in fig. This leading current Ie will lead the voltage by 90 degrees and will be in phase opposition to Ia, Ir, and Ie is Ia which is in phase with the voltage thereby giving the unity p.f. Therefore the leading current required to neutralize the lagging reactive component of the current to obtain unity p.f. is given as:

Ie = Ir = I sin x = I (1- cos2 x) = I (1- (p.f) 2) -------------------------------------- (1)

10. POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT BY THE USE OF STATIC CAPACITORS

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10.1. How Capacitors Work? 10.1.1 Introduction

In a way, a capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely different ways, capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy. If you have read How Batteries Work, then you know that a battery has two terminals. Inside the battery, chemical reactions produce electrons on one terminal and absorb electrons on the other terminal. A capacitor is much simpler than a battery, as it can't produce new electrons -it only stores them. In this article, we'll learn exactly what a capacitor is, what it does and how it's used in electronics. We'll also look at the history of the capacitor and how several people helped shape its progress. Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to two Flash capacitor from a pointand-shoot camera

metal plates separated by a non-conducting substance, or dielectric. You can easily make a capacitor from two pieces of aluminum foil and a piece of paper. It won't be a particularly good capacitor in terms of its storage capacity, but it will work. In theory, the dielectric can be any non-conductive substance. However, for practical applications, specific materials are used that best suit the capacitor's function. Mica, ceramic, cellulose, porcelain, Mylar, Teflon and even air are some of the non-conductive materials used. The dielectric dictates what kind of capacitor it is and for what it is best suited. Depending on the size and type of dielectric, some capacitors are better for high frequency uses, while some are better for high voltage applications. Capacitors can be manufactured to serve any purpose, from the smallest plastic capacitor in your calculator, to an ultra capacitor that can power a commuter bus. NASA uses glass capacitors to help wake up the space shuttle's circuitry and help deploy space probes. Here are some of the various types of capacitors and how they are used.

Air - Often used in radio tuning circuits

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Mylar - Most commonly used for timer circuits like clocks, alarms and counters Glass - Good for high voltage applications Ceramic - Used for high frequency purposes like antennas, X-ray and MRI machines Super capacitor - Powers electric and hybrid cars

10.1.2. History of the Capacitor

The invention of the capacitor varies somewhat depending on who you ask. There are records that indicate a German scientist named Ewald Georg von Kleist invented the capacitor in November 1745. Several months later Pieter van Musschenbroek, a Dutch professor at the University of Leyden came up with a very similar device in the form of the Leyden jar, which is typically credited as the first capacitor. Since Kleist didn't have detailed records and notes, or the notoriety of his Dutch counterpart, he's often overlooked as a contributor to the capacitor's evolution. However, over the years, both have been given equal credit as it was established that their research was independent of each other and merely a scientific coincidence [source: Williams]. The Leyden jar was a very simple device. It consisted of a glass jar, half filled with water and lined inside and out with metal foil. The glass acted as the dielectric, although it was thought for a time that water was the key ingredient. There was usually a metal wire or chain driven through a cork in the top of the jar. The chain was then hooked to something that would deliver a charge, most likely a hand-cranked static generator. Once delivered, the jar would hold two equal but opposite charges in equilibrium until they were connected with a wire, producing a slight spark or shock [source: Williams].

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Benjamin Franklin worked with the Leyden jar in his experiments with electricity and soon found that a flat piece of glass worked as well as the jar model, prompting him to develop the flat capacitor, or Franklin Square. Years later, English chemist Michael Faraday would pioneer the first practical applications for the capacitor in trying to store unused electrons from his experiments. This led to the first usable capacitor, made from large oil barrels. Faraday's progress with capacitors is what eventually enabled us to deliver electric power over great distances. As a result of Faraday's achievements in the field of electricity, the unit of measurement for capacitors, or capacitance, became known as the farad

10.1.3. Capacitor Circuit

In an electronic circuit, a capacitor is shown like this:

2007 HowStuffWorks When you connect a capacitor to a battery, here's what happens:

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The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the negative terminal of the battery accepts electrons that the battery is producing. The plate on the capacitor that attaches to the positive terminal of the battery loses electrons to the battery.

Once it's charged, the capacitor has the same voltage as the battery (1.5 volts on the battery means 1.5 volts on the capacitor). For a small capacitor, the capacity is small. But large capacitors can hold quite a bit of charge. You can find capacitors as big as soda cans that hold enough charge to light a flashlight bulb for a minute or more. Even nature shows the capacitor at work in the form of lightning. One plate is the cloud, the other plate is the ground and the lightning is the charge releasing between these two "plates." Obviously, in a capacitor that large, you can hold a huge amount of charge! Let's say you hook up a capacitor like this: Here you have a battery, a light bulb and a capacitor. If the capacitor is pretty big, what you will notice is that, when you connect the battery, the light bulb will light up as current flows from the battery to the capacitor to charge it up. The bulb will get progressively dimmer and finally go out once the capacitor reaches its capacity. If you then remove the battery and replace it with a wire, current will flow from one plate of the capacitor to the other. The bulb will light initially and then dim as the capacitor discharges, until it is completely out.

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. 10.1.4. Farad A capacitor's storage potential, or capacitance, is measured in units called farads. A 1-farad capacitor can store one coulomb (coo-Lomb) of charge at 1 volt. A coulomb is 6.25e18 (6.25 * 10^18, or 6.25 billion billion) electrons. One amp represents a rate of electron flow of 1 coulomb of electrons per second, so a 1-farad capacitor can hold 1 ampsecond of electrons at 1 volt. A 1-farad capacitor would typically be pretty big. It might be as big as a can of tuna or a 1-liter soda bottle, depending on the voltage it can handle. For this reason, capacitors are typically measured in microfarads (millionths of a farad). To get some perspective on how big a farad is, think about this:

A standard alkaline AA battery holds about 2.8 amp-hours. That means that a AA battery can produce 2.8 amps for an hour at 1.5 volts (about 4.2 watt-hours -- a AA battery can light a 4-watt bulb for a little more than an hour). Let's call it 1 volt to make the math easier. To store one AA battery's energy in a capacitor, you would need 3,600 * 2.8 = 10,080 farads to hold it, because an amphour is 3,600 amp-seconds.

If it takes something the size of a can of tuna to hold a farad, then 10,080 farads is going to take up a LOT more space than a single AA battery! Obviously, it's impractical to use capacitors to store any significant amount of power unless you do it at a high voltage.

10.1.5. Applications

25 The difference between a capacitor and a battery is that a capacitor can dump its entire charge in a tiny fraction of a second, where a battery would take minutes to completely discharge. That's why the electronic flash on a camera uses a capacitor -- the battery charges up the flash's capacitor over several seconds, and then the capacitor dumps the full charge into the flash tube almost instantly. This can make a large, charged capacitor extremely dangerous -- flash units and TVs have warnings about opening them up for this reason. They contain big capacitors that can, potentially, kill you with the charge they contain. Capacitors are used in several different ways in electronic circuits:

Sometimes, capacitors are used to store charge for high-speed use. That's what a flash does. Big lasers use this technique as well to get very bright, instantaneous flashes. Capacitors can also eliminate ripples. If a line carrying DC voltage has ripples or spikes in it, a big capacitor can even out the voltage by absorbing the peaks and filling in the valleys. A capacitor can block DC voltage. If you hook a small capacitor to a battery, then no current will flow between the poles of the battery once the capacitor charges. However, any alternating current (AC) signal flows through a capacitor unimpeded. That's because the capacitor will charge and discharge as the alternating current fluctuates, making it appear that the alternating current is flowing.

Photographer: Newstocker | Agency: Dreamstime.com

A family of capacitors

CAPACITORS AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

The four parts of figure show the variation of the alternating voltage and current in a capacitive circuit, for each quarter of one cycle. The solid line represents the voltage across

26 the capacitor, and the dotted line represents the current. The line running through the center is the zero, or reference point, for both the voltage and the current. The bottom line marks off the time of the cycle in terms of electrical degrees. Assume that the ac voltage has been acting on the capacitor for some time before the time represented by the starting point of the sine wave in the figure. Phase relationship of voltage and current in a capacitive circuit.

At the beginning of the first quarter-cycle (0 to 90) the voltage has just passed through zero and is increasing in the positive direction. Since the zero point is the steepest part of the sine wave, the voltage is changing at its greatest rate. The charge on a capacitor varies directly with the voltage, and therefore the charge on the capacitor is also changing at its greatest rate at the beginning of the first quarter-cycle. In other words, the greatest number of electrons are moving off one plate and onto the other plate. Thus the capacitor current is at its maximum value, as part (A) of the figure shows. As the voltage proceeds toward maximum at 90 degrees, its rate of change becomes less and less, hence the current must decrease toward zero. At 90 degrees the voltage across the capacitor is maximum, the capacitor is fully charged, and there is no further movement of electrons from plate to plate. That is why the current at 90 degrees is zero.

27 At the end of this first quarter-cycle the alternating voltage stops increasing in the positive direction and starts to decrease. It is still a positive voltage, but to the capacitor the decrease in voltage means that the plate which has just accumulated an excess of electrons must lose some electrons. The current flow, therefore, must reverse its direction. Part (B) of the figure shows the current curve to be below the zero line (negative current direction) during the second quarter-cycle (90 to 180). At 180 degrees the voltage has dropped to zero. This means that for a brief instant the electrons are equally distributed between the two plates; the current is maximum because the rate of change of voltage is maximum. Just after 180 degrees the voltage has reversed polarity and starts building up its maximum negative peak which is reached at the end of the third quarter-cycle (180 to 270). During this third quarter-cycle the rate of voltage change gradually decreases as the charge builds to a maximum at 270 degrees. At this point the capacitor is fully charged and it carries the full impressed voltage. Because the capacitor is fully charged there is no further exchange of electrons; therefore, the current flow is zero at this point. The conditions are exactly the same as at the end of the first quarter-cycle (90) but the polarity is reversed. Just after 270 degrees the impressed voltage once again starts to decrease, and the capacitor must lose electrons from the negative plate. It must discharge, starting at a minimum rate of flow and rising to a maximum. This discharging action continues through the last quarter-cycle (270 to 360) until the impressed-voltage has reached zero. At 360 degrees you are back at the beginning of the entire cycle, and everything starts over again. If you examine the complete voltage and current curves in part D, you will see that the current always arrives at a certain point in the cycle 90 degrees ahead of the voltage, because of the charging and discharging action. You know that this time and place relationship between the current and voltage is called the phase relationship. The voltagecurrent phase relationship in a capacitive circuit is exactly opposite to that in an inductive circuit. The current of a capacitor leads the voltage across the capacitor by 90 degrees. You realize that the current and voltage are both going through their individual cycles at the same time during the period the ac voltage is impressed. The current does not go through part of its cycle (charging or discharging), stop, and wait for the voltage to catch up. The amplitude and polarity of the voltage and the amplitude and direction of the current are continually changing. Their positions with respect to each other and to the zero line at

28 any electrical instant-any degree between zero and 360 degrees-can be seen by reading upwards from the time-degree line. The current swing from the positive peak at zero degrees to the negative peak at 180 degrees is NOT a measure of the number of electrons, or the charge on the plates. It is a picture of the direction and strength of the current in relation to the polarity and strength of the voltage appearing across the plates. At times it is convenient to use the word "ICE" to recall to mind the phase relationship of the current and voltage in capacitive circuits. I is the symbol for current, and in the word ICE it leads, or comes before, the symbol for voltage, E. C, of course, stands for capacitor. This memory aid is similar to the "ELI" used to remember the current and voltage relationship in an inductor. The phrase "ELI the ICE man" is helpful in remembering the phase relationship in both the inductor and capacitor. Since the plates of the capacitor are changing polarity at the same rate as the ac voltage, the capacitor seems to pass an alternating current. Actually, the electrons do not pass through the dielectric, but their rushing back and forth from plate to plate causes a current flow in the circuit. It is convenient, however, to say that the alternating current flows "through" the capacitor. You know this is not true, but the expression avoids a lot of trouble when speaking of current flow in a circuit containing a capacitor. By the same short cut, you may say that the capacitor does not pass a direct current (if both plates are connected to a dc source, current will flow only long enough to charge the capacitor). With a capacitor type of hookup in a circuit containing both ac and dc, only the ac will be "passed" on to another circuit.

10.2. Why does the current lead the voltage in a capacitor?

The reason that current leads voltage in a capacitor is rooted in the way a capacitor works. Picture the capacitor. It's basically two conductive plates separated by a short distance and having a dielectric (insulator) between them. Now, let's specify that our cap (capacitor) is completely discharged and we'll hook it up to a DC voltage source through a switch. Flip the switch on and current will begin to flow, but it is important to look at what happens in just the first instant of time. Electrons will begin to accumulate on the negative plate and their presence there will drive electrons off the positive plate. The capacitor is building up a charge. It is developing a voltage across (or between, if you prefer) the plates.

29 But electrons have to begin to pile onto the plate to actually create the difference of potential (voltage) between the plates. The moving electrons (and that's current) that are piling on the plate are already beginning to flow before the voltage is developed between the plates, so current is said to lead voltage in a capacitor.

10.3. Calculation of CAPACITANCE:

The method of introducing a leading component of current is most usually employed. It is achieved by connecting a number of condensers in parallel across the mains at the load end. The value of the total capacitance required for improving the power factor to unity for given power P in the circuits at frequency F and volts V is determined as follows :I= CV = 2fCV ------------------------------------ (2) By equating (1) & (2) 2fCV = C = I = C = I(1- (p.f)2 ) [I /(2fV) ](1- (p.f)2 ) ---------------------------------- (3) P/ (V x p.f) -------------------------------------------- (4)

We know that From (3) & (4) P x (1-p.f2 ) / 2fV2p.f . Farads.

30

10.4. Estimation of kVAr Required for new electrical Installations

.

Kvar for the Supply TransformerFor 500 kVA transformer, kVAr = 30 kVAr Kvar for Induction MotorRating of motor = 200 HP x 0.746 = 150 kW Kvar for motor = 150*[tan(cos-1(0.95)- tan(cos-1(0.99)] = 104 Kvar Kvar For UPSrating of UPS = 50 KVA* 0.7 = 35 Kw Kvar for UPS = 35 [tan(cos-1(0.70)- tan(cos-1(0.99)] = 25 Kvar Kvar for Others & lighting loadKvar for UPS = 24 [tan (cos-1(0.70) - tan (cos-1(0.99)] = 17 Kvar Total kvar requirement = (30+104+35+25+17)kvar =211 Kvar Assuming 15% design assumption and contigency = 221*0.15=31.65 Kvar Total kvar = 242.65 kvar

31 Kavr recommended= 250 kvar Capacitor req. (c) = Qc/V2 (2f) Hence Capacitor req. for UPF=106*250/(2302*100) = 150.51F.

11. COST ANALYSIS:

A calculation can be run to determine when this payoff will be. As an example, assume that a portion of your facility can be modeled as in Figure 6 below. Your current power factor is 0.65. Following are the parameters for your original system: 163 Kw 730 hours per/month

32 480 Volt, 3 phase service 5% system losses Load PF = 65% Energy Rate = $4.08 per Kw Demand Charge = $2.16 per KW PF Penalty = $0.15 per KVARH

PSE Rate Schedule:

Well calculate the total amount the utility charges you every month as follows: First, well calculate your energy usage: 163 KW X 730 Hours/Month X $4.08/KWH = $4,854.79/Month Next, well calculate your demand charge: 163 KW X $2.16/KW = $352.08/Month Finally, well calculate your Power Factor Penalty: 190 KVAR X 730 Hours/Month X $0.15/KVARH = $208/Month

33 Now, let s say that you decide to install a capacitor bank (Figure 7). The 190KVAR from the capacitor cancels out the 190 KVAR from the inductive motor. Your power factor is now 1.0.

. Following are your parameters for your system with capacitors: Corrected PF = 1.0 You can calculate your loss reduction: Loss Reduction = 1-(0.652 / 1.002) = 0.58 Therefore, your system loss reduction will be as follows: 0.58 X 0.05 (losses) = 0.029 System Loss Reduction Your total KW load will be reduced as follows: 163 KW X 0.029 = 4.7 KW Now we can calculate your savings in energy usage:

34

4.7 KW X 730 Hours/Month X $4.08/KWH = $141.00/Month Next, we ll calculate your savings in demand charge: 4.7 KW X $2.16/KW = $10.15/Month Finally, remember that your Power Factor Penalty is zero. Let s calculate how long it will take for this capacitor bank to pay for itself. Capacitor Cost = $30.00/KVAR Your savings per month are as follows: $141.00 Energy Usage $ 10.15 Demand Charge

$208.00 PF Penalty Charge $359.15 Total Your payback will be at the following time: $30.00/KVAR X 190 KVAR/$359/Month = 16 Months Installation of your capacitors will pay for themselves in 16 months.

35

12. DISADVANTAGES OF FIXED CAPACITOR

Manual operation(on/off) Not meet the require kvar under varying loads. Can result leading power factor Cause over voltage Mal-operation of relays, diesel generators Saturation of transformer

36 Penalty by electricity authority

13. NEED FOR AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Varying power demand on the supply system. Power factor also varies as a function of the load requirements. Difficult to maintain a consistent power factor by use of Fixed Compensation i.e. fixed capacitors. leading power factor under light load conditions(fixed compensation)

37 This result in over voltages, saturation of transformers, mal-operation of diesel generating sets, penalties by electric supply authorities. Automatically variation, without manual intervention, the compensation to suit the load requirements. Automatic Power Factor Correction (APFC) system provides this facility. Leading power factor will be also prevented.

13.1. Benefits of APFC

Consistently high power factor under fluctuating loads Prevention of leading power factor Eliminate power factor penalty Lower energy consumption by reducing losses. Continuously sense and monitor load Automatically switch on/off relevant capacitors steps for consistent power factor. Ensures easy user interface

14. PROBLEMS RELATED TO POWER FACTOR CORRECTION USING CAPACITOR

It is ironic to think that as steps are being taken to improve the operating efficiency at a facility, those very steps may be adversely affecting the facility in other ways. This is sometimes the case when power factor correction capacitors are installed at a facility. As an example, general application of capacitors on motors, when applied without regard to the

38 connected system, can result in the inadvertent tuning of a system to a dominant harmonic. (The implications of this are discussed further below).Although harmonic problems are attributed to many power system problems, it is sometimes overly used. There are other ramifications associated with the use of power factor correction capacitors such as voltage rise and switching transients. Each of these power quality concepts will be discussed in turn.

14.1. HARMONIC RESONANCE

A common problem that occurs when power factor correction capacitors are installed on a system is harmonic resonance. When this occurs, the power system at a facility is tuned to a specific frequency due to a combination of the system inductance and the added capacitance. The system resonates at this frequency, if there are loads at or near the installation that produce that harmonic. When this occurs, the normal flow of harmonic currents, from load to utility source, is altered. When the currents can flow normally, they combine with other load currents across the system. If the bulk of those loads are linear, there will not be a significant percentage of distorted current. However, when the flow is altered by the installation of capacitors, distortion levels may rise, causing problems within a plant, at nearby utility customers or at system substations or currents may flow where they are not desired. When parallel resonant conditions exist, shunt capacitor banks appear to the harmonic source as being in parallel with the system source reactance (or short-circuit reactance). When harmonic currents, from the harmonic source, flow through this high impedance circuit, high harmonic voltages develop. The high harmonic voltages can result in an over voltage condition on the capacitors themselves and/or high voltage distortion. Over voltage conditions can exceed the voltage rating of the capacitor and result in capacitor failure. High voltage distortion can result in the misoperation or failure of equipment. When series resonant conditions occur, the capacitor appears to be in series with in impedance, as seen from the harmonic source. This presents a low impedance path to the flow of harmonic currents. Currents, then, will flow on the system in ways that were unintended. This can result in interference on communications circuits that may be nearby, excessive voltage distortion at the capacitors or conductor heating.

14.2. SWITCHING TRANSIENTS

39 As mentioned earlier, capacitors are used at all voltage levels. Utilities install hem at various locations on their transmission and distribution systems for voltage and VAR support. When the utility energizes a discharged capacitor, the bus voltage will momentarily collapse. This occurs because the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously. This is followed by an oscillatory recovery that lasts about of a cycle. The overshoot associated with this oscillation can result in a voltage that has a theoretical peak value of two times the maximum value of the60Hz sine wave (crest voltage). The same effect can occur when a capacitor is switched off, if re-strike occurs during the switching operation. Transients of this magnitude and duration are usually not a problem on the utility system but they can produce problems at a user facility. Severe over-voltage scan appear on facility capacitors through a phenomenon known as voltage magnification. The voltage at the enduser capacitor can be greater than the voltage at the utility capacitor. This translates to a peak voltage with a theoretical upper value of 400% although this is rarely seen. The highest transient voltages occur at the low voltage capacitor bank when the characteristic frequency of the switching transient is nearly equal to the resonant frequency of the low voltage system and when the switched capacitor is ten or more times the size of the low voltage capacitor. The IEEE Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors, ANSI/IEEE Std. 18-1992specifies that capacitors may reasonably be expected to withstand transient over-voltages from 205% 354% of rated peak kV (depending on the number of times a year the over-voltage occurs). Generally speaking, the voltage magnification will not result in capacitor damage. The problem that usually occurs is the failure or mis-operation of sensitive loads in the facility where the low voltage capacitors are installed.

14.3. VOLTAGE RISE

At many facilities, fixed capacitors are used to reduce cost. Fixed capacitors are those that are permanently connected to the load bus and are not switched on and off as the load changes. When the load on the facility is low, the voltage may increase due to the capacitor being sized for the higher load. The limit on steady state voltage is generally taken to be 110% of the rated voltage. If the voltage is allowed to rise above this point, transformers will saturate and overheat, mis-operation of equipment may occur and equipment life will be reduced. If the prevailing bus voltage happens to be high, due to conditions on the distribution system feeding the facility, the voltage rise would be added to

40 this already higher voltage. Therefore, system voltage should be checked when considering voltage rise.

14.4. MITIGATION TECHNIQUES 14.4.1. DETUNING

De-tuning a system refers to techniques that are used to change the resonance point of a system and move it away from significant harmonics. As mentioned earlier, when shunt power factor correction capacitors are added to a system, the parallel combination of these capacitors and the system source impedance can tune the system to resonate at a particular harmonic frequency. This high impedance path is the source of harmonic voltages when harmonic load current flows through the system. One technique used to de-tune a system is to add a reactor to the system .Harmful resonance conditions are generally between the shunt capacitors and the source impedance. The reactor is added between the source and the capacitor bank. An effective way to do this to add the reactor in series with the capacitor bank to move the system resonance point without tuning the capacitor to create a filter. Another method that can be used is to change the size of the capacitor bank being considered. This is often one of the least expensive options. If the capacitor can be sized to move the resonance point without impacting other operational aspects (over/under correction, voltage rise, etc.) there would be no requirements for other mitigation. De-tuning can also be accomplished by moving capacitors to a point in the system with a different short-circuit impedance. This can also be considered if the installation of a capacitor causes telephone interference problems. In many cases, the capacitor can not be moved far enough in a plant to make a difference, however, the technique should not be dismissed outright .If capacitors are currently installed and problems related to harmonic current sources have been encountered, it may be cost effective to remove the capacitors. In this case, a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis must be performed.

14.4.2. FILTERING
In some situations it may be necessary to install filters to minimize the harmonic currents that are flowing on a system. Generally, filters provide a low impedance path to shunt the harmonic currents rather than them flowing back through the distribution system.

41 Filters also change the system frequency response, most often, but not always for the better .Adding a filter creates a sharp parallel resonance point at a frequency below the filers tuned frequency. Filters are tuned slightly below the harmonic in case there is a change to the system or there is a component failure, either of which might move the resonance point into the filter. Filters typically cost about three times what a simple capacitor installation might cost. Filters are usually applied close to the component in a system where there is significant generation of harmonic currents. These filters are typically tuned to the fifth harmonic, for three phase loads, and the third harmonic for single-phase loads. These frequencies represent the lowest harmonic usually encountered on these systems and the first filter in a system should be tuned to the lowest frequency. Filter application is not as simple as simple capacitor application. Analysis that may range in scope from a survey to long term monitoring and computer modeling may be required Filter capacitors are usually wired in a delta configuration on 480-volt systems. As a result, they are largely ineffective when it becomes necessary to control third-harmonic currents. If triplen harmonics are determined to be a problem, other configurations can be used. Filters should be placed on a bus where the available fault current is expected to remain constant. Although the notch frequency of the filter will not change, the system resonance point might move..

15. AUTOMATION
Automation or industrial automation or numerical control is the use of control systems such as computers to control industrial machinery and processes, reducing the need for human intervention. In the scope of industrialization, automation is a step beyond mechanization. Whereas mechanization provided human operators with machinery to assist them with the physical requirements of work, automation greatly reduces the need for human sensory and mental requirements as well. Processes and systems can also be automated.

42 Automation plays an increasingly important role in the global economy and in daily experience. Engineers strive to combine automated devices with mathematical and organizational tools to create complex systems for a rapidly expanding range of applications and human activities. Many roles for humans in industrial processes presently lie beyond the scope of automation. Human-level pattern recognition, language recognition, and language production ability are well beyond the capabilities of modern mechanical and computer systems. Tasks requiring subjective assessment or synthesis of complex sensory data, such as scents and sounds, as well as high-level tasks such as strategic planning, currently require human expertise. In many cases, the use of humans is more cost-effective than mechanical approaches even where automation of industrial tasks is possible. Specialised hardened computers, referred to as programmable logic controllers (PLCs), are frequently used to synchronize the flow of inputs from (physical) sensors and events with the flow of outputs to actuators and events. This leads to precisely controlled actions that permit a tight control of almost any industrial process. Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human interfaces (CHI), formerly known as man-machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate with PLCs and other computers, such as entering and monitoring temperatures or pressures for further automated control or emergency response. Service personnel who monitor and control these interfaces are often referred to as stationary engineers.

15.1. Advantages and disadvantages of automation

Advantages commonly attributed to automation include higher production rates and increased productivity, more efficient use of materials, better product quality, improved safety, shorter workweeks for labour, and reduced factory lead times. Higher output and increased productivity have been two of the biggest reasons in justifying the use of automation. Despite the claims of high quality from good workmanship by humans, automated systems typically perform the manufacturing process with less variability than human workers, resulting in greater control and consistency of product quality. Also, increased process control makes more efficient use of materials, resulting in less scrap.

43 Worker safety is an important reason for automating an industrial operation. Automated systems often remove workers from the workplace, thus safeguarding them against the hazards of the factory environment. In the United States the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 (OSHA) was enacted with the national objective of making work safer and protecting the physical well-being of the worker. OSHA has had the effect of promoting the use of automation and robotics in the factory. Another benefit of automation is the reduction in the number of hours worked on average per week by factory workers. About 1900 the average workweek was approximately 70 hours. This has gradually been reduced to a standard workweek in the United States of about 40 hours. Mechanization and automation have played a significant role in this reduction. Finally, the time required to process a typical production order through the factory is generally reduced with automation. A main disadvantage often associated with automation, worker displacement, has been discussed above. Despite the social benefits that might result from retraining displaced workers for other jobs, in almost all cases the worker whose job has been taken over by a machine undergoes a period of emotional stress. In addition to displacement from work, the worker may be displaced geographically. In order to find other work, an individual may have to relocate, which is another source of stress. Other disadvantages of automated equipment include the high capital expenditure required to invest in automation (an automated system can cost millions of dollars to design, fabricate, and install), a higher level of maintenance needed than with a manually operated machine, and a generally lower degree of flexibility in terms of the possible products as compared with a manual system (even flexible automation is less flexible than humans, the most versatile machines of all). Also there are potential risks that automation technology will ultimately subjugate rather than serve humankind. The risks include the possibility that workers will become slaves to automated machines, that the privacy of humans will be invaded by vast computer data networks, that human error in the management of technology will somehow endanger civilization, and that society will become dependent on automation for its economic wellbeing.

44 These dangers aside, automation technology, if used wisely and effectively, can yield substantial opportunities for the future. There is an opportunity to relieve humans from repetitive, hazardous, and unpleasant labour in all forms. And there is an opportunity for future automation technologies to provide a growing social and economic environment in which humans can enjoy a higher standard of living and a better way of life.

16. AN INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS Introduction

Embedded systems are computers which are part of special-purpose devices. Due to the limited duties this systems can be highly optimized to the particular needs. Traditionally most of these systems are used for control and process measurement, as a side-effect of higher integration of integrated circuits more complex applications can be solved by embedded systems. To be able to solve these problems embedded systems are commonly equipped with various kinds of peripherals. Early applications of embedded devices include the guidance computer of the Minuteman I missiles and the Apollo guidance computer. The

45 Minuteman I & II missiles are intercontinental ballistic nuclear warheads, produced by Boeing in the 1960s. Due to the large quantities of ICs used in the guidance system of Minuteman II missiles, prices for ICs fell from 1000$ each to 3$ each. This lead to wide adoption of embedded systems in consumer electronics in the 1980s. Nowadays embedded systems can be found in devices from digital watches to traffic-control systems. The broad range of applications with totally different requirements leads to various implementation approaches. The range of hardware used in embedded systems reaches from FPGAs to full blown desktop CPUs which are accompanied by special purpose ICs such as DSPs. On the software side, depending on the needs, everything, from logic fully implemented in hardware, to systems with own operating system and different applications running on it, can be found. Embedded System is a combination of hardware and software used to achieve a single specific task. Embedded systems are computer systems that monitor, respond to, or control an external environment. Environment connected to systems through sensors, actuators and other I/O interfaces. Embedded system must meet timing & other constraints imposed on it by environment. An embedded system is a microcontroller-based, software driven, reliable, real-time control system, autonomous, or human or network interactive, operating on diverse physical variables and in diverse environments and sold into a competitive and cost conscious market.

CLASSIFICATION:
Real Time Systems. RTS is one which has to respond to events within a specified deadline. A right answer after the dead line is a wrong answer RTS classification Hard Real Time Systems Soft Real Time System HARD REAL TIME SYSTEMS

46 "Hard" real-time systems have very narrow response time. Example: Nuclear power system, Cardiac pacemaker. SOFT REAL TIME SYSTEM "Soft" real-time systems have reduced constrains on "lateness" but still must operate very quickly and repeatable. Example: Railway reservation system takes a few extra seconds the data remains valid.

47

BLOCK DIAGRAM:

DIFFERENT COMPONENTS USED IN THE PROJECT

17.1. Microcontroller 17.2. TRANSFORMER 17.3. Bridge rectifier 17.4. Light Emitting Diode 17.5. Voltage Regulator Unit 17.6. LCD Display 17.9. Relay 17.10. Crystal Oscillator 17.11. Inductive load Choke Coil

48 17.13. Bulb

17.1. Micro Controller 17.1.1. Introduction

A microcontroller is a computer. All computers -- whether we are talking about a personal desktop computer or a large mainframe computer or a microcontroller -- have several things in common: All computers have a CPU (central processing unit) that executes programs. If you are sitting at a desktop computer right now reading this article, the CPU in that machine is executing a program that implements the Web browser that is displaying this page. The CPU loads the program from somewhere. On your desktop machine, the browser program is loaded from the hard disk. The computer has some RAM (random-access memory) where it can store "variables. And the computer has some input and output devices so it can talk to people. On your desktop machine, the keyboard and mouse are input devices and the monitor and printer are output devices. A hard disk is an I/O device -- it handles both input and output. The desktop computer you are using is a "general purpose computer" that can run any of thousands of programs. Microcontrollers are "special purpose computers." Microcontrollers do one thing well. There are a number of other common characteristics that define microcontrollers. If a computer matches a majority of these characteristics, then you can call it a "microcontroller". Microcontrollers are "embedded" inside some other device (often a consumer product) so that they can control the features or actions of the product. Another name for a microcontroller, therefore, is "embedded controller." Microcontrollers are dedicated to one task and run one specific program. The program is stored in ROM (read-only memory) and generally does not change. Microcontrollers are often low-power devices. A desktop computer is almost always plugged into a wall socket and might consume 50 watts of electricity. A battery-operated microcontroller might consume 50 mill watts. A microcontroller has a dedicated input device and often (but not always) has a small LED or LCD display for output. A microcontroller also takes input from the device it

49 is controlling and controls the device by sending signals to different components in the device. For example, the microcontroller inside a TV takes input from the remote control and displays output on the TV screen. The controller controls the channel selector, the speaker system and certain adjustments on the picture tube electronics such as tint and brightness. The engine controller in a car takes input from sensors such as the oxygen and knock sensors and controls things like fuel mix and spark plug timing. A microwave oven controller takes input from a keypad, displays output on an LCD display and controls a relay that turns the microwave generator on and off. A microcontroller is often small and low cost. The components are chosen to minimize size and to be as inexpensive as possible. A microcontroller is often, but not always, ruggedized in some way. The microcontroller controlling a car's engine, for example, has to work in temperature extremes that a normal computer generally cannot handle. A car's microcontroller in Alaska has to work fine in -30 degree F (-34 C) weather, while the same microcontroller in Nevada might be operating at 120 degrees F (49 C). When you add the heat naturally generated by the engine, the temperature can go as high as 150 or 180 degrees F (65-80 C) in the engine compartment. On the other hand, a microcontroller embedded inside a VCR hasn't been ruggedized at all. The actual processor used to implement a microcontroller can vary widely. For example, the cell phone shown on Inside a Digital Cell Phone contains a Z-80 processor. The Z-80 is an 8-bit microprocessor developed in the 1970s and originally used in home computers of the time. The Garmin GPS shown in How GPS Receivers Work contains a low-power version of the Intel 80386, I am told. The 80386 was originally used in desktop computers. In many products, such as microwave ovens, the demand on the CPU is fairly low and price is an important consideration. In these cases, manufacturers turn to dedicated microcontroller chips -- chips that were originally designed to be low-cost, small, lowpower, embedded CPUs. The Motorola 6811 and Intel 8051 are both good examples of such

50 chips. There is also a line of popular controllers called "PIC microcontrollers" created by a company called Microchip. By today's standards, these CPUs are incredibly minimalistic; but they are extremely inexpensive when purchased in large quantities and can often meet the needs of a device's designer with just one chip. A typical low-end microcontroller chip might have 1,000 bytes of ROM and 20 bytes of RAM on the chip, along with eight I/0 pins. In large quantities, the cost of these chips can sometimes be just pennies. You certainly are never going to run Microsoft Word on such a chip -- Microsoft Word requires perhaps 30 megabytes of RAM and a processor that can run millions of instructions per second. But then, you don't need Microsoft Word to control a microwave oven, either. With a microcontroller, you have one specific task you are trying to accomplish, and low-cost, low-power performance is what is important.

17.1.2. History
Microcontrollers have existed from the very early years of the microprocessor revolution. The first single chip microprocessor was the 4 bit Intel 4004 released in 1971. The following year saw the first 8-bit microprocessor, the 8008, and the 8080 in 1974. Released in 1975, the first microcontroller was the Intel 8048 featuring RAM and ROM on the same chip, and this was used in several successful commercial products. The popularity of microcontrollers increased when EEPROM memory was incorporated to replace one time programmable PROM memory. With EEPROM, the development cycle of programming, testing and erasing a part could be repeated many times with the same part until the firmware was debugged and ready for production use. The Microchip 16C84 (PIC16x84), introduced in 1993 was the first CPU with onboard EEPROM memory. This electrically-erasable memory made it cost less than CPUs that required quartz "erase window" for erasing EPROM. In 1993, Atmel introduced the first 8-bit Flash microcontroller. Nowadays microcontrollers are low cost and readily available for hobbyists.

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17.1.3. Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller.

A microcontroller is a specialized form of microprocessor that is designed to be selfsufficient and cost-effective, where a microprocessor is typically designed to be general purpose (the kind used in a PC). Microcontrollers are frequently found in automobiles, office machines, toys, and appliances. The microcontroller is the integration of a number of useful functions into a single IC package. These functions are: The ability to execute a stored set of instructions to carry out user defined tasks. The ability to be able to access external memory chips to both read and write data from and to the memory.

Basically, a microcontroller is a device which integrates a number of the components of a microprocessor system onto a single microchip. So a microcontroller combines onto the same microchip.

The CPU core Memory (both ROM and RAM) Some parallel digital I/O Also, a microcontroller is part of an embedded system, which is essentially the whole circuit board. The difference is that microcontroller incorporates features of microprocessor (CPU, ALU, Registers) along with the presence of added features like presence of RAM, ROM,I\O ports, counter etc. Here microcontroller control the operation of machine using fixed programme stored in Rom that doesn't change with lifetime. We use PIC 16F877A Microcontroller in our present project. Now let us see something about it:The microcontroller used in this project is PIC16F877A. The PIC families of microcontrollers are developed by Microchip Technology Inc. Currently they are some of the most popular microcontrollers, selling over 120 million devices each year. There are basically four families of PIC microcontrollers: PIC12CXXX 12/14-bit program word PIC 16C5X 12-bit program word PIC16CXXX and PIC16FXXX 14-bit program word

52 PIC17CXXX and PIC18CXXX 16-bit program word The features, pin description of the microcontroller used are discussed in the following sections.

3.2.2 Description:
Introduction to PIC Microcontrollers: PIC stands for Peripheral Interface Controller given by Microchip Technology to identify its single-chip microcontrollers. These devices have been very successful in 8-bit microcontrollers. The main reason is that Microchip Technology has continuously upgraded the device architecture and added needed peripherals to the microcontroller to suit customers' requirements. The development tools such as assembler and simulator are freely available on the internet at www.microchip.com . Low - end PIC Architectures: Microchip PIC microcontrollers are available in various types. When PIC microcontroller MCU was first available from General Instruments in early 1980's, the microcontroller consisted of a simple processor executing 12-bit wide instructions with basic I/O functions. These devices are known as low-end architectures. They have limited program memory and are meant for applications requiring simple interface functions and small program & data memories. Some of the low-end device numbers are 12C5XX 16C5X 16C505 Mid range PIC Architectures: Mid range PIC architectures are built by upgrading low-end architectures with more number of peripherals, more number of registers and more data/program memory. Some of the mid-range devices are 16C6X 16C7X 16F87X Program memory type is indicated by an alphabet. C = EPROM, F = Flash, RC = Mask ROM Popularity of the PIC microcontrollers is due to the following factors.

53 1. Speed: Harvard Architecture, RISC architecture, 1 instruction cycle = 4 clock cycles. 2. Instruction set simplicity: The instruction set consists of just 35 instructions (as opposed to 111 instructions for 8051). 3. Power-on-reset and brown-out reset. Brown-out-reset means when the power supply goes below a specified voltage (say 4V), it causes PIC to reset; hence malfunction is avoided. A watch dog timer (user programmable) resets the processor if the software/program ever malfunctions and deviates from its normal operation. 4. PIC microcontroller has four optional clock sources. Low power crystal Mid range crystal High range crystal RC oscillator (low cost).

5. Programmable timers and on-chip ADC. 6. Up to 12 independent interrupt sources. 7. Powerful output pin control (25 mA (max.) current sourcing capability per pin.) 8. EPROM/OTP/ROM/Flash memory option. 9. I/O port expansion capability. CPU Architecture: The CPU uses Harvard architecture with separate Program and Variable (data) memory interface. This facilitates instruction fetch and the operation on data/accessing of variables simultaneously. Architecture of PIC microcontroller

Fig.3.3.Architecture of PIC microcontroller Basically, all PIC microcontrollers offer the following features: RISC instruction set with around 35 instructions _9 Digital I/O ports On-chip timer with 8-bit prescaler. Power-on reset Watchdog timer

54 Power saving SLEEP mode Direct, indirect, and relative addressing modes External clock interface RAM data memory EPROM (or OTP) program memory High sink/source current 25mA Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler can be incremented during sleep via external crystal/clock Timer2:8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register prescaler and post scalar. Capture, Compare, PWM (CCP) module Capture is 16-bit, max resolution is 12.5ns Compare is 16-bit, max resolution is 200 ns PWM max, resolution is 10-bit 8-bit 5 channel analog-to-digital converter Synchronous serial port (SSP) with SPI (Master/Slave) and (Slave) Analogue input channels Analogue comparators Additional timer circuits EEPROM data memory Flash EEPROM program memory External and timer interrupts In-circuit programming Internal oscillator USART serial interface

Peripheral features:

Some devices offer the following additional features:

3.2.3 Pin diagram:

55

Fig.3.4.PIN DIAGRAM OF PIC16F877 Pic16f877 is a 40 pin microcontroller. It has 5 ports port A, port B, port C, port D, port E. All the pins of the ports are for interfacing input output devices. Port A: It consists of 6 pins from A0 to A5 Port B: It consists of 8 pins from B0 to B7 Port C: It consists of 8 pins from C0 to C7 Port D: It consists of 8 pins from D0 to D7 Port E: It consists of 3 pins from E0 to E2 The rest of the pins are mandatory pins these should not be used to connect input/output devices. Pin 1 is MCLR (master clear pin) pin also referred as reset pin. Pin 13, 14 are used for crystal oscillator to connect to generate a frequency of about 20MHz. Pin 11, 12 and31, 32 are used for voltage supply Vdd(+)and Vss(-) PIC 16F877A Specification: RAM EEPROM Flash Program Memory 368 bytes 256 bytes 8k words

56 Operating Frequency I/O port DC to 20MHz Port A,B,C,D,E This is the specification for PIC16F877A from Microchip. A single microcontroller which is very brilliant and useful is also very easy to be assembled, program and also the price is very cheap. It cost less than 10 dollar. The good thing is that single unit can be purchased at that 10 dollar price. Unlike some other Integrated Circuit that must be bought at a minimum order quantity such as 1000 units or 2000 units or else you wont be able to purchase it. One unit of PIC16F877A microcontroller can be programmed and erased so many times. Some said about 10 000 times. If you are doing programming and downloading your code into the PIC 20 times a day that means you can do that for 500 days which is more than a year! The erasing time is almost unnoticeable because once new program are loaded into the PIC, the old program will automatically be erased immediately. During my time of Degree study, I did not use PIC but I use other type of microcontroller. I have to wait for about 15 to 30 minutes to erase the EEPROM before I can load a new program and test the microcontroller. One day I can only modify my code and test it for less than 10 times. 10x15 minutes = 150 minutes. RAM: PIC16F877A already made with 368 bytes of Random Access Memory (RAM) inside it. Any temporary variable storage that we wrote in our program will be stored inside the RAM. Using this microcontroller you dont need to buy any external RAM. EEPROM: 256 bytes of EEPROM are available also inside this microcontroller. This is very useful to store information such as PIN Number, Serial Number and so on. Using EEPROM is very important because data stored inside EEPROM will be retained when power supply is turn off. RAM did not store data permanently. Data inside RAM is not retained when power supply is turn off.

57 The size of program code that can be stored is about 8k words inside PIC16F877A ROM. 1 word size is 14 bits. By using the free version of the CCS C compiler only 2k words of program can be written and compiled. To write 8k words of C program you have to purchase the original CCS C compiler and it cost less than 700 dollar. Crystal oscillator: The crystal oscillator speed that can be connected to the PIC microcontroller range from DC to 20Mhz. Using the CCS C compiler normally 20Mhz oscillator will be used and the price is very cheap. The 20 MHz crystal oscillator should be connected with about 22pF capacitor. Please refer to my circuit schematic. There are 5 input/output ports on PIC microcontroller namely port A, port B, port C, port D and port E. Each port has different function. Most of them can be used as I/O port. Rectifiers: A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid-state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components. A device that it can perform the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is known as an inverter. When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive portion of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to DC. Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently converting AC to DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper (I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks were used. Bridge full wave rectifier: The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig:3.8, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is

58 shown in the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge. For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL. For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave. Input Output

Fig 3.7: Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes DB107: Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB107. In our project we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier. The picture of DB 107 is shown below Features: Good for automation insertion Surge overload rating - 30 amperes peak

59 Ideal for printed circuit board Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded Glass passivated device Polarity symbols molded on body Mounting position: Any Weight: 1.0 gram

Fig 3.8: DB107

17.3. TRANSFORMER

The circuit symbol & the Transformer

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage.

60 The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core. Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up. The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
V turns ratio = N p = p Vs Ns (input) and power out = power in Vs Is = Vp Ip voltage Vs = secondary (output) voltage Ns = number of turns on secondary coil Is = secondary (output) current

Vp

primary

Np = number of turns on primary coil Ip = primary (input) current

Purpose: In this project we use two transformers, one is a step down transformer which provides power supply to relays & microcontroller and the other is a step up transformer to sense the load current.

17.4.LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is an electronic semiconductor component that emits a single colour (monochromatic) light when a DC current flows through it in a forward direction. Introduced during the early 1960s by Texas Instruments, the first LED components were dim and only available red in colour. Today LEDs produce a far brighter light source, are available in a variety of voltages and sizes, and in a range of colours including red, orange, yellow, green, blue and white. These robust and electrically efficient components (a typical LED requires a DC current of about 10 milliamps to begin emitting light) make them ideal for use as indicator lamps on control panels.

61 LEDs emitting a non-visible light in the infra-red part of the radiation spectrum are also available. These LEDs are invaluable for use in detection applications when used in conjunction with infra-red detector components.

17.4.1. FEATURES
Compared to incandescent lamps, LEDs offer a number of advantages including:

Robust construction - there is no glass to shatter or filament to break. Modern LEDs are extremely efficient - they can emit light equal to a small incandescent lamp while consuming about 10 percent of the electrical power. High reliability - modern LEDs have life spans of 100,000 hours (over 11 years) of continuous use. Environmental - LEDs can withstand large shock and vibration far beyond that tolerated by incandescent lamps.

17.4.2. LED SPECIFICATIONS

In this section an explanation is provided for each of the LEDs parameters that are normally quoted in manufacturer's and supplier's literature.

Dimensions Discrete LEDs are now available in a variety of shapes and sizes. The most common type used are the "standard" types available in small round dome encapsulations. The size measurement quoted for these "standard" components refers to the diameter of the body encapsulation.

Refer to the manufacturer's or supplier's literature to determine the size for the irregularly shaped LEDs.

Light Output

62

This parameter specifies the intensity of the light produced by a LED, and is normally quoted in units of "mcd" for a stated Forward Current ( IF ) flowing through the component. The unit of light measurement is the "Candela". One Candela (or 1 cd) is defined as the light intensity of a "standard" candle viewed from a distance of 12 inches. This intensity is approximately equal to the light produced by a small 2 watt standard incandescent bulb. One Candela equals 1000 milli Candelas (mcd). Modern LED components are available with wide ranging light outputs from 1 mcd to 500 mcd (or more).

Forward Voltage (VF)

Indicates the voltage measured across the LED when it is drawing the stated Forward Current (IF).

Forward Current (IF)

Indicates the current flowing through the LED for normal operation

Reverse Voltage (VR)

Indicates the maximum voltage when applied in reverse polarity across the LED that the component can normally withstand

Power Dissipation

Indicates the maximum power that the LED can dissipate without sustaining damage Power Dissipation = Forward Voltage ( VF ) x Forward Current ( IF ) An LED is the device shown above. Besides red, they can also be yellow, green and blue. The letters LED stand for Light Emitting Diode. If you are unfamiliar with diodes, take a moment to review the components in the Basic Components Tutorial. The important

63 thing to remember about diodes (including LEDs) is that current can only flow in one direction. To make an LED work, you need a voltage supply and a resistor. If you try to use an LED without a resistor, you will probably burn out the LED. The LED has very little resistance so large amounts of current will try to flow through it unless you limit the current with a resistor. If you try to use an LED without a power supply, you will be highly disappointed. So first of all we will make our LED light up by setting up the circuit below.

Purpose: The purpose of the LED in this project is to indicating whether the supply is given to microcontroller or not and also whether the relay are switched on or not.

17.5. VOLTAGE REGULATOR UNIT

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level.It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages. Regulator regulates the output voltage to be always constant. The output voltage is maintained irrespective of the fluctuations in the input AC voltage. As and then the AC voltage changes, the DC voltage also changes. Thus to avoid this Regulators are used. Also when the internal resistance of the power supply is greater than 30 ohms, the output gets affected. Thus this can be successfully reduced here. The regulators are mainly classified for low voltage and for high voltage. Further they can also be classified as:

64

Positive regulator 1---> input pin 2---> ground pin 3---> output pin It regulates the positive voltage. Purpose: In our project we are using two regulators 1. Regulator 7805 2. Regulator 7812 They play a vital role in this project. The microcontroller and relay needs fixed voltages of 5V and 12V respectively. So we use two regulators, one is 7805 to provide fixed 5V to the microcontroller and the other one is 7812 to provide fixed 12V to the relay driver to operate relays.

17.5.1. DIAGRAM OF REGULATOR

The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulator are available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

65

17.6. LCD DISPLAY

Liquid crystal display (LCD) has material which combines the properties of both liquid and crystals. They have a temperature range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an order form similar to a crystal.

LCD DISPLAY:

More microcontroller devices are using 'smart LCD' displays to output visual information. The following discussion covers the connection of a Hitachi LCD display to a PIC microcontroller. LCD displays designed around Hitachi's LCD HD44780 module, are inexpensive, easy to use, and it is even possible to produce a readout using the 8 x 80 pixels of the display. Hitachi LCD displays have a standard ASCII set of characters plus Japanese, Greek and mathematical symbols. Purpose: In this project this is used to display power factor, time delay between voltage and current of the load.

17.9. RELAYS

66 A relay is usually an electromechanical device that is actuated by an electrical current. The current flowing in one circuit causes the opening or closing of another circuit. Relays are like remote control switches and are used in many applications because of their relative simplicity, long life, and proven high reliability. Relays are used in a wide variety of applications throughout industry, such as in telephone exchanges, digital computers and automation systems. Highly sophisticated relays are utilized to protect electric power systems against trouble and power blackouts as well as to regulate and control the generation and distribution of power. In the home, relays are used in refrigerators, washing machines and dishwashers, and heating and air-conditioning controls. Although relays are generally associated with electrical circuitry, there are many other types, such as pneumatic and hydraulic. Input may be electrical and output directly mechanical, or vice versa. All relays contain a sensing unit, the electric coil, which is powered by AC or DC current. When the applied current or voltage exceeds a threshold value, the coil activates the armature, which operates either to close the open contacts or to open the closed contacts. When a power is supplied to the coil, it generates a magnetic force that actuates the switch mechanism. The magnetic force is, in effect, relaying the action from one circuit to another. The first circuit is called the control circuit; the second is called the load circuit.

On/Off Control: Example: Air conditioning control, used to limit and control a high
power load, such as a compressor Limit Control: Example: Motor Speed Control, used to disconnect a motor if it runs slower or faster than the desired speed

Logic Operation: Example: Test Equipment, used to connect the instrument to a

number of testing points on the device under test.

17.9.1. ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAYS

The general-purpose relay is rated by the amount of current its switch contacts can handle. Most versions of the general-purpose relay have one to eight poles and can be single or double throw. These are found in computers, copy machines, and other consumer electronic equipment and appliances

67

The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on an iron core, to form an electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by passing current through it, the core becomes temporarily magnetized. The magnetized core attracts the iron armature. The armature is pivoted which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil is de-energized the armature and contacts are released. The coil can be energized from a low power source such as a transistor while the contacts can switch high powers such as the mains supply. The relay can also be situated remotely from the control source. Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched off. This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this, a diode is connected across the coil. The cathode of the diode is connected to the most positive end of the coil.

The spring sets (contacts) can be a mixture of n.o n.c and c.o. Look at the page on

switches to see how they can be used in circuits. Various coil operating voltages (ac and dc) are available.

68 The actual contact points on the spring sets are available for high current and low current operation.

Purpose: Relays are used as switches to connect and disconnect the capacitors in parallel to the load.

17.10. CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits designed around them were called "crystal oscillators".

69

Electrical model

Schematic symbol and equivalent circuit for a quartz crystal in an oscillator A quartz crystal can be modeled as an electrical network with a low impedance (series) and a high impedance (parallel) resonance point spaced closely together. Mathematically (using the Laplace transform) the impedance of this network can be written as:

or,

where s is the complex frequency (s = j), s is the series resonant frequency in radians per second and p is the parallel resonant frequency in radians per second. Adding additional capacitance across a crystal will cause the parallel resonance to shift downward. This can be used to adjust the frequency at which a crystal oscillator oscillates. Crystal manufacturers normally cut and trim their crystals to have a specified resonant frequency with a known 'load' capacitance added to the crystal. For example, a 6 pF 32 kHz crystal has a parallel resonance frequency of 32,768 Hz when a 6.0 pF capacitor is placed across the crystal. Without this capacitance, the resonance frequency is higher than 32,768 Hz.

70 Purpose: In this project this is used to provide the required frequency of pulses to the Micro-controller for its operation.

17.11. CHOKE COIL

A coil is a series of loops. A coiled coil is a structure where the coil itself is in turn also looping. A coil is made up of materials, usually rigid, which can be fashioned into a spiral or helical shape. Flexible materials like wire, roe, hose, cable or paper can also be coiled into empty loops, or wound around a central drum or spindle.

An electromagnetic coil (or simply a "coil") is formed when a conductor (usually a solid copper wire) is wound around a core or form to create an inductor or electromagnet. One loop of wire is usually referred to as a turn, and a coil consists of one or more turns. For use in an electronic circuit, electrical connection terminals called taps are often connected to a coil. Coils are often coated with varnish and/or wrapped with insulating tape to provide additional insulation and secure them in place. A completed coil assembly with taps etc. is often called a winding. A transformer is an electromagnetic device that has a primary winding and a secondary winding that transfers energy from one electrical circuit to another by magnetic coupling without moving parts. The term tickler coil usually refers to a third coil placed in relation to a primary coil and secondary coil A coil tap is a wiring feature found on some electrical transformers, inductors and coil pickups, all of which are sets of wire coils. The coil tap(s) are points in a wire coil where a conductive patch has been exposed (usually on a loop of wire that extends out of the main coil body). As self induction is larger for larger coil diameter the current in a thick wire tries to flow on the inside. The ideal use of copper is achieved by foils. Sometimes this means that a spiral is a better alternative. Multilayer coils

71 have the problem of interlayer capacitance, so when multiple layers are needed the shape needs to be radically changed to a short coil with many layers so that the voltage between consecutive layers is smaller (making them more spiral like).

17.11.1. ANALYSIS
The inductance of single-layer air-cored coils can be calculated to a reasonable degree of accuracy with the simplified formula H=(R2N2)/(9R+10L) where H (micro henries) are units of inductance, R is the coil radius (measured in inches to the center of the conductor), N is the number of turns, and L is the length of the coil in inches. The online Coil Inductance Calculator calculates the inductance of any coil using this formula. Higher accuracy estimates of coil inductance require calculations of considerably greater complexity. A layperson's translation is: Inductancemicrohenries = (radius2*number of turns2)/(9*radius+10*length) Note that if the coil has a ferrite core, or one made of another metallic material, it's inductance cannot be calculated with this formula. In calculating the distances, one centimeter is equal to 0.393700787 inches and one inch is equal to 2.54 centimeters. The inductance formula uses inches. The relationship between the radius and the circumference of a coil is , with r as the radius, c as the circumference, and (the Greek letter pi) as the constant 3.141. The circumference of a coil can be calculated by , with d as the diameter of the coil and as 3.141. Purpose: In this project we are using two chokes which acts as inductive load (leading to low power factor. When these are switched on and off the inductance of the load varies by that the p,f varies.

17.12. SWITCH

A switch is an electrical component which can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of

72 electrical contacts. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either 'closed' meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or 'open', meaning the contacts are separated and none conducting. The below switch is toggle switch

The below are pushbutton switches

Purpose: In this project the pushbutton is used to restart the Micro-controller and the toggle switch is used for the purpose of connecting and disconnecting the coil to the circuit.

17.13. BULBS
The incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is a source of electric light that works by incandescence (a general term for heat-driven light emissions which includes the simple case of black body radiation). An electric current passes through a thin filament, heating it until it produces light. The enclosing glass bulb prevents the oxygen in air from reaching the hot filament, which otherwise would be destroyed rapidly by oxidation. Incandescent bulbs are also sometimes called electric lamps, a term also applied to the original arc lamps.

73 Purpose: In this project when bulb is kept in the holder then the circuit is closed otherwise the circuit is open. When inductor (choke coil) is not bypassed by a toggle switch bulb glows brighter than when it is present.

18. FLOW CHART Start

Get the Load Current & voltage Calculate the Load Power Factor & Display it

If P.f < 0.71

YES

Switch on 4 Capacitors

NO

If P.f <= 0.71 & > 0.89

NO

YES

Switch on 3 Capacitors

If P.f <= 0.89 & > 0.97

NO

YES

Switch on 2 Capacitors

If P.f <= 0.97 &> 1

NO

YES

Switch on 1 Capacitor

Wait For Some Time 60 sec

Get the Load Current

YES

Is there any change in Load current

NO

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20. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Description
This circuit consists of DC power supply unit, zero voltage crossing detectors, Microcontroller, LCD display, Relays and Capacitor bank and Load circuit. Let us see how it operates. The required DC power supply for Micro-controller and other peripherals is supplied by the DC power supply. For the calculation of the power factor by the Micro-controller we need digitized voltage and current signals. The voltage signal from the mains is taken and it is converted into pulsating DC by bridge rectifier and is given to a comparator which generates the digital voltage signal. Similarly the current signal is converted into the voltage signal by taking the voltage drop of the load current across a resistor of 10 ohms. This A.C signal is again converted into the digital signal as done for the voltage signal. Then these digitized voltage and current signals are sent to the micro-controller. The micro-controller calculates the time difference between the zero crossing points of current and voltage, which is directly proportional to the power factor and it determines the range in which the power factor is. Micro-controller sends information regarding time difference between current and voltage and

75 power factor to the LCD display to display them, Depending on the range it sends the signals to the relays through the relay driver. Then the required number of capacitors are connected in parallel to the load. By this the power factor will be improved.

21. CONCLUSION
So, by using the Automatic Power Factor Improvement module we can efficiently improve the power factor for variable inductive loads, improving the life span of equipment and reducing power bills

References:
1. An Introduction to Embedded Systems Florian Lechner, Daniel Walter csad5478@uibk.ac.at, csae8958@uibk.ac.at November 8, 2006 .
2. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

3. www.britanica.com 4. www.howstuffworks.com 5. What is Reactive Power? Peter W. Sauer Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign September 16, 2003 6. Electric Power Systems by S.L.Uppal. 7. Utilization of Electric Power and Electric Traction by J.B.Gupta.