Engineering Science (ENG 232) Materials Sciences Review on Mechanical Properties and Failure of Materials

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Mechanical Properties of Materials

ENGINEERING STRESS
Tensile stress, :

Ft

Shear stress, :

Ft

F Fs

Area, A

Area, A

Ft = Ao
original area before loading

Ft

Fs
Fs = Ao

Ft

Mechanical Properties of Materials

ENGINEERING STRAIN
Tensile strain: Lateral strain: /2

= Lo
Shear strain:

wo
L/2

Lo
/2 L/2

L L = wo

/2

/2 - /2

= tan

Strain is always dimensionless.

/2

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Linear elastic deformation

Hookes Law:

= E

Tension

*E is the modulus of elasticity or Youngs Modulus

= G
Schematic stressstrain diagram showing linear elastic deformation for loading and unloading cycles.

Shear

* G is the shear modulus

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Temperature effect on the modulus

Plot of modulus of elasticity versus temperature for tungsten, steel, and aluminum.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Elastic Properties of Materials Poissons ratio: v = -x/z = -y/z

Relation between E and G: E = 2G (1+ )

Axial (z) elongation (positive strain) and lateral (x and y) contractions (negative strains) in response to an imposed tensile stress. Solid lines represent dimensions after stress application; dashed lines, before.

G ~ 0.4E for most metals

Mechanical Properties of Materials

LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:

=E
Poisson's ratio, :

Linearelastic

= L

metals: ~ 0.33 ceramics: ~0.25 polymers: ~0.40

- 1

F
simple tension test

Units: E: [GPa] or [psi] : dimensionless

Mechanical Properties of Materials

OTHER ELASTIC PROPERTIES
Elastic Shear modulus, G:

=G

Special relation for isotropic materials: E G= 2(1 + )

Mechanical Properties of Materials

USEFUL LINEAR ELASTIC RELATIONS
Simple tension:

= FL o = Fw o L EAo EA o F
Ao /2

wo
L/2

Lo
/2 L/2

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Plastic Deformation:- Yielding

*Yielding is an indication of plastic deformation

Typical stressstrain behavior for a metal showing elastic and plastic deformations, the proportional limit P, and the yield strength y , as determined using the 0.002 strain offset method.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

YIELD STRENGTH, y
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred. when p = 0.002
tensile stress,

engineering strain,

p = 0.002

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Plastic Deformation:- Yielding

Representative stressstrain behavior found for some steels demonstrating the yield point phenomenon.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Plastic Deformation:- tensile strength (TS)
Tensile strength (TS) Fracture strength Uniform plastic deformation

Stress

Necking

Fracture Elastic deformation

Strain

Typical engineering stressstrain behavior to fracture, point F. The tensile strength TS is indicated at point M. The circular insets represent the geometry of the deformed specimen at various points along the curve.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Ductility is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that
has been sustained at fracture. It mat be expressed by either

%EL =

(lf - l0) l0

x 100
- Percent elongation

or %RA = (A0 Af ) A0 Schematic representations of tensile stress strain behavior for brittle and ductile materials loaded to fracture. x 100

- Percent reductio In area

A materials is brittle if it fractures with little plastic deformation

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Temperature dependence of ductility

Engineering stressstrain behavior for iron at three temperatures.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Elastic recovery during plastic deformation

Schematic tensile stressstrain diagram showing the phenomena of elastic strain recovery and strain hardening. The initial yield strength is designated as y0 ; yi is the yield strength after releasing the load at point D, and then upon reloading.

Mechanical Properties of Materials

DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit. Factor of safety, N Often N is between y working = 1.2 and 4 N Ex: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a factor of safety of 5. d

working =

220,000N d2 / 4

1045 plain carbon steel: y =310MPa TS=565MPa F = 220,000N

Lo

Introduction to Failure of Materials

Introduction to Failure of Materials

Elliptical hole in a plate: o Stress distribution in front of a hole:

2a t

a max o 2 + 1 t

Stress concentration factor: Large Kt promotes failure:

NOT SO BAD

Kt = max / o

Kt =3

BAD!

Kt >>3

FLAWS ARE STRESS CONCENTRATORS

Introduction to Failure of Materials

Theoretical stress concentration factor curves for three simple geometrical shapes.

Introduction to Failure of Materials

x = [K/(2r)1/2 ] fx () y = [K/(2r)1/2 ] fy () z = [K/(2r)1/2 ] fz ()
where K is termed the stress intensity factor

K = Y (a)1/2
Fracture toughness

Kc = Y c (a)1/2

Introduction to Failure of Materials

Cracks

Introduction to Failure of Materials

Plane strain and plane stress fracture toughness

Plane strain condition: 2 K Ic B 2.5 y

KIC = Y (a)1/2

Thickness dependence of Kc: - as B increases, the plane stress condition is switched to plane strain condition, and the fracture toughness is switched to plane strain fracture toughness KIc where I indicates model I.

Introduction to Failure of Materials

Condition for crack propagation: K Kc
Stress Intensity Factor: --Depends on load & geometry. Fracture Toughness: --Depends on the material, temperature, environment, & rate of loading.

Values of K for some standard loads & geometries:

units of K : MPa m
2a 2a

or ksi in

K = a

K = 1.1 a

Introduction to Failure of Materials

DESIGN AGAINST CRACK GROWTH

Crack growth condition:

K Kc

Y a Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!

--Result 1: Max flaw size
dictates design stress.

--Result 2: Design stress

dictates max. flaw size.

design <

Kc Y a max

fracture no fracture

1 Kc a max < Ydesign a max

fracture

a max

no fracture

Introduction to Failure of Materials

Characteristic parameters (as shown in the figure below)

max + min Mean stress: m = 2

Range of stress: r = max min

max min Stress amplitude: a = 2

min Stress ratio: R = max

Introduction to Failure of Materials

Introduction to Failure of Materials

The S-N curve: stress vs. the logarithm of the number N of cycles to failure

Fatigue limit Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of the number of cycles to fatigue failure (N) for (a) a material that displays a fatigue limit, and (b) a material that does not display a fatigue limit.

Introduction to Failure of Materials

Effect of mean stress on the fatigue life

Factors that Affect Fatigue Life Mean stress - Higher mean stress leads to smaller number of cycles before failure. - This is represented by a series of S-N curves on the right.
Demonstration of of mean stress m on SN fatigue behavior.