Akiomi Ushida1

Center for Fostering Innovative Leadership, Niigata University, Niigata-shi 950-2181, Japan e-mail: akiomiushida@nagoya-u.jp; akiomiushida@gs.niigata-u.ac.jp

Tomiichi Hasegawa
Faculty of Engineering, Niigata University, Niigata-shi 950-2181, Japan

Measurement and Observation of Jet Thrust for Water Flow Through Micro-Orifice
Owing to the many potential industrial and biological applications of microuid mechanics, it has recently become an attractive research topic. However, researchers have mainly concentrated on microchannel ows and studies investigating micro-orice ows are rare cases. In the present study, the results from experiments conducted on ows through micro-orices with diameters of 100 lm, 50 lm, and 25 lm are presented. In these experiments, the thrust and diameter of observed outow jets are measured. The resultant thrust and diameter of the jets for the 100 lm orice ow agree with the numerical predictions obtained via the NavierStokes equations. Conversely, for an orice with a diameter of 50 lm or less, it is found that the thrust is lower than that predicted and the existence of jet swell becomes apparent. With the estimated elastic stress proportional to squared mean velocity, a change in the elasticity of the water as it ows through a microorice is strongly suggested. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4007014] Keywords: micro-orice, water, jet thrust, jet swell, elastic stress

Takehiro Hoshina Shouta Kudou Hiroshige Uchiyama

Graduate School of Science and Technology, Niigata University, Niigata-shi 950-2181, Japan

Takatsune Narumi
Faculty of Engineering, Niigata University, Niigata-shi 950-2181, Japan

Introduction

Experimental Setup

Recently, a drag reduction effect has been found in several types of liquids in the ows through microapertures [17]. Hasegawa et al. have reported anomalous reduction in pressure drops of water and glycerol passing through microsize orices [1] and, in experiments conducted to examine the excess pressure drops for ows through different types of orices, the results for water did not agree with predictions from the NavierStokes equations [2]. Ushida et al. have observed ow properties and rheological properties of surfactant solutions and their microbubble and nanobubble mixtures passing through orices and slits [36]. Amaki et al. have measured drag coefcients by using water and surfactant solutions, and the experimental results did not agree with numerical predictions [7]. Related ndings also show an analogous reduction in jet reaction and thrust for water ows though microsize orices and porous membranes [8]. These reductions were measured when the ow velocity was relatively high. In general, these drag reductions were found in surfactant solutions and viscoelastic liquids [912]. In contrast, Hsiai et al. reported resultant pressure drops that almost agree with the predictions. However, their orices had complex congurations [13]. Kusmanto et al. conducted numerical analysis on orice ows. However, their denitions of excess pressure drops were improperly-used [14]. Oliver has experimentally measured pressure drops by using an oblong channel and reported drag reduction effect. However, this research was used in channel ows [15]. In the previous studies, anomalous and interesting results were reported for clarity. In the present research, a jet thrust of water was measured and the diameter of an outowing jet was observed in the ows through micro-orices. Additionally, the ow properties in orice ows were claried.
Corresponding author. Contributed by Fluids Engineering Division of ASME for publication in the JOURNAL OF FLUIDS ENGINEERING. Manuscript received July 25, 2011; nal manuscript received June 21, 2012; published online July 27, 2012. Assoc. Editor: Hassan Peerhossaini.
1

2.1 Micro-Orifices. Optical pinholes (PA-100, 50, 25; Sigma Koki Co., Ltd.) with diameter, D100 lm, 50 lm, and 25 lm, were used as micro-orices. An orice thickness of L 20 lm was used in all cases, such that the thickness ratio, L/D, was 0.20, 0.40, and 0.80, respectively. Figures 1(a) and 1(b) show close-up images of a sample orice captured by an electron microscope. Although there appear to be differences between the front and back views, these differences bore no relation to the ow properties in previous results [1,36]. In the present study, the ow direction was frontward (from front to back). In addition, there were no large discrepancies between the present orices and those previously used [1,36]. 2.2 Jet Thrust Method. Figure 2 shows the experimental apparatus used for measuring jet thrust. Test liquids are transported from a syringe pump (JP-H1; Furue Science Co., Ltd.) to a channel at a constant ow rate Q. A micro-orice is then attached to the channel. Jet thrust was measured with an electronic balance (GR-200; A&D Co., Ltd.), and Fig. 3 shows the method for measuring thrust, where Tm is the thrust from the jets and Tout is the momentum of the liquid owing out from the control surface. The force FB, which is measured on the electronic balance, is the combination of these two values, given by FB Tm Tout (1)

When the inner diameter of the cup (120 mm), shown in Fig. 3, is much greater than that of the orice, Tm ) Tout, Eq. (1) becomes FB Tm (2)

Thus, the jet thrust, Tm, is detected. Figure 4 shows dimensionless jet thrust, Tm/qQV, plotted against Reynolds number Re (qDV/l, where q is the density, l is the viscosity, and V is the mean AUGUST 2012, Vol. 134 / 081201-1

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Fig. 3

Method for measuring jet thrust

Fig. 4

Calibration of jet thrust method by using capillary

Fig. 1 Electron microscope image of micro-orice: (a) front and (b) back views

Fig. 5

Experimental apparatus for measuring jet diameter

Fig. 2 Experimental apparatus for measuring jet thrust

velocity (4Q/pD2) of the test liquids), for ow though capillaries with diameters Dc 0.75 mm and 1.20 mm. The solid line is the prediction (1.33) in the case of Poiseuille ow (Eq. (3)): 4 Tm qQV 3 (3)

that are used to validate the thrust method. The channel is attached to a z-axis stage, and the jet ows into an acrylic vessel (400 mm 300 mm 300 mm). The jet diameter Dj is then measured with a digital microscope (VH-8000; Keyence Co., Ltd.). Figure 6 shows a schema of denition of the jet diameter. Table 1 shows the specications of the microscope

With the output for both capillaries matching the theoretical value accurately, it can be seen that the present apparatus gives valid results. 2.3 Jet Observation. Figure 5 shows a schematic diagram of the experimental arrangement for measuring the diameter of jets issuing out of the micro-orices. This apparatus gives results 081201-2 / Vol. 134, AUGUST 2012

2.4 Test Liquid. The test liquid used in this research was ion-exchanged water (GSR-200; Advantec Co., Ltd.), colored with red food dye (Akairo 102; Benifuji Kagaku Kougyou Co., Ltd.) to enable visualization of the jets [1]. Henceforth, this will simply be referred to as water. The density of the water was q 1.0 103 kg/m3 (at T 20.0  C) on the Baume scale, and its viscosity, found by a capillary viscometer (inner diameter: 1.0 mm) was l 1.0 103 Pas (at T 20.0  C) [3,6]. Additionally, its surface tension was r 70.2 mN/m, measured using the Transactions of the ASME

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Fig. 7

Numerical regions and boundary conditions

Fig. 6

Schematic image of issued jet out of micro-orice

Table 1 Imaging elements Frame rate (1/s) Magnication Shooting range (mm)

Specication of microscope 2,110,000 7.5 300 1.02 0.76 25.0 Fig. 8 Velocity proles calculated at the exit of orice having L=D50.20

Horizontal Vertical

Observation distance (mm)

du Nouy method [1619]. In the experiments, these values were temperature corrected.

Numerical Analysis

The dimensionless cylindrical NavierStokes equations and continuity equation: &   ' @u @u @u @p 1 1 @ @u @ 2 u z z z z u u r z r z Re r @r @t @r @z @z @r @z @z (4) & ' @ur @ur @ur @p 1 @ 1 @ u u r ur r z Re @r r @r @t @r @z @r ! @ 2 u (5) r @z @z @u 1 @ z r ur 0 (6) @z r @r (here, the h-direction is ignored, as it is not changing) were numerically analyzed, where * denotes a dimensionless component. In Eqs. (4)(6), u and u are the velocity components in the r z radial and z-directions, r* and z* are the dimensionless radial and z positions, and p* and t* are the dimensionless pressure component and time, respectively. For a Newtonian uid passing through an orice, the nite volume method was adopted, in which the velocities and pressures were expressed on a staggered grid with a two-dimensional cylindrical coordinate system. Coupling of the velocity and pressure was achieved via the SIMPLE method. The convective and viscous terms were discretized by using the rstorder upwind difference and the second-order central difference, respectively. Figure 7 shows the numerical regions under consideration and the boundary conditions required for the numerical analysis. The diameter of the channel upstream and downstream Journal of Fluids Engineering

of the orice was 40D, and the upstream and downstream lengths were both 40D in the z-direction. The boundary conditions were as follows: (1) Poiseuille ow exists at the inlet, (2) the velocity and pressure in the radial direction are zero, (3) the radial component of the velocities is zero along the center line, (4) all velocities are zero at the wall, (5) a free outow condition is applied at the outlet boundary, and (6) grid numbers were in the range of 0512 in the r*-direction and 01024 in the z*-direction. Figure 8 shows numerical results for the velocity prole vz* plotted against the radial position r* at the exit plane of an orice having thickness ratio, L/D 0.20 (i.e., equivalent to D 100 lm and L 20 lm in the present experiments), for varying Re. It is seen that the dimensionless maximum velocity at the center line decreases (it was the same results for the previous study [8]) and that a reverse ow near the wall regions does not appear. However, these types of concave velocity proles have been reported elsewhere [20,21]. The calculated thrust Tm was obtained by applying a momentum balance at the control surface: @v dA (7) Tm q v2 dA pdA 2l 0 0 @x S S S where, v is the local velocity in the z-direction normal to the exit plane. Additionally, S is the opening area of the orice, S0 is the entire surface on the right-hand side of the control surface, including S, and p is the pressure at any position on S0 . The nal term on the right-hand side represents the normal forces due to the liquid normal stresses, which are equal to 2l@v/@x for Newtonian liquids. Figure 9 shows the dimensionless thrust plotted against Reynolds number for the numerical analysis. It is found that all the predicted values decrease as Re decreases. In addition, Tm/qQV is independent of thickness ratio L/D in the ranges of the present study. AUGUST 2012, Vol. 134 / 081201-3

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Experimental Results

4.1 Jet Thrust. Figure 10 shows the experimental results in a form where Tm/qQV is plotted against Re. Numerical predictions are also given for the water (the solid lines in the gures). For ow through the 100 lm orice, it can be seen that the results for the water match the numerical prediction well (Fig. 10(a)). However, the results for the 50 lm orice are about 10% less than those predicted, and, as the orice size was reduced, the extent of this decrease became greater (Figs. 10(b) and 10(c)). 4.2 Jet Diameter. Figure 11 shows an example of jet owing out of a micro-orice and Fig. 12 displays Dj/D plotted against z/D for each orice. It can be seen that Dj/D is independent of z/D for the 100 lm orice (Fig. 12(a)); however, the phenomenon of jet swell appears in the results for the 50 lm and 25 lm orices (Figs. 12(b) and 12(c)). It is well known that jet swell occurs in viscoelastic liquids (e.g., the Barus effect) [2225] and that the water will gain viscoelastic properties when passing through a micro-orice [1,3,8], which explains the present results.

Fig. 9 Numerical results for jet thrust when: (a) L/D50.20, (b) L/D50.40, and (c) L/D50.80

Discussion

5.1 Reduction in Thrust. The measured thrusts were less than the predicted ones, and jet swell was found when the water owed through micro-orices with D 50 lm. There are several possible explanations for the behavior seen in these results; for example, viscous heating [2628], slip [2932], cavitations [3335], size effect [3640], and a solid-liquid interface phenomenon [4,5]. Pearson et al. [26] conducted viscous heating experiments in microows; however, the temperature increase in the present case is only DTmax 0.1  C. Although Churaev et al. noted that a reduction in ow properties was accounted for by a slip-wall, this did not explain jet swell [29]. Mishra et al. indicated the presence of cavitations in pressure drops, but reported that the drag coefcient increasedthe opposite to our results [34,35]. Bondi reported van der Waals radii. The van der Waals radii of water were approximately 3.0 A, and minimum diameter of the present study was 25 lm. Thus, size effect was negligible [41]. Ushida et al. discussed a solidliquid interface for ows in liquids with additive surfactants and bubbles [4,5]. It was found that a drag reduction was caused by this interface, which was negatively charged at the orice wall. In addition, the previous studies [1,3,6]

Fig. 10 Experimental results of Tm/qQV plotted against Re for micro-orice with (a) D5100 lm, (b) D550 lm, and (c) D525 lm

Fig. 11

Example of jet observation

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Fig. 13

Schematic image of estimation of ESswell

Fig. 12 Dj=D versus z=D when: (a) D5100 lm, (b) D550 lm, and (c) D525 lm

reported that the drag reduction using dilute polymer solutions (polyethylene oxide and polyethylene glycol) was caused by an elastic property in micro-orice ows.

Fig. 14 Elastic stress ESthrust and ESswell plotted against mean velocity V

5.2 Elastic Stress. It follows from the above discussion that the thrust reduction and jet swell were caused by elasticity. Hence, the present case was treated in the same manner as previous studies [13]. In the previous studies [4244], the elastic stress ESthrust from the measured jet thrust is given by ESthrust a Tm jsim: Tm jexp: D2 (8)

estimations of elastic stress in the case of jet swell. ESswell from the measured jet swell is given by  2 (  2 ) D 2 D 1 (9) ESswell qV Dj Dj Figure 14 shows estimated values of ES plotted against mean velocity of the ow passing through the micro-orice V. In general, dilute aqueous solutions of polymers, such as polyethylene oxide and polyethylene glycol, which have elasticity, will have elastic stress when owing out of an orice [4247]. However, Hasegawa et al. [44] reported that ES for viscoelastic liquids is proportional to the square of the mean velocity V2, expressing the relationship as ESqV2, where q is uid density. From Fig. 14, it can be seen that, in the present research, the estimated ES of the AUGUST 2012, Vol. 134 / 081201-5

Here, the subscripts sim. and exp. denote the variables from the simulations and experiments, respectively. a 4/p is a coefcient. On the other hand, Fig. 13 shows a schematic image of Journal of Fluids Engineering

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water displayed a similar correspondence to V2 as in previous results [44].

[7]

Concluding Remarks

[8]

Jet thrust and diameter were measured for water owing through micro-orices. The orice diameter ranged from 25 lm to 100 lm, and the orice thickness was 20 lm. The experimental results were as follows: (a) The results for the 100 lm ofce were in agreement with values predicted by the NavierStokes equations. (b) The results for the 50 lm and 25 lm orices showed a reduction in the thrust, combined with the introduction of jet swell. (c) Thus, the present results strongly suggested that the observed ow properties were caused by elastic stress. (d) In clarifying this, the estimated elastic stress agreed with that found in previous studies and depended on squared mean velocity.

[9] [10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

Acknowledgment
We wish to thank Mr. Masanao Takahashi, Mr. Hiroteru Haruyama, Mr. Tsuyoshi Imai, and Mr. Keitarou Tan for technical assistant in carrying out many experiments and numerical analyses. We also thank Mr. Ryuichi Kayaba and Professor Shinji Toga for much help and many fruitful comments.

[14]

[15] [16]

[17]

Nomenclature
D Dj Dj/D ESthrust ESswell FB L L/D p* Q Re r r* T Tm Tm/qQV Tout t* ur* uz* V z z/D z* a l q r orice diameter measured diameter of jet issuing out of orice dimensionless measured diameter elastic stress from jet thrust elastic stress from jet swell detected force by electric balance thickness of orice thickness ratio dimensionless pressure component volumetric ow rate Reynolds number radial direction dimensionless r direction temperature jet thrust dimensionless jet thrust momentum out of control volume dimensionless time dimensionless velocity in r direction dimensionless velocity in z direction mean velocity ow direction dimensionless distance out of orice dimensionless z direction coefcient of elastic stress in Eq. (8) ( 4/p) viscosity density surface tension
[18]

[19]

[20]

[21] [22] [23] [24]

[25]

[26] [27]

[28] [29]

[30] [31] [32]

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