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SIEMENS SIMATIC S7

INTRODUCTION TO

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL


Revision 2

ASSESSMENT

Practical Test 1 20% Practical Test 2 20% Assignment 20% Final Exam 30% Key Qualification 10%

MODULE OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this course, the participants will be able to: explain the basic ideas on PLC such as PLC components signaling, I/O addressing and program execution; apply PLC programming method such as LAD, FBD and STL using Siemens STEP 7 software; define and explain Siemens STEP 7 PLC software such as RS, timers, counters, load and transfer commands, comparisons and arithmetic functions.

Handout section 1.0

Topic 1
Basic Principle of Control Technology

PLC

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROL (PLC): (PLC): A digital electronic device that uses a programmable memory to store instructions and to implement specific functions such as logic, sequence, timing, counting and arithmetic to control machines and process.

Definition of Control
What is CONTROL? CONTROL is the process in a system in which one or several input variables influence other variables
DIN 19226

A Simple View of a Control System

INFORMATION

COMMANDS

C O N T R O L

S Y S T E M

SENSORS P L A N T

ACTUATORS

Types of Control System

CONTROL SYSTEM

OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM

OpenOpen-loop Control System


In open-loop control systems, output variables are influenced by the input variables.
L

ClosedClosed-loop Control System


It is characterized by continuous comparison of the desired value (or set point) with the actual value of the controlled variable.
L Xi - Required value Xs - Actual value N Xi < Xs Xi > Xs Xs C Xi

Handout section 1.1

PLC and Conventional Control System


The essential difference between programmable control and traditional control technology may be summed up as follows: The functions are no longer determined by the wiring, but rather by the program Programming is simplified to enable symbols familiar to the control engineer to be used (contacts or logic graphic symbols)

Handout section 1.3

Hardwire and PLC Wiring Diagrams


L S1 S2 K1 24 VDC S1 S2

PLC
K1 0V

K1 N

Hardwire

PLC

Comparison
Hardwired control systems The functions are determined by the physical wiring. Programmable control system The functions are determined by a program stored in the memory. The control functions can be changed simply by changing the program. Consist of a control device, to which all the sensors and actuators are connected.

Changing the function means changing the wiring

Can be contact-making type (relays, contactors) or electronic type (logic circuits)

HISTORY OF PLC
During the late 1960s, General Motors (USA) was interested in the computer application to replace the hardwire systems. Bedford Associates (Modicon) and Allen Bradley responded to General Motors. The name given was Programmable Controllers or PC. Programmable Logic Controller or PLC was a registered trademark of the Allen Bradley. Later, PC was used for Personal Computer and to avoid confusion PLC for Programmable Controller and PC for a personal computer.

ADVANTAGES OF PLC COMPARED TO HARDWIRE


Implementing changes and correcting errors Pilot run - trial / test run Visual observation - online monitoring Speed of operation Reliability Documentation

PLC Application Example

CONVEYOR LINE

WORKSTATION #1

WS #2

WS #3

FLOW OF MATERIAL

PLC Control System


Input devices Sensors Switches etc. Output devices Relays Lamps etc PLC

WS #1

WS #2

WS #3

0 0 3 2

PLC

Handout section 2.0 ( Topic 2 )

Familiarization with STEP 7

Handout section 1.4

Basic Structure of a PLC


POWER SUPPLY PG/ PC

INPUT MODULES

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU) MEMORY (EPROM/RAM)

OUTPUT MODULES

PLC Inputs / Outputs (I/Os)

Input Devices

USER PROGRAM (LOGIC)

Output Devices

PLC

Input Connections

Input card

Input Devices

Converter field voltage to 5V acceptable by the CPU

Handout section 1.4.1

Input Interface / Module


From field wiring Detection Bridge Signal Conditioning Threshold Decision Logic Status Light

Opto-Isolation Logic To CPU / Memory

Output Connections

Output card Converter 5V to field voltage to drive field devices

Output Devices

Handout section 1.4.2

Output Interface / Module


From CPU / Memory Logic Status Light

Logic

Opto-Isolation Switching Circuitry

Protection Circuitry To field wiring

Input/output Connections

I N P U T S

PLC Logic

O U T P U T S

WS #1

WS #2

WS #3

0 0 32

PLC

Input / Output Modules


Digital input modules adapt digital signals e.g. from proximity sensors Digital output modules convert the internal signal level of PLC into digital process signals e.g. relays Analog input modules adapt analog process signals e.g. from transducers Analog output modules convert internal digital values of the PLC to analog process signals e.g. temperature controller

Handout section 1.4.3

Central Processing Unit (CPU)


What is a CPU? The brain of a PLC Controlled by a program called the executive or operating system (OS) The executive is a collection of supervisory programs permanently stored in memory

CPU
Four basic types of CPU operations: Input and output operation Arithmetic and logic Reading or changing contents of memory locations Jump operations

CPU
INTERNAL PROGRAM MEMORY (RAM)

ACCUMULATOR

MEMORY SUBMODULE (EPROM/ EEPROM/ RAM)

TIMERS, COUNTERS, Memory

PROCESSOR
PII PIQ

SERIAL INTERFACE

CPU
The CPU reads in input signal states, processes the control program and controls the outputs. The CPU provides internal Memory, timers and counters. Restart procedure can be preset and errors can be diagnosed using the CPUs LEDs. The overall Reset on the CPU is used to delete the contents of the RAM. A PG or a Memory submodule is used to transfer the control program to the CPU.

Handout section 1.4.4

Program Memory
Program memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) the memory contents can be read and written (modified) memory contents will be lost when the supply voltage fails

ROM (Read Only Memory) the memory contents can be read, but cannot be modified

Types of Program Memory


Program memory Programmable (Read-write memory) Alterable Non-programmable
Non-alterable ROM / PROM

UV erasable EPROM / REPROM

Electrically erasable EEPROM / EAPROM

Semiconductor RAM

Semiconductor EEPROM / EAPROM

Memory Submodules
EPROM SUBMODULE An ultraviolet erasing device is used to delete the contents of the submodule EEPROM SUBMODULE EEPROM submodule can be programmed or erased using a programmer RAM SUBMODULE Can be used in addition to program storage; and used to test a control program during system startup

Handout section 1.4.5

Power Supply Module


The power supply module supplies the operational voltage for the PLC and provides backup for the RAM with a battery Backup battery The backup battery maintains the program and data when the PLC is switch off The backup battery has a service life of approximately 2 years

Hardware Summary
PG External power supply

PS951

CPU

Input module

Output module

Input devices

Output devices

Handout section 1.5

How Does a Programmable Controller Work?


24 VDC Sensors

Program Memory

Processor

Power Supply

Input modules Output modules

Actuators / Annunciators GND

Steps of Operation

The sensors are connected to the INPUT MODULES The processor in the CPU MODULE executes the program and scans the individual input for presence or absence of voltage Depending on the state of the inputs, the processor directs the OUTPUT MODULES to switch voltages The ACTUATORS or ANNUNCIATORS are switched ON or OFF according to the voltage states

Handout section 1.6

Signal States and Sensor Contacts


There are only two different states: SIGNAL STATE 0 SIGNAL STATE 1
The sensor is a

= =

voltage not present = OFF voltage present = ON


Voltage at input Signal state

The sensor is

NO contact NO contact NC contact NC contact

activated not activated activated not activated

present not present not present present

1 0 0 1

Handout section 1.7

Addressing of Inputs and Outputs


The addressing of inputs and outputs are identified by an operand identifiers and the parameter Operand identifiers: I - Input Q - Output Parameter: (consists of a byte and a bit address) 0.0 0.7 (where 0. is the byte; 07 are the bit addresses) 1.0 1.7

Types of Addressing
Absolute example: A = A = Call
Symbol MOTOR_FOR COUNT SYSTEM_ON SYSTEM_ON M_FORW

Symbolic I 0.0 Q 8.0 I0.4 Q20.5 FC18


Address Q20.5 FC18 I0.0 Q8.0 I0.4

example: A = A = Call

System_On System_On M_FORW MOTOR_FOR COUNT


Comment

Data Type BOOL FC18 BOOL BOOL BOOL

Motor moves forward Count bottles Switch system ON Indicator: System is ON Pushbutton: Motor forward

Max. 24 character

Max. 80 character

Handout section 1.8.1

Program Representation - LAD


LAD - Ladder Diagram I 0.0 I 0.1

Q 4.0

( )
The graphical representation of a control task using symbols to DIN 19239 Very similar to traditional circuit diagrams, but the current paths are arranged horizontally instead of vertically

Handout section 1.8.2

Program Representation - FBD


FBD - Function Block Diagram I 0.0 I 0.1

&

Q 4.0

The graphical representation of a control task using symbols to DIN 40700 and DIN 19239 Inputs are arranged on the left side while outputs on the right

Handout section 1.8.3

Program Representation - STL


STL - Statement List A I 0.0 A I 0.1 = Q 4.0 The control statement describes the task with mnemonic abbreviations of function designation (DIN 19239) Each method of representation has special characteristics and specific limits If certain rules are followed, translation into all three methods of representation is possible

Handout section 1.8.4

Operation And Operand


Operation; Describes the function to be carried out (what is to be done) e.g Binary operations, Digital operations and Organizational operations Operand; START FROM HERE

Handout section 1.8.4

Operation And Operand


LAD
OPERATION + OPERAND

FBD
OPERAND + OPERATION

STL
OPERATION + OPERAND

I 0.0

M 80.0

I 0.0 M 80.0

&

A I 0.0 A M 80.0

OPERATION + OPERAND

Q 4.0 ( )

Q 4.0

= Q 4.0

Handout section 1.9

Program Execution

PLC Scan Function:


Read the status of all inputs and outputs Examine the application program instructions Execute the control program

Handout section 1.9.1

Linear Program Scanning


Statements are scanned linearly At the end of the program, scanning starts again from the beginning This is also referred to as cyclical scanning Linear program scanning is used mainly for simple, small-scale control schemes

OB1
Linear program scanning

OB = Organization Block Every program must have OB1 When the PLC is set to run, the PLC will look for OB1 only in the user memory and execute it Other blocks can be called from OB1 with the jump command
Cyclic program execution
OB1 A I 0.0 A I 0.1 = Q 4.0 : : : BE

Handout section 1.9.2

Structured Program Scanning


Operating system
FC1 A I 0.0 A I 0.1 = Q 4.0 : : : BE

Cyclic program execution

Complex tasks are subdivided into clearly differentiated subtasks i.e. the program is divided into small, easy-to-follow program blocks, organized according to different functions

OB1 JU FC 1 JU FC 4 : : : BE

FC4 A Q 4.0 A I 0.2 = Q 5.0 : : : BE

Structured program scanning

Linear programming OB1

Structured programming FC 1
Network 1 A I 0.6 A I 0.7 = Q 4.2 Network 2 A I 0.7 A I 0.5 = Q 4.3 BE

Network 1 A I 0.6 A I 0.7 = Q 4.2 Network 2 A I 0.7 A I 0.5 = Q 4.3 Network 3 A Q 4.2 A I 0.2 = Q 5.5 BE

OB 1 Network 1 JU FC 1 JU FC 4 BE

FC 4
Network 1 A Q 4.2 A I 0.2 = Q 5.5 BE

Handout section 1.9.3

Program Execution
24 VDC
I 0.0 I 0.1 Input module
Process input image

Program in the RAM

Process output image

Output module

GND

1 0

A I 0.0 A I 0.1

0
Q 4.0

P I I
1

= Q 4.0 O I 0.5 O I 0.7 = Q 4.3 BE:

P I Q

1
Q 4.3

I 0.5

1
I 0.7

Input cycle

Program execution

Output cycle

PII - Process Input Image


Update PII A buffer of input signals Update just before program execution starts Not updated during program execution Logic executed based on status in PII Prevent signal transition during program cycle to affect the program Update Output

Execute Program Logic

PIQ - Process Output Image


Updated by the program logic during program execution

OB1
The contents of PIQ are transferred to the output module at the end of OB1

PIQ

Copy PIQ to Output Module

Handout section 1.9.4

BLOCK TYPES
ORGANISATION BLOCKS (OB) Interface between the operating system and the user program FUNCTIONS (FC) - Contains a partial functionality of the program DATA BLOCKS (DB) Are data areas of the user program in which user data are managed in a structured manner SYSTEM FUNCTION BLOCKS (SFB), SYSTEM FUNCTIONS (SFC) SFBs and SFCs are integrated in the S7 CPU and allow you access to some important system functions FUNCTION BLOCKS (FB) - FBs are blocks with a memory which you can program yourself INSTANCE DATA BLOCKS (DB) - Instance DBs are associated with the block when an FB/SFB is called. They are created automatically during compilation

Block Nesting Depth


FC 7 FC 4 FC 1 OB1 JU FC 1 .. ... .. BE JU FC4 .. ... BE JU FC 7 .. ... BE A I .... .. .. .. BE

Handout section 1.9.5

The Operand Areas (for Siemens S5-95U PLC) S5 I (Input) Interface from the process to the programmable controller Q (Output) Interface from programmable controller to the process M (Memory/Flag) Memory for intermediate results of binary operations T (Timer) Memory for implementing timers C (Counter) Memory for implementing counters

Handout section 1.9.6

The Addressing of Siemens S7


Operand Areas Input (I) Addressing 0.0 to 0.7 1.0 to 1.7 2.0 to 2.7 3.0 to 3.7 4.0 to 4.7 5.0 to 5.7 8.0 to 8.7 Counters (C) Timers (T) 9.0 to 9.7 0 to 63 0 to 127

Output (Q)

Handout section 3.0

Topic 3
Programming Basic Functions

Handout section 3.1

The Stages of Project Planning


Description of the Problem

Assignment Lists

Rough Structure of the Control System

Program Structure

Detailed Structure of the Control System

The Stages of Project Planning


Problem Description it consists of process schematic, a short description of the task definition, and a list of the sensors and actuators Assignment List the sensors and actuators are allocated to the parameters of the programmable controller it contains a short functional description as well as the device identifier

The Stages of Project Planning


Rough Structure of the Control System it contains all sub-functions of the process with relevant sensors, actuators and indicators Program Structure it determines the order in which the LAD, FBD or STL diagram to be drafted Detailed Structure of the Control System using the assignment list and the program structure, the flow chart contained in the rough structure is refined

Handout section 3.2

Programming AND Operation


LAD I 0.0 I 0.1 Q 4.0

( )
FBD I 0.0 I 0.1 STL

&

Q 4.0

A I 0.0 A I 0.1 = Q 4.0

Handout section 3.3

OR Operation
LAD I 0.0 I 0.1 Q 4.0

( )

FBD I 0.0 I 0.1

STL

>= 1

Q 4.0

O I 0.0 O I 0. 1 = Q 4.0

Handout section 3.4

AND - before - OR Operation


LAD I 0.0 I 0.0 I 0.2 I 0.1 Q 4.0

( )
I 0.2 FBD I 0.0 I 0.1 I 0.2 I 0.3 I 0.3 STL A I 0.0 A I 0.1 O A I 0.2 A I 0.3 = Q 4.0

I 0.1

I 0.3

&
>= 1
Q 4.0

&

Handout section 3.5

OR - before - AND Operation


LAD I 0.0 I 0.0 I 0.2 I 0.1 Q 4.0

( )
I 0.2 FBD I 0.0 I 0.1 I 0.2 I 0.3 I 0.3 STL A( O I 0.0 O I 0.2 ) A( O I 0.1 O I 0.3 ) = Q 4.0

I 0.1

I 0.3

>= 1

&
>= 1

Q 4.0

Handout section 3.6

Programming of NC Contacts and NO Contacts

Physical connection PLC programming

The sensor is

Signal state

NO contact NO contact NO contact NO contact NC contact NC contact NC contact NC contact

NO contact NO contact NC contact NC contact NO contact NO contact NC contact NC contact

activated not activated activated not activated activated not activated activated not activated

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0

Handout section 3.7

Latching Output

S3

K2 S4

S1 S2

K1

K2

K1

SET Priority / Dominant SET

RESET Priority / Dominant RESET

Handout section 3.8

RS Memory Function

S3

K2 S4

S2

S1

K1

K2

S
SET Priority / Dominant SET

( )

RS Memory Function

S1 S2

K1

S3

S4

K2

K1

( )

RESET Priority / Dominant RESET

Try This !
LAD I 0.0 Will the output Q 4.0 be activated when you activate:

I 0.1

Q 4.0

( )
I 0.2 I 0.3 Q 4.0

I 0.0 and I 0.1 ? I 0.2 and I 0.3 ?

( )
I 0.4 I 0.5 Q 4.0

( )

I 0.4 and I 0.5 ?

The Answer
I 0.0 and I 0.1 = NO! I 0.2 and I 0.3 = NO! I 0.4 and I 0.5 = YES but why ?

When I0.0 and I0.1 Are Activated...


LAD I 0.0 I 0.1 Q 4.0

( )
I 0.2 I 0.3 Q 4.0

the PLC registers in the PIQ that Q 4.0 is 1 the PLC registers in the PIQ that Q 4.0 is 0 the PLC registers in the PIQ that Q 4.0 is 0 so, Q 4.0 = 0

( )
I 0.4 I 0.5 Q 4.0

( )

When I0.2 and I0.3 Are Activated...


LAD I 0.0 I 0.1 Q 4.0

( )
I 0.2 I 0.3 Q 4.0

the PLC registers in the PIQ that Q 4.0 is 0 the PLC registers in the PIQ that Q 4.0 is 1 the PLC registers in the PIQ that Q 4.0 is 0 so, Q 4.0 = 0

( )
I 0.4 I 0.5 Q 4.0

( )

When I0.4 and I0.5 Are Activated...


LAD I 0.0 I 0.1 Q 4.0

( )
I 0.2 I 0.3 Q 4.0

the PLC registers in the PIQ that Q 4.0 is 0 the PLC registers in the PIQ that Q 4.0 is 0 the PLC registers in the PIQ that Q 4.0 is 1 this time, Q 4.0 = 1

( )
I 0.4 I 0.5 Q 4.0

( )

Priority and PIQ

The Problem of Repetitive Outputs


Therefore, when the same output is used more than once in the program, only the last state of the output will be valid due to the PLC dynamically updating the PIQ (Process Output Image) MEMORY = Memory for intermediate results of binary operations Memory can be treated as flags/variables Memory can be used to solve the problem of repetitive outputs

Using Memory...
I 0.0 I 0.2 I 0.4 M 100.0 M 100.1 M 100.2 I 0.1 I 0.3 I 0.5 M 100.0

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

M 100.1 M 100.2 Q 4.0

Result of Logic Operation (RLO)

Q 4.0 I 0.0 I 0.1 I 0.2

& >=1

Q 5.0

A Q 4.0 A( O I 0.1 O I 0.2 O I 0.3 ) = Q 5.0

RLO

STAT

Parenthesized Function
Mathematics Multiplication Before Addition AND before OR 4 X 8 + 3 X 2 = 38 A I 0.0 A I 0.1 O A I 0.2 A I 0.3 = Q 4.0 RLO 1 1 1 0 0 1 STAT 1 1 \ 0 1 1 Logic Operation

Parenthesized Function
Mathematics Addition Before Multiplication OR before AND 4 X (8 + 3 ) X 2 = 88 A I 0.0 A( O I 0.1 O I 0.2 ) A I 0.3 = Q 4.1 RLO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 STAT 1 \ 1 0 \ 1 1 Logic Operation

Handout section 4.0

Topic 4
Numerical Systems and Data Formats

Handout section 4.1

Comparison of Number Systems


D ecimal Number
10 100
2

Hexadecimal Number
10 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0

Binary Number
2 16 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
4

10 10

16 256 0

16 16 0

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1

16 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F 0 1

2 8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

2 4 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0

2 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

2 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

Binary and Hexadecimal

Handout section 4.2

Bit, Byte and Word Addresses


Word Address

IW0
Byte Addresses

High Byte

Low Byte

IB0
215 214 213 212 211 210 29
Bit Addresses

IB1
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

I0.7

I0.6

I0.5

I0.4

I0.3

I0.2

I0.1

I0.0

I1.7

I1.6

I1.5

I1.4

I1.3

I1.2

I1.1

I1.0

Handout section 4.3

Force Variable and Data Format


Force Variable Display the signal status from memory (PII, PIQ and flag) of the CPU Used to access the system data area of the CPU and modify the data

Force Variable and Data Format


Data Format KM KH KF KT KC KY KS - bit pattern - hexadecimal - sign number ( - 32768 to +32767 ) - time value - counter value - left hand and right hand byte (high / low byte) - alphanumeric character

Handout section 4.4

Load and Transfer Operations


Characteristics: They are used to perform operations on a whole byte or word in memory They are unconditional operations i.e. They are performed by the processor in each cycle Functions: Exchange information between various operand areas Prepare times and counts for further processing Load constants for program processing

Load Operation
ACCUM 2 ACCUM 1

L L PII

IB 0 IB 1

Byte d

Byte c

Byte b

Byte a

IB 0 Byte b Byte a 0 IB 0 IB 1 0 IB 0 0 IB 1
Information from PII

Transfer Operation
ACCUM 2 ACCUM 1

T PIQ Byte a

QB 0

Byte d

Byte c

Byte b

Byte a

QB 0

Byte d

Byte c

Byte b

Byte a

Information in the PIQ

Handout section 4.5

Arithmetic and Assignment of Accumulator

Handout section 4.6

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

Handout section 5.0

Topic 5
Timer Operations

Handout section 5.0

Fault Indication with Timer Function

Handout section 5.1

Inputs and Outputs of a Timer

Handout section 5.2.1

Types of Timer - Pulse Timer (SP)

Handout section 5.2.2

Extended Pulse Timer (SE)

Handout section 5.2.3

On Delay Timer (SD)

Handout section 5.2.4

Stored On Delay Timer (SS)

Handout section 5.2.5

Off Delay Timer (SF)

Handout section 5.3

Specifying the Time Period

Time Value and Accuracy


Example: KT 500.1 KT 050.2 KT 005.3 500 X 0.1S 50 X 1S 5 X 10S 49.9s .. 50.0s 49s ... 50s 40s ... 50s

Load and Transfer Timer Value

Handout section 5.4

Return Operations
BE (Block End) the return operation is performed unconditionally it is always the last statement in the block BEU (Block End Unconditional) the return operation is performed unconditionally statements can follow BEU, but they will not be executed BEU is often used during commissioning so that individual parts of the program can be tested

BEC (Block End Conditional) the return is made dependent on a condition and is only performed if the condition is satisfied

Block End Operations BEC, BEU and BE


FC1 OB1 System : :JU :A :JC : :BEU : :JU :BE FC1 I 0.0 FC 2 : :A :BEC : :BE FC2 : : :BE FC3 : : :BE is not executed is executed only when I 0.0 = 1 is always executed I 0.6 is executed only when I 0.6 = 0

FC3

is not executed

Handout section 6.0

Topic 6
Counter Operations

Handout section 6.0

Counter

Counter Operations
CU CD S CV R BI DE Q - count up - count down - set counter to the count value (CV) - the count value - reset the counter (count value = 0) - counter output as binary number - counter output as BCD number - counter status Q = 0 when count value = 0 Q = 1 when count value > 1

Handout section 6.1

Load and Transfer for Counter

Handout section 6.2

Timing Diagram

Assign an Initial Value to a Counter (S)


Assign Value (CV) constant input word output word flag word data word KC 0 to 999 IW ..... QW ... FW .... DW ...

Counter Input

Handout section 6.3

Counter Output

Handout section 6.4

Comparator
Types of comparison: !=F ><F >F >=F <F <=F compare for equal to compare for not equal to compare for greater than compare for greater than or equal to compare for less than compare for less than or equal to

Comparison Operations
The comparison operations compare two digital values in accumulator 1 and accumulator 2 The result of comparison produces an RLO: Comparison satisfied Comparison not satisfied RLO = 1 RLO = 0

Handout section 6.4

Comparator

THE END

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