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A
Abstract:Usedasanoun,thetermreferstoashortsummaryoroutlineofalongerwork.Asan adjectiveappliedtowritingorliteraryworks,abstractreferstowordsorphrasesthatnamethingsnot knowablethroughthefivesenses. ExamplesofabstractsincludetheCliffsNotessummariesofmajorliteraryworks.Examplesofabstract termsorconceptsinclude"idea,""guilt""honesty,"and"loyalty."(ComparewithConcrete.) Absurd,Theaterofthe:SeeTheateroftheAbsurd Absurdism:SeeTheateroftheAbsurd Accent:Theemphasisorstressplacedonasyllableinpoetry.Traditionalpoetrycommonlyuses patternsofaccentedandunaccentedsyllables(knownasfeet)thatcreatedistinctrhythms.Much modernpoetryuseslessformalarrangementsthatcreateasenseoffreedomandspontaneity. ThefollowinglinefromWilliamShakespeare'sHamlet: "Tobeornottobe:thatisthequestion" hasfiveaccents,onthewords"be,""not,""be,"and"that,"andthefirstsyllableof"question."(See alsoCadence,Foot,Measure,Meter,poem,Poetics,Poetry,Scansion,SprungRhythm,Verse,and Versification.) Act:Amajorsectionofaplay.Actsaredividedintovaryingnumbersofshorterscenes.Fromancient timestothenineteenthcenturyplaysweregenerallyconstructedoffiveacts,butmodernworks typicallyconsistofone,two,orthreeacts. ExamplesoffiveactplaysincludetheworksofSophoclesandShakespeare,whiletheplaysofArthur Millercommonlyhaveathreeactstructure.(ComparewithScene.)(Seealsodrama.) Acto:AoneactChicanotheaterpiecedevelopedoutofcollectiveimprovisation. ActoswereperformedbymembersofLuisValdez'sTeatroCampesinoinCaliforniaduringthe mid1960s. Aestheticism:Aliteraryandartisticmovementofthenineteenthcentury.Followersofthemovement believedthatartshouldnotbemixedwithsocial,political,ormoralteaching.Thestatement"artfor art'ssake"isagoodsummaryofaestheticism.ThemovementhaditsrootsinFrance,butitgained widespreadimportanceinEnglandinthelasthalfofthenineteenthcentury,whereithelpedchangethe Victorianpracticeofincludingmorallessonsinliterature. OscarWildeisoneofthebestknown"aesthetes"ofthelatenineteenthcentury. (SeealsoDecadents.) AffectiveFallacy:(AlsoknownasSympatheticFallacy.)Anerrorinjudgingthemeritsorfaultsofa workofliterature.The"error"resultsfromstressingtheimportanceofthework'seffectuponthereader thatis,howitmakesareader"feel"emotionally,whatitdoesasaliteraryworkinsteadof

stressingitsinnerqualitiesasacreatedobject,orwhatit"is." TheaffectivefallacyisevidentinAristotle'spreceptfromhisPoeticsthatthepurposeoftragedyisto evoke"fearandpity"initsspectators. AgeofJohnson:(AlsoknownasAgeofSensibility).TheperiodinEnglishliteraturebetween1750 and1798,namedafterthemostprominentliteraryfigureoftheage,SamuelJohnson.Workswritten duringthistimearenotedfortheiremphasison"sensibility,"oremotionalquality.Theseworksformed atransitionbetweentherationalworksoftheAgeofReason,orNeoclassicalperiod,andtheemphasis onindividualfeelingsandresponsesoftheRomanticperiod. SignificantwritersduringtheAgeofJohnsonincludedthenovelistsAnnRadcliffeandHenry Mackenzie,dramatistsRichardSheridanandOliverGoldsmith,andpoetsWilliamCollinsandThomas Gray.(ComparewithNeoclassicismandromanticism.) AgeofReason:SeeNeoclassicism AgeofSensibility:SeeAgeofJohnson Agrarians:AgroupofSouthernAmericanwritersofthe1930sand1940swhofosteredaneconomic andculturalprogramfortheSouthbasedonagriculture,inoppositiontotheindustrialsocietyofthe North.Thetermcanrefertoanygroupthatpromotesthevalueoffarmlifeandagriculturalsociety. MembersoftheoriginalAgrariansincludedJohnCroweRansom,AllenTate,andRobertPennWarren. AlexandrineMeter:SeeMeter Allegory:Anarrativetechniqueinwhichcharactersrepresentingthingsorabstractideasareusedto conveyamessageorteachalesson.Allegoryistypicallyusedtoteachmoral,ethical,orreligious lessonsbutissometimesusedforsatiricorpoliticalpurposes. ExamplesofallegoricalworksincludeEdmundSpenser'sTheFaerieQueeneandJohnBunyan'sThe Pilgrim'sProgress. (SeealsoExemplumandFable.) Alliteration:Apoeticdevicewherethefirstconsonantsoundsoranyvowelsoundsinwordsor syllablesarerepeated. ThefollowingdescriptionoftheGreenKnightfromtheanonymousSirGawainandtheGreenKnight givesanexampleofalliteration: Andinguiseallofgreen,thegearandtheman: Acoatcutclose,thatclungtohissides Anamantletomatch,madewithalining Offurscutandfittedthefabricwasnoble.... (ComparewithAssonanceandrhyme.)(Seealsopoem,Poetics,Poetry,Verse,andVersification.) Allusion:Areferencetoafamiliarliteraryorhistoricalpersonorevent,usedtomakeanideamore easilyunderstood. Forexample,describingsomeoneasa"Romeo"makesanallusiontoWilliamShakespeare'sfamous youngloverinRomeoandJuliet. AmerindLiterature:ThewritingandoraltraditionsofNativeAmericans.NativeAmerican literaturewasoriginallypassedonbywordofmouth,soitconsistedlargelyofstoriesandeventsthat

wereeasilymemorized.AmerindproseisoftenrhythmiclikePoetrybecauseitwasrecitedtothebeat ofaceremonialdrum. ExamplesofAmerindliteratureincludetheautobiographicalBlackElkSpeaks,theworksofN.Scott Momaday,JamesWelch,andCraigLeeStrete,andthepoetryofLuciTapahonso. Analogy:Acomparisonoftwothingsmadetoexplainsomethingunfamiliarthroughitssimilaritiesto somethingfamiliar,ortoproveonepointbasedontheacceptednessofanother.Similesandmetaphors aretypesofanalogies. Analogiesoftentaketheformofanextendedsimile,asinWilliamBlake'saphorism:"Asthecaterpillar choosesthefairestleavestolayhereggson,sothepriestlayshiscurseonthefairestjoys."(Compare withSimileandMetaphor.) Anapest:SeeFoot AngryYoungMen:AgroupofBritishwritersofthe1950swhoseworkexpressedbitternessand disillusionmentwithsociety.Commontotheirworkisanantiherowhorebelsagainstacorruptsocial orderandstrivesforpersonalintegrity. ThetermhasbeenusedtodescribeKingsleyAmis,JohnOsborne,ColinWilson,JohnWain,and others. Antagonist:Themajorcharacterinanarrativeordramawhoworksagainsttheheroorprotagonist. AnexampleofanevilantagonistisRichardLovelaceinSamuelRichardson'sClarissa,whileavirtuous antagonistisMacduffinWilliamShakespeare'sMacbeth.(Comparewithprotagonist.)(Seealsoanti hero,conflict.) Anthropomorphism:Thepresentationofanimalsorobjectsinhumanshapeorwithhuman characteristics.ThetermisderivedfromtheGreekwordfor"humanform." TheFablesofAesop,theanimatedfilmsofWaltDisney,andRichardAdams'sWatershipDownfeature anthropomorphiccharacters.(ComparewithPersonification.) Antihero:Acentralcharacterinaworkofliteraturewholackstraditionalheroicqualitiessuchas courage,physicalprowess,andfortitude.Antiherostypicallydistrustconventionalvaluesandare unabletocommitthemselvestoanyideals.Theygenerallyfeelhelplessinaworldoverwhichtheyhave nocontrol.Antiheroesusuallyaccept,andoftencelebrate,theirpositionsassocialoutcasts. AwellknownantiheroisYossarianinJosephHeller'snovelCatch22.(ComparewithAntagonist, Hero,andProtagonist.) Antimasque:SeeMasque Antinovel:AtermcoinedbyFrenchcriticJeanPaulSartre.Itreferstoanyexperimentalworkof fictionthatavoidsthefamiliarconventionsofthenovel.Theantinovelusuallyfragmentsanddistorts theexperienceofitscharacters,forcingthereadertoconstructtherealityofthestoryfromadisordered narrative. ThebestknownantinovelistisAlainRobbeGrillet,authorofLevoyeur. Antithesis:Theantithesisofsomethingisitsdirectopposite.Inliterature,theuseofantithesisasa figureofspeechresultsintwostatementsthatshowacontrastthroughthebalancingoftwoopposite ideas.Technically,itisthesecondportionofthestatementthatisdefinedasthe"antithesis";thefirst

portionisthe"thesis." AnexampleofantithesisisfoundinthefollowingportionofAbrahamLincoln's"GettysburgAddress"; noticetheoppositionbetweentheverbs"remember"and"forget"andthephrases"whatwesay"and "whattheydid":"Theworldwilllittlenotenorlongrememberwhatwesayhere,butitcanneverforget whattheydidhere." Apocrypha:Writingstentativelyattributedtoanauthorbutnotprovenoruniversallyacceptedtobe theirworks.ThetermwasoriginallyappliedtocertainbooksoftheBiblethatwerenotconsidered inspiredandsowerenotincludedinthe"sacredcanon." GeoffreyChaucer,WilliamShakespeare,ThomasKyd,ThomasMiddleton,andJohnMarstonallhave apocrypha.ApocryphalbooksoftheBibleincludetheOldTestament'sBookofEnochandNew Testament'sGospelofThomas. ApollonianandDionysian:Thetwoimpulsesbelievedtoguideauthorsofdramatictragedy.The ApollonianimpulseisnamedafterApollo,theGreekgodoflightandbeautyandthesymbolof intellectualorder.TheDionysianimpulseisnamedafterDionysus,theGreekgodofwineandthe symboloftheunrestrainedforcesofnature.TheApollonianimpulseistocreatearational,harmonious world,whiletheDionysianistoexpresstheirrationalforcesofpersonality. FriedrichNietzcheusesthesetermsinTheBirthofTragedytodesignatecontrastingelementsinGreek tragedy.(Comparewithclassicismandromanticism.) Apostrophe:Astatement,question,orrequestaddressedtoaninanimateobjectorconceptortoa nonexistentorabsentperson. Requestsforinspirationfromthemusesinpoetryareexamplesofapostrophe,asisMarcAntony's addresstoCaesar'scorpseinWilliamShakespeare'sJuliusCaesar: "O,pardonme,thoubleedingpieceofearth, ThatIammeekandgentlewiththesebutchers!... Woetothehandthatshedthiscostlyblood!..." (ComparewithMonologueandSoliloquy.) ApprenticeshipNovel:SeeBildungsroman Archetype:Thewordarchetypeiscommonlyusedtodescribeanoriginalpatternormodelfromwhich allotherthingsofthesamekindaremade.Thistermwasintroducedtoliterarycriticismfromthe psychologyofCarlJung.ItexpressesJung'stheorythatbehindeveryperson's"unconscious,"or repressedmemoriesofthepast,liesthe"collectiveunconscious"ofthehumanrace:memoriesofthe countlesstypicalexperiencesofourancestors.Thesememoriesaresaidtopromptillogicalassociations thattriggerpowerfulemotionsinthereader.Often,theemotionalprocessisprimitive,evenprimordial. Archetypesaretheliteraryimagesthatgrowoutofthe"collectiveunconscious."Theyappearin literatureasincidentsandplotsthatrepeatbasicpatternsoflife.Theymayalsoappearasstereotyped characters. ExamplesofliteraryarchetypesincludethemessuchasbirthanddeathandcharacterssuchastheEarth Mother. Argument:Theargumentofaworkistheauthor'ssubjectmatterorprincipalidea. Examplesofdefined"argument"portionsofworksincludeJohnMilton'sArgumentstoeachofthe booksofParadiseLostandthe"Argument"toRobertHerrick'sHesperides.

AristotelianCriticism:Specifically,themethodofevaluatingandanalyzingtragedyformulatedbythe GreekphilosopherAristotleinhisPoetics.Moregenerally,thetermindicatesanyformofcriticismthat followsAristotle'sviews.Aristoteliancriticismfocusesontheformandlogicalstructureofawork, apartfromitshistoricalorsocialcontext,incontrastto"PlatonicCriticism,"whichstressesthe usefulnessofart. AdherentsofNewCriticismincludingJohnCroweRansomandCleanthBrooksutilizeandvaluethe basicideasofAristoteliancriticismfortextualanalysis.(ComparewithPlatonicCriticism.)(Seealso catharsis,NewCriticism.) ArtforArt'sSake:SeeAestheticism. Aside:Acommentmadebyastageperformerthatisintendedtobeheardbytheaudiencebut supposedlynotbyothercharacters. EugeneO'Neill'sStrangeInterludeisanextendeduseoftheasideinmoderntheater. Assonance:TherepetitionofsimilarvowelsoundsinPoetry. ThefollowinglinesfromGeraldManleyHopkins's"God'sGrandeur"containseveralpatternsof assonance: TheworldischargedwiththegrandeurofGod. Itwillflameout,likeshiningfromshookfoil; Itgatherstoagreatness,liketheoozeofoil Crushed.Whydomenthennownotreckhisrod? (ComparewithAlliteration,Dissonance,andrhyme.) Audience:Thepeopleforwhomapieceofliteratureiswritten.Authorsusuallywritewithacertain audienceinmind,forexample,children,membersofareligiousorethnicgroup,orcolleaguesina professionalfield.Theterm"audience"alsoappliestothepeoplewhogathertoseeorhearany performance,includingplays,Poetryreadings,speeches,andconcerts. JaneAusten'sparodyofthegothicnovel,NorthangerAbbey,wasoriginallyintendedfor(andalso pokesfunat)anaudienceofyoungandavidfemalegothicnovelreaders. Autobiography:Aconnectednarrativeinwhichanindividualtellshisorherlifestory. ExamplesincludeBenjaminFranklin'sAutobiographyandHenryAdams'sTheEducationofHenry Adams.(ComparewithBiography.)(SeealsoDiaryandMemoirs.) AutomaticWriting:Writingcarriedoutwithoutapreconceivedplaninanefforttocaptureevery randomthought.Authorswhoengageinautomaticwritingtypicallydonotrevisetheirwork,preferring insteadtopreservetherevealedtruthandbeautyofspontaneousexpression. AutomaticwritingwasemployedbymanyoftheSurrealistwriters,notablytheFrenchpoetRobert Desnos.(SeealsoSurrealism.) Avantgarde:AFrenchtermmeaning"vanguard."Itisusedinliterarycriticismtodescribenewwriting thatrejectstraditionalapproachestoliteratureinfavorofinnovationsinstyleorcontent. TwentiethcenturyexamplesoftheliteraryavantgardeincludetheBlackMountainSchoolofpoets,the BloomsburyGroup,andtheBeatMovement.

B
B Ballad:Ashortpoemthattellsasimplestoryandhasarepeatedrefrain.Balladswereoriginally intendedtobesung.Earlyballads,knownasfolkballads,werepasseddownthroughgenerations,so theirauthorsareoftenunknown.Laterballadscomposedbyknownauthorsarecalledliteraryballads. Anexampleofananonymousfolkballadis"Edward,"whichdatesfromtheMiddleAges.Samuel TaylorColeridge's"TheRimeoftheAncientMariner"andJohnKeats's"LaBelleDamesansMerci" areexamplesofliteraryballads.(ComparewithCorridoandOralTransmission.) Baroque:Atermusedinliterarycriticismtodescribeliteraturethatiscomplexorornateinstyleor diction.Baroqueworkstypicallyexpresstension,anxiety,andviolentemotion.Theterm"Baroque Age"designatesaperiodinWesternEuropeanliteraturebeginninginthelatesixteenthcenturyand endingaboutonehundredyearslater.Worksofthisperiodoftenmirrorthequalitiesofworksmore generallyassociatedwiththelabel"baroque"andsometimesfeatureelaborateconceits. ExamplesofBaroqueworksincludeJohnLyly'sEuphues:TheAnatomyofWit,LuisdeGongora's Soledads,andWilliamShakespeare'sAsYouLikeIt. BaroqueAge:SeeBaroque BaroquePeriod:SeeBaroque BeatGeneration:SeeBeatMovement BeatMovement:AperiodfeaturingagroupofAmericanpoetsandnovelistsofthe1950sand1960s includingJackKerouac,AllenGinsberg,GregoryCorso,WilliamS.Burroughs,andLawrence Ferlinghettiwhorejectedestablishedsocialandliteraryvalues.Usingsuchtechniquesasstreamof consciousnesswritingandjazzinfluencedfreeVerseandfocusingonunusualorabnormalstatesof mindgeneratedbyreligiousecstasyortheuseofdrugstheBeatwritersaimedtocreateworks thatwereunconventionalinbothformandsubjectmatter. Kerouac'sOntheRoadisperhapsthebestknownexampleofaBeatGenerationnovel,andGinsberg's HowlisafamouscollectionofBeatPoetry. BeatPoets:SeeBeatMovement Beats,The:SeeBeatMovement Belleslettres:AFrenchtermmeaning"fineletters"or"beautifulwriting."Itisoftenusedasa synonymforliterature,typicallyreferringtoimaginativeandartisticratherthanscientificorexpository writing.Currentusagesometimesrestrictsthemeaningtolightorhumorouswritingandappreciative essaysaboutliterature. LewisCarroll'sAliceinWonderlandepitomizestherealmofbelleslettres. Bildungsroman:(AlsoknownasApprenticeshipNovel,ComingofAgeNovel,Erziehungsroman,or Kunstlerroman.)AGermanwordmeaning"novelofdevelopment."Thebildungsromanisastudyofthe maturationofayouthfulcharacter,typicallybroughtaboutthroughaseriesofsocialorsexual encountersthatleadtoselfawareness.Bildungsromanisusedinterchangeablywitherziehungsroman,a novelofinitiationandeducation.Whenabildungsromanisconcernedwiththedevelopmentofanartist

(asinJamesJoyce'sAPortraitoftheArtistasaYoungMan),itisoftentermedakunstlerroman. WellknownbildungsromaneincludeJ.D.Salinger'sTheCatcherintheRye,RobertNewtonPeck'sA DayNoPigsWouldDie,andS.E.Hinton'sTheOutsiders. Biography:Aconnectednarrativethattellsaperson'slifestory.Biographiestypicallyaimtobe objectiveandcloselydetailed.JamesBoswell'sTheLifeofSamuelJohnson,LL.Disafamousexample oftheform.(ComparewithAutobiographyandMemoirs. BlackAestheticMovement:(AlsoknownasBlackArtsMovement.)Aperiodofartisticandliterary developmentamongAfricanAmericansinthe1960sandearly1970s.ThiswasthefirstmajorAfrican AmericanartisticmovementsincetheHarlemRenaissanceandwascloselyparalleledbythecivilrights andblackpowermovements.Theblackaestheticwritersattemptedtoproduceworksofartthatwould bemeaningfultotheblackmasses.Keyfiguresinblackaestheticsincludedoneofitsfounders,poet andplaywrightAmiriBaraka,formerlyknownasLeRoiJones;poetandessayistHakiR.Madhubuti, formerlyDonL.Lee;poetandplaywrightSoniaSanchez;anddramatistEdBullins. WorksrepresentativeoftheBlackAestheticMovementincludeAmiriBaraka'splayDutchman,a1964 Obieawardwinner;BlackFire:AnAnthologyofAfroAmericanWriting,editedbyBarakaand playwrightLarryNealandpublishedin1968;andSoniaSanchez'spoetrycollectionWeaBaddDDD People,publishedin1970. BlackArtsMovement:SeeBlackAestheticMovement BlackComedy:SeeBlackHumor BlackHumor:(AlsoknownasBlackComedy.)Writingthatplacesgrotesqueelementssidebyside withhumorousonesinanattempttoshockthereader,forcinghimorhertolaughatthehorrifying realityofadisorderedworld. JosephHeller'snovelCatch22isconsideredasuperbexampleoftheuseofblackhumor.Otherwell knownauthorswhouseblackhumorincludeKurtVonnegut,EdwardAlbee,EugeneIonesco,and HaroldPinter. BlackMountainSchool:BlackMountainCollegeandthreeofitsinstructorsRobertCreeley, RobertDuncan,andCharlesOlsonwereallinfluentialinprojectiveverse,sopoetsworkingin projectiveversearenowreferredasmembersoftheBlackMountainschool. TheBlackMountainReviewpublishedmuchoftheworkofBlackMountainschoolpoets. BlankVerse:Loosely,anyunrhymedpoetry,butmoregenerally,unrhymediambicpentameter verse(composedoflinesoffivetwosyllablefeetwiththefirstsyllableaccented,thesecond unaccented).BlankversehasbeenusedbypoetssincetheRenaissanceforitsflexibilityandits graceful,dignifiedtone. JohnMilton'sParadiseLostisinblankverse,asaremostofWilliamShakespeare'splays. (SeealsoAccent,Foot,Measure,andMeter.) BloomsburyGroup:AgroupofEnglishwriters,artists,andintellectualswhoheldinformalartistic andphilosophicaldiscussionsinBloomsbury,adistrictofLondon,fromaround1907totheearly 1930s.TheBloomsburyGroupheldnouniformphilosophicalbeliefsbutdidcommonlyexpressan aversiontomoralpruderyandadesireforgreatersocialtolerance. AtvarioustimesthecircleincludedVirginiaWoolf,E.M.Forster,CliveBell,LyttonStrachey,and JohnMaynardKeynes. BonMot:AFrenchtermmeaning"goodword."Abonmotisawittyremarkorcleverobservation.

CharlesLambandOscarWildearecelebratedfortheirwittybonmots.TwoexamplesbyOscarWilde standout:(1)"Allwomenbecometheirmothers.Thatistheirtragedy.Nomandoes.That'shis."(2)"A mancannotbetoocarefulinthechoiceofhisenemies." BreathVerse:SeeProjectiveVerse Burlesque:Anyliteraryworkthatusesexaggerationtomakeitssubjectappearridiculous,eitherby treatingatrivialsubjectwithprofoundseriousnessorbytreatingadignifiedsubjectfrivolously.The word"burlesque"mayalsobeusedasanadjective,asin"burlesqueshow,"tomean"stripteaseact." ExamplesofliteraryburlesqueincludethecomediesofAristophanes,MigueldeCervantes'sDon Quixote,,SamuelButler'spoem"Hudibras,"andJohnGay'splayTheBeggar'sOpera.(Comparewith Parody.)

C
Cadence:Thenaturalrhythmoflanguagecausedbythealternationofaccentedandunaccented syllables.MuchmodernPoetrynotablyfreeVersedeliberatelymanipulatescadencetocreate complexrhythmiceffects. JamesMacpherson's"Ossianpoems"arerichlycadenced,asisthepoetryoftheSymbolists,Walt Whitman,andAmyLowell.(ComparewithMeter.) Caesura:ApauseinalineofPoetry,usuallyoccurringnearthemiddle.Ittypicallycorrespondstoa breakinthenaturalrhythmorsenseofthelinebutissometimesshiftedtocreatespecialmeaningsor rhythmiceffects. TheopeninglineofEdgarAllanPoe's"TheRaven"containsacaesurafollowing"dreary":"Onceupon amidnightdreary,whileIponderedweakandweary...." (ComparewithCadence.) Canzone:AshortItalianorProvencallyricpoem,commonlyaboutloveandoftensettomusic.The canzonehasnosetformbuttypicallycontainsfiveorsixstanzasmadeupofseventotwentylinesof elevensyllableseach.Ashorter,fivetotenline"envoy,"orconcludingstanza,completesthepoem. MastersofthecanzoneformincludePetrarch,DanteAlighieri,TorquatoTasso,andGuidoCavalcanti. CarpeDiem:ALatintermmeaning"seizetheday."ThisisatraditionalthemeofPoetry,especially lyrics.Acarpediempoemadvisesthereaderorthepersonitaddressestolivefortodayandenjoythe pleasuresofthemoment. TwocelebratedcarpediempoemsareAndrewMarvell's"ToHisCoyMistress"andRobertHerrick's poembeginning"Gatheryerosebudswhileyemay...." Catharsis:Thereleaseorpurgingofunwantedemotionsspecificallyfearandpitybroughtabout byexposuretoart.ThetermwasfirstusedbytheGreekphilosopherAristotleinhisPoeticstoreferto thedesiredeffectoftragedyonspectators. AfamousexampleofcatharsisisrealizedinSophocles'OedipusRex,whenOedipusdiscoversthathis wife,Jacosta,ishisownmotherandthatthestrangerhekilledontheroadwashisownfather.(Seealso AristotelianCriticism.) CelticRenaissance:(AlsoknownasCelticTwilight.)AperiodofIrishliteraryandculturalhistoryat theendofthenineteenthcentury.Followersofthemovementaimedtocreatearomanticvisionof Celticmythandlegend.ThemostsignificantworksoftheCelticRenaissancetypicallypresenta dreamy,unrealworld,usuallyinreactionagainsttherealityofcontemporaryproblems.

WilliamButlerYeats'sTheWanderingsofOisinisamongthemostsignificantworksoftheCeltic Renaissance.(ComparewithIrishLiteraryRenaissanceandromanticism.) CelticTwilight:SeeCelticRenaissance Character:Broadlyspeaking,apersoninaliterarywork.Theactionsofcharactersarewhatconstitute theplotofastory,novel,orpoem.Therearenumeroustypesofcharacters,rangingfromsimple, stereotypicalfigurestointricate,multifacetedones.InthetechniquesofAnthropomorphismand personification,animalsandevenplacesorthingscanassumeaspectsofcharacter. "Characterization"istheprocessbywhichanauthorcreatesvivid,believablecharactersinaworkof art.Thismaybedoneinavarietyofways,including(1)directdescriptionofthecharacterbythe narrator;(2)thedirectpresentationofthespeech,thoughts,oractionsofthecharacter;and(3)the responsesofothercharacterstothecharacter.Theterm"character"alsoreferstoaformoriginatedby theancientGreekwriterTheophrastusthatlaterbecamepopularintheseventeenthandeighteenth centuries.Itisashortessayorsketchofapersonwhoprominentlydisplaysaspecificattributeor quality,suchasmiserlinessorambition. NotablecharactersinliteratureincludeOedipusRex,DonQuixotedelaMancha,Macbeth,Candide, HesterPrynne,EbenezerScrooge,HuckleberryFinn,JayGatsby,ScarlettO'Hara,JamesBond,and KuntaKinte. Characterization:SeeCharacter Chorus:InancientGreekdrama,agroupofactorswhocommentedonandinterpretedtheunfolding actiononthestage.Initiallythechoruswasamajorcomponentofthepresentation,butovertimeit becamelesssignificant,withitsnumbersreducedanditsroleeventuallylimitedtocommentary betweenActs.Bythesixteenthcenturythechorusifemployedatallwastypicallyasingleperson whoprovidedaprologueandanepilogueandoccasionallyappearedbetweenactstointroduceor underscoreanimportantevent. ThechorusinWilliamShakespeare'sHenryVfunctionsinthisway.Moderndramasrarelyfeaturea chorus,butT.S.Eliot'sMurderintheCathedralandArthurMiller'sAViewfromtheBridgearenotable exceptions.TheStageManagerinThorntonWilder'sOurTownperformsarolesimilartothatofthe chorus. Chronicle:Arecordofeventspresentedinchronologicalorder.Althoughthescopeandlevelofdetail providedvariesgreatlyamongthechroniclessurvivingfromancienttimes,some,suchastheAnglo SaxonChronicle,featurevividdescriptionsandalivelyrecountingofevents.DuringtheElizabethan Age,manydramasappropriatelycalled"chronicleplays"werebasedonmaterialfromchronicles. ManyofWilliamShakespeare'sdramasofEnglishhistoryaswellasChristopherMarlowe'sEdwardII arebasedinpartonRaphaelHolinshead'sChroniclesofEngland,Scotland,andIreland. Classical:Initsstrictestdefinitioninliterarycriticism,classicismreferstoworksofancientGreekor Romanliterature.Thetermmayalsobeusedtodescribealiteraryworkofrecognizedimportance(a "classic")fromanytimeperiodorliteraturethatexhibitsthetraitsofclassicism. ClassicalauthorsfromancientGreekandRomantimesincludeJuvenalandHomer.Examplesoflater worksandauthorsnowdescribedasclassicalincludeFrenchliteratureoftheseventeenthcentury, Westernnovelsofthenineteenthcentury,andAmericanfictionofthemidnineteenthcenturysuchas thatwrittenbyJamesFenimoreCooperandMarkTwain. Classicism:Atermusedinliterarycriticismtodescribecriticaldoctrinesthathavetheirrootsin

ancientGreekandRomanliterature,philosophy,andart.Worksassociatedwithclassicismtypically exhibitrestraintonthepartoftheauthor,unityofdesignandpurpose,clarity,simplicity,logical organization,andrespectfortradition. ExamplesofliteraryclassicismincludeCicero'sprose,thedramasofPierreCorneilleandJeanRacine, thePoetryofJohnDrydenandAlexanderPope,andthewritingsofJ.W.vonGoethe,G.E.Lessing, andT.S.Eliot. Climax:Theturningpointinanarrative,themomentwhentheconflictisatitsmostintense.Typically, thestructureofstories,novels,andplaysisoneofrisingaction,inwhichtensionbuildstotheclimax, followedbyfallingaction,inwhichtensionlessensasthestorymovestoitsconclusion. TheclimaxinJamesFenimoreCooper'sTheLastoftheMohicansoccurswhenMaguaandhiscaptive CoraarepursuedtotheedgeofacliffbyUncas.MaguakillsUncasbutissubsequentlykilledby Hawkeye.(SeealsoDenouement,plot,andRisingAction.) Colloquialism:Aword,phrase,orformofpronunciationthatisacceptableincasualconversationbut notinformal,writtencommunication.Itisconsideredmoreacceptablethanslang. AnexampleofcolloquialismcanbefoundinRudyardKipling'sBarrackroomBallads: When'Omersmote'isbloomin'lyre He'd'eardmensingbylandandsea; An'whathethought'emightrequire 'Ewentan'tookthesameasme! Comedy:Oneoftwomajortypesofdrama,theotherbeingtragedy.Itsaimistoamuse,andittypically endshappily.Comedyassumesmanyforms,suchasfarceandburlesque,andusesavarietyof techniques,fromparodytosatire.Inarestrictedsensethetermcomedyrefersonlytodramatic presentations,butingeneralusageitiscommonlyappliedtonondramaticworksaswell. ExamplesofcomediesrangefromtheplaysofAristophanes,Terrence,andPlautus,DanteAlighieri's TheDivineComedy,FrancoisRabelais'sPantagruelandGargantua,andsomeofGeoffreyChaucer's talesandWilliamShakespeare'splaystoNoelCoward'splayPrivateLivesandJamesThurber'sshort story"TheSecretLifeofWalterMitty."(ComparewithMelodrama.)(SeealsoBlackHumor, Commediadell'arte,ComedyofManners,Farce,Parody.) ComedyofManners:Aplayaboutthemannersandconventionsofanaristocratic,highly sophisticatedsociety.Thecharactersareusuallytypesratherthanindividualizedpersonalities,andplot islessimportantthanatmosphere.Suchplayswereanimportantaspectoflateseventeenthcentury EnglishComedy.ThecomedyofmannerswasrevivedintheeighteenthcenturybyOliverGoldsmith andRichardBrinsleySheridan,enjoyedasecondrevivalinthelatenineteenthcentury,andhasendured intothetwentiethcentury. ExamplesofcomediesofmannersincludeWilliamCongreve'sTheWayoftheWorldinthelate seventeenthcentury,OliverGoldsmith'sSheStoopstoConquerandRichardBrinsleySheridan'sThe SchoolforScandalintheeighteenthcentury,OscarWilde'sTheImportanceofBeingEarnestinthe nineteenthcentury,andW.SomersetMaugham'sTheCircleinthetwentiethcentury. ComicRelief:Theuseofhumortolightenthemoodofaseriousortragicstory,especiallyinplays. ThetechniqueisverycommoninElizabethanworks,andcanbeanintegralpartoftheplotorsimplya briefeventdesignedtobreakthetensionofthescene. TheGravediggers'sceneinWilliamShakespeare'sHamletisafrequentlycitedexampleofcomicrelief. ComingofAgeNovel:SeeBildungsroman

Commediadell'arte:AnItaliantermmeaning"theComedyofguilds"or"thecomedyofprofessional actors."ThisformofdramaticcomedywaspopularinItalyduringthesixteenthcentury.Actorswere assignedstockroles(suchasPulcinella,thestupidservant,orPantalone,theoldmerchant)andgivena basicplottofollow,butalldialoguewasimprovised.Theroleswererigidlytypedandtheplotswere formulaic,usuallyrevolvingaroundyoungloverswhothwartedtheireldersandattainedwealthand happiness.Arigidconventionofthecommediadell'arteistheperiodicintrusionofHarlequin,who interruptstheplaywithlowbuffoonery. PeppinodeFilippo'sMetamorphosesofaWanderingMinstrelgavemodernaudiencesanideaofwhat commediadell'artemayhavebeenlike.Variousscenariosforcommediadell'artewerecompiledin Petraccone'sLacommediadell'arte,storia,technica,scenari,publishedin1927. Complaint:Alyricpoem,popularintheRenaissance,inwhichthespeakerexpressessorrowabouthis orhercondition.Typically,thespeaker'ssadnessiscausedbyanunresponsivelover,butsome complaintsciteothersourcesofunhappiness,suchaspovertyorfate. Acommonlycitedexampleis"AComplaintbyNightoftheLoverNotBeloved"byHenryHoward, EarlofSurrey.ThomasSackville's"ComplaintofHenry,DukeofBuckingham"tracestheduke's unhappinesstohisruthlessambition.(ComparewithLyricPoetry.) Conceit:Acleverandfancifulmetaphor,usuallyexpressedthroughelaborateandextended comparison,thatpresentsastrikingparallelbetweentwoseeminglydissimilarthingsforexample, elaboratelycomparingabeautifulwomantoanobjectlikeagardenorthesun.Theconceitwasa populardevicethroughouttheElizabethanAgeandBaroqueAgeandwastheprincipaltechniqueofthe seventeenthcenturyEnglishmetaphysicalpoets.Thisusageofthewordconceitisunrelatedtothebest knowndefinitionofconceitasanarrogantattitudeorbehavior. TheconceitfiguresprominentlyintheworksofJohnDonne,EmilyDickinson,andT.S.Eliot. (ComparewithDiscordiaconcours.) Concrete:Concreteistheoppositeofabstract,andreferstoathingthatactuallyexistsoradescription thatallowsthereadertoexperienceanobjectorconceptwiththesenses. HenryDavidThoreau'sWaldencontainsmuchconcretedescriptionofnatureandwildlife. ConcretePoetry:Poetryinwhichvisualelementsplayalargepartinthepoeticeffect.Punctuation marks,letters,orwordsarearrangedonapagetoformavisualdesign:across,forexample,ora bumblebee. MaxBillandEugeneGomringerwereamongtheearlypractitionersofconcretepoetry;Haroldode CamposandAugustodeCamposareamongcontemporaryauthorsofconcretepoetry. ConfessionalPoetry:AformofPoetryinwhichthepoetrevealsverypersonal,intimate,sometimes shockinginformationabouthimselforherself. AnneSexton,SylviaPlath,RobertLowell,andJohnBerrymanwrotepoetryintheconfessionalvein. Conflict:Theconflictinaworkoffictionistheissuetoberesolvedinthestory.Itusuallyoccurs betweentwocharacters,theprotagonistandtheantagonist,orbetweentheprotagonistandsocietyor theprotagonistandhimselforherself. ConflictinTheodoreDreiser'snovelSisterCarriecomesasaresultofurbansociety,whileJack London'sshortstory"ToBuildaFire"concernstheprotagonist'sbattleagainstthecoldandhimself. Connotation:Theimpressionthatawordgivesbeyonditsdefinedmeaning.Connotationsmaybe universallyunderstoodormaybesignificantonlytoacertaingroup. Both"horse"and"steed"denotethesameanimal,but"steed"hasadifferentconnotation,derivingfrom

thechivalrousorromanticnarrativesinwhichthewordwasonceoftenused.(Comparewith Denotation.) Consonance:(AlsoknownasHalfRhymeorSlantRhyme.)ConsonanceoccursinPoetrywhenwords appearingattheendsoftwoormoreverseshavesimilarfinalconsonantsoundsbuthavefinalvowel soundsthatdiffer,aswith"stuff"and"off." Consonanceisfoundin"Thecurfewtollstheknellsofpartingday"fromThomasGrey's"AnElegy WritteninaCountryChurchYard."(ComparewithAssonance.)(SeealsorhymeandVerse.) Convention:Anywidelyacceptedliterarydevice,style,orform. Asoliloquy,inwhichacharacterrevealstotheaudiencehisorherprivatethoughts,isanexampleofa dramaticconvention. Corrido:AMexicanballad. Examplesofcorridosinclude"MuertedelafamadoBilito,""Lavozdemiconciencia,""LucioPerez," "Lajuida,"and"Lospresos." Couplet:TwolinesofPoetrywiththesamerhymeandMeter,oftenexpressingacompleteandself containedthought. ThefollowingcoupletisfromAlexanderPope's"ElegytotheMemoryofanUnfortunateLady": 'TisUsealonethatsanctifiesExpense, AndSplendourborrowsallherraysfromSense. CrimeLiterature:Agenreoffictionthatfocusesontheenvironment,behavior,andpsychologyof criminals. ProminentwritersofcrimenovelsincludeJohnWainwright,ColinWatson,NicolasFreeling,Ruth Rendell,JessicaMann,MickeySpillane,andPatriciaHighsmith. Criticism:Thesystematicstudyandevaluationofliteraryworks,usuallybasedonaspecificmethodor setofprinciples.Animportantpartofliterarystudiessinceancienttimes,thepracticeofcriticismhas givenrisetonumeroustheories,methods,and"schools,"sometimesproducingconflicting,even contradictory,interpretationsofliteratureingeneralaswellasofindividualworks.Evensuchbasic issuesaswhatconstitutesapoemoranovelhavebeenthesubjectofmuchcriticismoverthecenturies. SeminaltextsofliterarycriticismincludePlato'sRepublic,Aristotle'sPoetics,SirPhilipSidney'sThe DefenceofPoesie,JohnDryden'sOfDramaticPoesie,andWilliamWordsworth's"Preface"tothe secondeditionofhisLyricalBallads.Contemporaryschoolsofcriticismincludedeconstruction, feminist,psychoanalytic,poststructuralist,newhistoricist,postcolonialist,andreaderresponse. (SeealsoAestheticism,AristotelianCriticism,classicism,Existentialism,Formalism,Humanism, Modernism,Naturalism,Neoclassicism,NewCriticism,Phenomenology,PlatonicCriticism,Realism, romanticism,Semiotics,SocialistRealism,Structuralism,TextualCriticism,andTranscendentalism.) D D Dactyl:SeeFoot Dadaism:AprotestmovementinartandliteraturefoundedbyTristanTzarain1916.Followersofthe movementexpressedtheiroutrageatthedestructionbroughtaboutbyWorldWarIbyrevoltingagainst

numerousformsofsocialconvention.TheDadaistspresentedworksmarkedbycalculatedmadnessand flamboyantnonsense.Theystressedtotalfreedomofexpression,commonlythroughprimitivedisplays ofemotionandillogical,oftensenseless,Poetry.Themovementendedshortlyafterthewar,whenit wasreplacedbysurrealism. ProponentsofDadaismincludeAndreBreton,LouisAragon,PhilippeSoupault,andPaulEluard. Decadents:ThefollowersofanineteenthcenturyliterarymovementthathaditsbeginningsinFrench Aestheticism.Decadentliteraturedisplaysafascinationwithperverseandmorbidstates;asearchfor noveltyandsensationthe"newthrill";apreoccupationwithmysticism;andabeliefinthe senselessnessofhumanexistence.ThemovementiscloselyassociatedwiththedoctrineArtforArt's Sake.Theterm"decadence"issometimesusedtodenoteadeclineinthequalityofartorliterature followingaperiodofgreatness. MajorFrenchdecadentsareCharlesBaudelaireandArthurRimbaud.EnglishdecadentsincludeOscar Wilde,ErnestDowson,andFrankHarris.(ComparewithAestheticism.) Deconstruction:AmethodofliterarycriticismdevelopedbyJacquesDerridaandcharacterizedby multipleconflictinginterpretationsofagivenwork.Deconstructionistsconsidertheimpactofthe languageofaworkandsuggestthatthetruemeaningoftheworkisnotnecessarilythemeaningthat theauthorintended. JacquesDerrida'sDelagrammatologieistheseminaltextondeconstructivestrategies;among AmericanpractitionersofthismethodofcriticismarePauldeManandJ.HillisMiller. Deduction:Theprocessofreachingaconclusionthroughreasoningfromgeneralpremisestoaspecific premise. Anexampleofdeductionispresentinthefollowingsyllogism: Premise:Allmammalsareanimals. Premise:Allwhalesaremammals. Conclusion:Therefore,allwhalesareanimals. (ComparewithInduction.) Denotation:Thedefinitionofaword,apartfromtheimpressionsorfeelingsitcreatesinthereader. Theword"apartheid"denotesapoliticalandeconomicpolicyofsegregationbyrace,butits connotationsoppression,slavery,inequalityarenumerous. Denouement:(AlsoknownasFallingAction.)AFrenchwordmeaning"theunknotting."Inliterary criticism,itdenotestheresolutionofconflictinfictionordrama.Thedenouementfollowstheclimax andprovidesanoutcometotheprimaryplotsituationaswellasanexplanationofsecondaryplot complications.Thedenouementofteninvolvesacharacter'srecognitionofhisorherstateofmindor moralcondition. AwellknownexampleofdenouementisthelastsceneoftheplayAsYouLikeItbyWilliam Shakespeare,inwhichcouplesaremarried,anevildoerrepents,theidentitiesoftwodisguised charactersarerevealed,andarulerisrestoredtopower. Description:Descriptivewritingisintendedtoallowareadertopicturethesceneorsettinginwhich theactionofastorytakesplace.Theformthisdescriptiontakesoftenevokesanintendedemotional responseadark,spookygraveyardwillevokefear,andapeaceful,sunnymeadowwillevoke calmness. AnexampleofadescriptivestoryisEdgarAllanPoe'sLandor'sCottage,whichoffersadetailed depictionofaNewYorkcountryestate.

DetectiveStory:Anarrativeaboutthesolutionofamysteryortheidentificationofacriminal.The conventionsofthedetectivestoryincludethedetective'sscrupuloususeoflogicinsolvingthemystery; incompetentorineffectualpolice;asuspectwhoappearsguiltyatfirstbutislaterprovedinnocent;and thedetective'sfriendorconfidantoftenthenarratorwhoseslownessininterpretingclues emphasizesbycontrastthedetective'sbrilliance. EdgarAllanPoe's"MurdersintheRueMorgue"iscommonlyregardedastheearliestexampleofthis typeofstory.Withthiswork,Poeestablishedmanyoftheconventionsofthedetectivestorygenre, whicharestillinpractice.OtherpractitionersofthisvastandextremelypopulargenreincludeArthur ConanDoyle,DashiellHammett,andAgathaChristie. Deusexmachina:ALatintermmeaning"godoutofamachine."InGreekdrama,agodwasoften loweredontothestagebyamechanismofsomekindtorescuetheherooruntangletheplot.By extension,thetermreferstoanyartificialdeviceorcoincidenceusedtobringaboutaconvenientand simplesolutiontoaplot.Thisisacommondeviceinmelodramasandincludessuchfortunate circumstancesasthesuddenreceiptofalegacytosavethefamilyfarmoralastminutestayof execution.Thedeusexmachinainvariablyrewardsthevirtuousandpunishesevildoers. ExamplesofdeusexmachinaincludeKingLouisXIVinJeanBaptisteMoliere'sTartuffeandQueen VictoriainThePiratesofPenzancebyWilliamGilbertandArthurSullivan.BertoltBrechtparodiesthe abuseofsuchdevicesintheconclusionofhisThreepennyOpera. Dialogue:Initswidestsense,dialogueissimplyconversationbetweenpeopleinaliterarywork;inits mostrestrictedsense,itrefersspecificallytothespeechofcharactersinadrama.Asaspecificliterary genre,a"dialogue"isacompositioninwhichcharactersdebateanissueoridea. TheGreekphilosopherPlatofrequentlyexpoundedhistheoriesintheformofdialogues. Diary:Apersonalwrittenrecordofdailyeventsandthoughts.Asprivatedocuments,diariesare supposedlynotintendedforanaudience,butsome,suchasthoseofSamuelPepysandAnaisNin,are knownfortheirhighliteraryquality. TheDiaryofAnneFrankisanexampleofawellknowndiarydiscoveredandpublishedafterthe author'sdeath.Manywritershaveusedthediaryformasadeliberateliterarydevice,asinNikolai Gogol'sstory"DiaryofaMadman."(ComparewithAutobiography.) Diction:Theselectionandarrangementofwordsinaliterarywork.Eitherorbothmayvarydepending onthedesiredeffect.Therearefourgeneraltypesofdiction:"formal,"usedinscholarlyorlofty writing;"informal,"usedinrelaxedbuteducatedconversation;"colloquial,"usedineverydayspeech; and"slang,"containingnewlycoinedwordsandothertermsnotacceptedinformalusage. (SeealsoColloquialism.) Didactic:Atermusedtodescribeworksofliteraturethataimtoteachsomemoral,religious,political, orpracticallesson.Althoughdidacticelementsareoftenfoundinartisticallypleasingworks,theterm "didactic"usuallyreferstoliteratureinwhichthemessageismoreimportantthantheform.Theterm mayalsobeusedtocriticizeaworkthatthecriticfinds"overlydidactic,"thatis,heavyhandedinits deliveryofalesson. ExamplesofdidacticliteratureincludeJohnBunyan'sPilgrim'sProgress,AlexanderPope'sessayon Criticism,JeanJacquesRousseau'sEmile,andElizabethInchbald'sSimpleStory. Dimeter:SeeMeter Dionysian:SeeApollonianandDionysian

Discordiaconcours:ALatinphrasemeaning"discordinharmony."Thetermwascoinedbythe eighteenthcenturyEnglishwriterSamuelJohnsontodescribe"acombinationofdissimilarimagesor discoveryofoccultresemblancesinthingsapparentlyunlike."Johnsoncreatedtheexpressionby reversingaphrasebytheLatinpoetHorace. ThemetaphysicalpoetryofJohnDonne,RichardCrashaw,AbrahamCowley,GeorgeHerbert,and EdwardTayloramongothers,containsmanyexamplesofdiscordiaconcours.InDonne's"A Valediction:ForbiddingMourning,"thepoetcomparestheunionofhimselfwithhislovertoa draftsman'scompass: Iftheybetwo,theyaretwoso, Asstifftwincompassesaretwo: Thysoul,thefixedfoot,makesnoshow Tomove,butdoth,iftheotherdo; Andthoughitinthecentersit, Yetwhentheotherfardothroam, Itleans,andhearkensafterit, Andgrowserect,asthatcomeshome. (Comparewithconceit.) Dissonance:Acombinationofharshorjarringsounds,especiallyinPoetry.Althoughsuch combinationsmaybeaccidental,poetssometimesintentionallymakethemtoachieveparticulareffects. Dissonanceisalsosometimesusedtorefertoclosebutnotidenticalrhymes.Whenthisisthecase,the wordfunctionsasasynonymforConsonance. RobertBrowning,GerardManleyHopkins,andmanyotherpoetshavemadedeliberateuseof dissonance.(ComparewithAssonance.) Documentary:Aworkthatfeaturesalargeamountofdocumentarymaterialsuchasnewspaperstories, trialtranscripts,andlegalreports.Suchworkscanincludefictionalizedsegmentsormaycontaina fictionalstoryinwhichtheauthorincorporatesreallifeinformationorevents;thesearereferredtoas documentarynovels. ExamplesofdocumentarynovelsincludetheworksofTheodoreDreiser,EmileZola,JohnDosPassos, andJamesT.Farrell.AnexampleofanonfictionalliterarydocumentaryisJamesAgee'sandWalker Evans'sLetUsNowPraiseFamousMen. DocumentaryNovel:SeeDocumentary Doppelganger:(AlsoknownasTheDouble.)Aliterarytechniquebywhichacharacterisduplicated (usuallyintheformofanalterego,thoughsometimesasaghostlycounterpart)ordividedintotwo distinct,usuallyoppositepersonalities.Theuseofthischaracterdeviceiswidespreadinnineteenth andtwentiethcenturyliterature,andindicatesagrowingawarenessamongauthorsthatthe"self"is reallyacompositeofmany"selves." AwellknownstorycontainingadoppelgangercharacterisRobertLouisStevenson'sDr.Jekylland Mr.Hyde,whichdramatizesaninternalstrugglebetweengoodandevil. DoubleEntendre:AcorruptionofaFrenchphrasemeaning"doublemeaning."Thetermisusedto indicateawordorphrasethatisdeliberatelyambiguous,especiallywhenoneofthemeaningsisrisque orimproper. AnexampleofadoubleentendreistheElizabethanusageoftheverb"die,"whichrefersbothtodeath andtoorgasm.

Double,The:SeeDoppelganger Draft:Anypreliminaryversionofawrittenwork.Anauthormaywritedozensofdraftswhichare revisedtoformthefinalwork,orheorshemaywriteonlyone,withfewornorevisions. DorothyParker'sobservationthat"Ican'twritefivewordsbutthatIchangeseven"humorously indicatesthepurposeofthedraft. Drama:Initswidestsense,adramaisanyworkdesignedtobepresentedbyactorsonastage. Similarly,"drama"denotesabroadliterarygenrethatincludesavarietyofforms,frompageantand spectacletotragedyandComedy,aswellascountlesstypesandsubtypes.Morecommonlyinmodern usage,however,adramaisaworkthattreatsserioussubjectsandthemesbutdoesnotaimatthe grandeuroftragedy.ThisuseofthetermoriginatedwiththeeighteenthcenturyFrenchwriterDenis Diderot,whousedtheworddrametodesignatehisplaysaboutmiddleclasslife;thus"drama"typically featurescharactersofalessexaltedstaturethanthoseoftragedy. ExamplesofclassicaldramasincludeMenander'scomedyDyscolusandSophocles'tragedyOedipus Rex.ContemporarydramasincludeEugeneO'Neill'sTheIcemanCometh,LillianHellman'sLittle Foxes,andAugustWilson'sMaRainey'sBlackBottom.(ComparewithMelodrama.)(SeealsoComedy ofManners,Commediadell'arte,EpicTheater,Farce,genre,Masque,RevengeTragedy,Theaterofthe Absurd,andTheaterofCruelty.) DramaticIrony:Occurswhentheaudienceofaplayorthereaderofaworkofliteratureknows somethingthatacharacterintheworkitselfdoesnotknow.Theironyisinthecontrastbetweenthe intendedmeaningofthestatementsoractionsofacharacterandtheadditionalinformationunderstood bytheaudience. AcelebratedexampleofdramaticironyisinActVofWilliamShakespeare'sRomeoandJuliet,where twoyoungloversmeettheirendasaresultofatragicmisunderstanding.Here,theaudiencehasfull knowledgethatJuliet'sapparent"death"ismerelytemporary;shewillregainhersenseswhenthe mysterious"sleepingpotion"shehastakenwearsoff.ButRomeo,mistakingJuliet'sdruginduced trancefortruedeath,killshimselfingrief.Uponawakening,JulietdiscoversRomeo'scorpseand,in despair,slaysherself. DramaticMonologue:SeeMonologue DramaticPoetry:Anylyricworkthatemployselementsofdramasuchasdialogue,conflict,or characterization,butexcludingworksthatareintendedforstagepresentation. AMonologueisaformofdramaticpoetry.(ComparewithLyricPoetryandNarrativePoetry.)(See alsoPoetry.) DramatisPersonae:Thecharactersinaworkofliterature,particularlyadrama. Thelistofcharactersprintedbeforethemaintextofaplayorintheprogramisthedramatispersonae. DreamAllegory:SeeDreamVision DreamVision:(AlsoknownasDreamAllegory.)Aliteraryconvention,chieflyoftheMiddleAges.In adreamvisionastoryispresentedasaliteraldreamofthenarrator.Thisdevicewascommonlyusedto teachmoralandreligiouslessons. ImportantworksofthistypeareTheDivineComedybyDanteAlighieri,PiersPlowmanbyWilliam Langland,andThePilgrim'sProgressbyJohnBunyan.(SeealsoAllegory.) Dystopia:Animaginaryplaceinaworkoffictionwherethecharactersleaddehumanized,fearful lives.

JackLondon'sTheIronHeel,YevgenyZamyatin'sMy,AldousHuxley'sBraveNewWorld,George Orwell'sNineteenEightyfour,andMargaretAtwood'sHandmaid'sTaleportrayversionsofdystopia. (ComparewithUtopia.)

E
Eclogue:Inclassicalliterature,apoemfeaturingruralthemesandstructuredasadialogueamong shepherds.Ecloguesoftentookspecificpoeticforms,suchaselegiesorlovepoems.Somewerewritten astheSoliloquyofashepherd.Inlatercenturies,"eclogue"cametorefertoanypoemthatwasinthe pastoraltraditionorthathadadialogueorMonologuestructure. AclassicalexampleofaneclogueisVirgil'sEclogues,alsoknownasBucolics.GiovanniBoccaccio, EdmundSpenser,AndrewMarvell,JonathanSwift,andLouisMacNeicealsowroteeclogues. (ComparewithPastoral.) Edwardian:DescribesculturalconventionsidentifiedwiththeperiodofthereignofEdwardVIIof England(19011910).WritersoftheEdwardianAgetypicallydisplayedastrongreactionagainstthe proprietyandconservatismoftheVictorianAge.Theirworkoftenexhibitsdistrustofauthorityin religion,politics,andartandexpressesstrongdoubtsaboutthesoundnessofconventionalvalues. WritersofthiseraincludeGeorgeBernardShaw,H.G.Wells,andJosephConrad.(Comparewith Victorian.) EdwardianAge:SeeEdwardian ElectraComplex:Adaughter'samorousobsessionwithherfather. ThetermElectracomplexcomesfromtheplaysofEuripidesandSophoclesentitledElectra,inwhich thecharacterElectradrivesherbrotherOrestestokilltheirmotherandherloverinrevengeforthe murderoftheirfather.(ComparewithOedipusComplex.) Elegy:Alyricpoemthatlamentsthedeathofapersonortheeventualdeathofallpeople.Ina conventionalelegy,setinaclassicalworld,thepoetandsubjectarespokenofasshepherds.Inmodern criticism,thewordelegyisoftenusedtorefertoapoemthatismelancholyormournfully contemplative. JohnMilton's"Lycidas"andPercyByssheShelley's"Adonais"aretwoexamplesofthisform.(Seealso Pastoral.) ElizabethanAge:Aperiodofgreateconomicgrowth,religiouscontroversy,andnationalismclosely associatedwiththereignofElizabethIofEngland(15581603).TheElizabethanAgeisconsidereda partofthegeneralRenaissancethatis,thefloweringofartsandliteraturethattookplacein Europeduringthefourteenththroughsixteenthcenturies.Theeraisconsideredthegoldenageof Englishliterature.ThemostimportantdramasinEnglishandagreatdealoflyricPoetrywereproduced duringthisperiod,andmodernEnglishcriticismbeganaroundthistime. ThenotableauthorsoftheperiodPhilipSidney,EdmundSpenser,ChristopherMarlowe,William Shakespeare,BenJonson,FrancisBacon,andJohnDonneareamongthebestinallofEnglish literature. ElizabethanDrama:EnglishcomicandtragicplaysproducedduringtheRenaissance,ormore narrowly,thoseplayswrittenduringthelastyearsofandfewyearsafterQueenElizabeth'sreign. WilliamShakespeareisconsideredanElizabethandramatistinthebroadersense,althoughmostofhis workwasproducedduringthereignofJamesI.

ExamplesofElizabethancomediesincludeJohnLyly'sTheWomanintheMoone,ThomasDekker's TheRoaringGirl,or,MollCutPurse,andWilliamShakespeare'sTwelfthNight.Examplesof ElizabethantragediesincludeWilliamShakespeare'sAntonyandCleopatra,ThomasKyd'sThe SpanishTragedy,andJohnWebster'sTheTragedyoftheDuchessofMalfi. Empathy:Asenseofsharedexperience,includingemotionalandphysicalfeelings,withsomeoneor somethingotherthanoneself.Empathyisoftenusedtodescribetheresponseofareadertoaliterary character. AnexampleofanempathicpassageisWilliamShakespeare'sdescriptioninhisnarrativepoemVenus andAdonisof: thesnail,whosetenderhornsbeinghit, Shrinksbackwardinhisshellycavewithpain. ReadersofGerardManleyHopkins'sTheWindhovermayexperiencesomeofthephysicalsensations evokedinthedescriptionofthemovementofthefalcon. EnglishSonnet:SeeSonnet Enjambment:TherunningoverofthesenseandstructureofalineofVerseoracoupletintothe followingverseorcouplet. AndrewMarvell's"ToHisCoyMistress"isstructuredasaseriesofenjambments,asinlines1112: "Myvegetableloveshouldgrow/Vasterthanempiresandmoreslow." Enlightenment,The:Aneighteenthcenturyphilosophicalmovement.ItbeganinFrancebuthada wideimpactthroughoutEuropeandAmerica.ThinkersoftheEnlightenmentvaluedreasonand believedthatboththeindividualandsocietycouldachieveastateofperfection.Correspondingtothis essentiallyhumanistvisionwasaresistancetoreligiousauthority. ImportantfiguresoftheEnlightenmentwereDenisDiderotandVoltaireinFrance,EdwardGibbonand DavidHumeinEngland,andThomasPaineandThomasJeffersonintheUnitedStates.(Comparewith Neoclassicism.)(SeealsoHumanism.) Epic:Alongnarrativepoemabouttheadventuresofaheroofgreathistoricorlegendaryimportance. Thesettingisvastandtheactionisoftengivencosmicsignificancethroughtheinterventionof supernaturalforcessuchasgods,angels,ordemons.Epicsaretypicallywritteninaclassicalstyleof grandsimplicitywithelaborateMetaphorsandallusionsthatenhancethesymbolicimportanceofa hero'sadventures. SomewellknownepicsareHomer'sIliadandOdyssey,Virgil'sAeneid,andJohnMilton'sParadise Lost. EpicSimile:SeeHomericSimile EpicTheater:AtheoryoftheatricalpresentationdevelopedbytwentiethcenturyGermanplaywright BertoltBrecht.Brechtcreatedatypeofdramathattheaudiencecouldviewwithcompletedetachment. Heusedwhathetermed"alienationeffects"tocreateanemotionaldistancebetweentheaudienceand theactiononstage.Amongtheseeffectsare:short,selfcontainedscenesthatkeeptheplayfrom buildingtoacatharticclimax;songsthatcommentontheaction;andtechniquesofactingthatprevent theactorfromdevelopinganemotionalidentitywithhisrole. BesidestheplaysofBertoltBrecht,otherplaysthatutilizeepictheaterconventionsincludethoseof GeorgBuchner,FrankWedekind,ErwinPiscator,andLeopoldJessner.(Comparewithcatharsis.) Epigram:Asayingthatmakesthespeaker'spointquicklyandconcisely.

SamuelTaylorColeridgewroteanepigramthatneatlysumsuptheform: WhatisanEpigram?ADwarfishwhole, Itsbodybrevity,andwititssoul. (ComparewithBonMot.) Epilogue:Aconcludingstatementorsectionofaliterarywork.Indramas,particularlythoseofthe seventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,theepilogueisaclosingspeech,ofteninVerse,deliveredbyan actorattheendofaplayandspokendirectlytotheaudience. AfamousepilogueisPuck'sspeechattheendofWilliamShakespeare'sAMidsummerNight'sDream. (ComparewithPrologue.) Epiphany:Asuddenrevelationoftruthinspiredbyaseeminglytrivialincident. ThetermwaswidelyusedbyJamesJoyceinhiscriticalwritings,andthestoriesinJoyce'sDubliners arecommonlycalled"epiphanies." Episode:Anincidentthatformspartofastoryandissignificantlyrelatedtoit.Episodesmaybeeither selfcontainednarrativesoreventsthatdependonalargercontextfortheirsenseandimportance. ExamplesofepisodesincludethefoundingofWilmington,DelawareinCharlesReade'sThe DisinheritedHeirandtheindividualeventscomprisingthepicaresquenovelsandmedievalromances. (ComparewithHamartia.) EpisodicPlot:SeePlot EpistolaryNovel:Anovelintheformofletters.Theformwasparticularlypopularintheeighteenth century. SamuelRichardson'sPamelaisconsideredthefirstfullydevelopedEnglishepistolarynovel. Epitaph:Aninscriptiononatombortombstone,oraVersewrittenontheoccasionofaperson's death.Epitaphsmaybeseriousorhumorous. DorothyParker'sepitaphreads,"ItoldyouIwassick." Epithalamion:(AlsospelledEpithalamium.)Asongorpoemwrittentohonorandcommemoratea marriageceremony. FamousexamplesincludeEdmundSpenser's"Epithalamion"ande.e.cummings's"Epithalamion." Epithalamium:SeeEpithalamion Epithet:Awordorphrase,oftendisparagingorabusive,thatexpressesacharactertraitofsomeoneor something. "TheNapoleonofcrime"isanepithetappliedtoProfessorMoriarty,archrivalofSherlockHolmesin ArthurConanDoyle'sseriesofdetectivestories. Erziehungsroman:SeeBildungsroman Essay:Aprosecompositionwithafocusedsubjectofdiscussion.ThetermwascoinedbyMichelde Montaignetodescribehis1580collectionofbrief,informalreflectionsonhimselfandonvarious topicsrelatingtohumannature.Anessaycanalsobealong,systematicdiscourse. AnexampleofalongeressayisJohnLocke'sAnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding. Exempla:SeeExemplum Exemplum:Atalewithamoralmessage.Thisformofliterarysermonizingflourishedduringthe MiddleAges,whenexemplaappearedincollectionsknownas"examplebooks."

TheworksofGeoffreyChaucerarefullofexempla.(ComparewithFable.) Existentialism:Apredominantlytwentiethcenturyphilosophyconcernedwiththenatureand perceptionofhumanexistence.Therearetwomajorstrainsofexistentialistthought:atheisticand Christian.Followersofatheisticexistentialismbelievethattheindividualisaloneinagodlessuniverse andthatthebasichumanconditionisoneofsufferingandloneliness.Nevertheless,becausethereare nofixedvalues,individualscancreatetheirowncharactersindeed,theycanshapethemselves throughtheexerciseoffreewill.Theatheisticstrainculminatesinandispopularlyassociatedwiththe worksofJeanPaulSartre.TheChristianexistentialists,ontheotherhand,believethatonlyinGodmay peoplefindfreedomfromlife'sanguish.Thetwostrainsholdcertainbeliefsincommon:thatexistence cannotbefullyunderstoodordescribedthroughempiricaleffort;thatanguishisauniversalelementof life;thatindividualsmustbearresponsibilityfortheiractions;andthatthereisnocommonstandardof behaviororperceptionforreligiousandethicalmatters. ExistentialistthoughtfiguresprominentlyintheworksofsuchauthorsasEugeneIonesco,Franz Kafka,FyodorDostoyevsky,SimonedeBeauvoir,SamuelBeckett,andAlbertCamus. Expatriates:SeeExpatriatism Expatriatism:Thepracticeofleavingone'scountrytoliveforanextendedperiodinanothercountry. LiteraryexpatriatesincludeEnglishpoetsPercyByssheShelleyandJohnKeatsinItaly,Polishnovelist JosephConradinEngland,AmericanwritersRichardWright,JamesBaldwin,GertrudeStein,and ErnestHemingwayinFrance,andTrinidadianauthorNeilBissondathinCanada. Exposition:Writingintendedtoexplainthenatureofanidea,thing,ortheme.Expositorywritingis oftencombinedwithdescription,narration,orargument.Indramaticwriting,theexpositionisthe introductorymaterialwhichpresentsthecharacters,setting,andtoneoftheplay. Anexampleofdramaticexpositionoccursinmanynineteenthcenturydrawingroomcomediesin whichthebutlerandthemaidopentheplaywithrelevanttalkabouttheirmasterandmistress;in composition,expositionrelaysfactualinformation,asinencyclopediaentries. Expressionism:Anindistinctliteraryterm,originallyusedtodescribeanearlytwentiethcentury schoolofGermanpainting.Thetermappliestoalmostanymodeofunconventional,highlysubjective writingthatdistortsrealityinsomeway. AdvocatesofExpressionismincludedramatistsGeorgeKaiser,ErnstToller,LuigiPirandello,Federico GarciaLorca,EugeneO'Neill,andElmerRice;poetsGeorgeHeym,ErnstStadler,AugustStramm, GottfriedBenn,andGeorgTrakl;andnovelistsFranzKafkaandJamesJoyce. ExtendedMonologue:SeeMonologue F F Fable:AproseorVersenarrativeintendedtoconveyamoral.Animalsorinanimateobjectswith humancharacteristicsoftenserveascharactersinfables. AfamousfableisAesop's"TheTortoiseandtheHare."(ComparewithExemplum.)(SeealsoAllegory, Anthropomorphism,andfolktale.) FairyTales:Shortnarrativesfeaturingmythicalbeingssuchasfairies,elves,andsprites.Thesetales

originallybelongedtothefolkloreofaparticularnationorregion,suchasthosecollectedinGermany byJacobandWilhelmGrimm. TwoothercelebratedwritersoffairytalesareHansChristianAndersenandRudyardKipling. FallingAction:SeeDenouement Fantasy:Aliteraryformrelatedtomythologyandfolklore.Fantasyliteratureistypicallysetinnon existentrealmsandfeaturessupernaturalbeings. NotableexamplesoffantasyliteratureareTheLordoftheRingsbyJ.R.R.Tolkienandthe GormenghasttrilogybyMervynPeake.(ComparewithFairyTales,folklore,andScienceFiction.) Farce:AtypeofComedycharacterizedbybroadhumor,outlandishincidents,andoftenvulgarsubject matter. Muchofthe"comedy"infilmandtelevisioncouldmoreaccuratelybedescribedasfarce.(Compare withBurlesque.)(Seealsodrama.) Feet:SeeFoot FeminineRhyme:SeeRhyme Femmefatale:AFrenchphrasewiththeliteraltranslation"fatalwoman."Afemmefataleisa sensuous,alluringwomanwhooftenleadsmenintodangerortrouble. AclassicexampleofthefemmefataleisthenamelesscharacterinBillyWilder'sTheSevenYearItch, portrayedbyMarilynMonroeinthefilmadaptation. Festschrift:Acollectionofessayswritteninhonorofadistinguishedscholarandpresentedtohimor hertomarksomespecialoccasion. ExamplesoffestschriftenareWorldsofJewishPrayer:AFestschriftinHonourofRabbiZalmanM. SchachterShalomiandTheOrganistasScholar:EssaysinMemoryofRussellSaunders. Fiction:Anystorythatistheproductofimaginationratherthanadocumentationoffact.characters andeventsinsuchnarrativesmaybebasedinreallifebuttheirultimateformandconfigurationisa creationoftheauthor. GeoffreyChaucer'sTheCanterburyTales,LaurenceSterne'sTristramShandy,andMargaretMitchell's GonewiththeWindareexamplesoffiction. FigurativeLanguage:Atechniqueinwritinginwhichtheauthortemporarilyinterruptstheorder, construction,ormeaningofthewritingforaparticulareffect.Thisinterruptiontakestheformofoneor morefiguresofspeechsuchashyperbole,irony,orsimile.Figurativelanguageistheoppositeofliteral language,inwhicheverywordistruthful,accurate,andfreeofexaggerationorembellishment. ExamplesoffigurativelanguagearetropessuchasMetaphorandrhetoricalfiguressuchasapostrophe. FiguresofSpeech:Writingthatdiffersfromcustomaryconventionsforconstruction,meaning,order, orsignificanceforthepurposeofaspecialmeaningoreffect.Therearetwomajortypesoffiguresof speech:rhetoricalfigures,whichdonotmakechangesinthemeaningofthewords,andtropes,which do. Typesoffiguresofspeechincludesimile,hyperbole,Alliteration,andpun,amongmanyothers.(See alsoFigurativeLanguage,irony.) Findesiecle:AFrenchtermmeaning"endofthecentury."Thetermisusedtodenotethelastdecade ofthenineteenthcentury,atransitionperiodwhenwritersandotherartistsabandonedoldconventions andlookedfornewtechniquesandobjectives.

TwowriterscommonlyassociatedwiththefindesieclemindsetareOscarWildeandGeorgeBernard Shaw.(ComparewithAestheticismandDecadents.) FirstPerson:SeePointofView Flashback:Adeviceusedinliteraturetopresentactionthatoccurredbeforethebeginningofthestory. Flashbacksareoftenintroducedasthedreamsorrecollectionsofoneormorecharacters. Flashbacktechniquesareoftenusedinfilms,wheretheyaretypicallysetoffbyagradualchangingof onepicturetoanother. Foil:Acharacterinaworkofliteraturewhosephysicalorpsychologicalqualitiescontraststrongly with,andthereforehighlight,thecorrespondingqualitiesofanothercharacter. InhisSherlockHolmesstories,ArthurConanDoyleportrayedDr.Watsonasamanofnormalhabits andintelligence,makinghimafoilfortheeccentricandwonderfullyperceptiveSherlockHolmes. FolkBallad:SeeBallad Folklore:Traditionsandmythspreservedinacultureorgroupofpeople.Typically,thesearepassedon bywordofmouthinvariousformssuchaslegends,songs,andproverbsorpreservedincustoms andceremonies.ThistermwasfirstusedbyW.J.Thomsin1846. SirJamesFrazer'sTheGoldenBoughistherecordofEnglishfolklore;mythsaboutthefrontierandthe OldSouthexemplifyAmericanfolklore.(Comparewithfolktale,Proverb.) Folktale:Astoryoriginatinginoraltradition.Folktalesfallintoavarietyofcategories,including legends,ghoststories,fairytales,Fables,andanecdotesbasedonhistoricalfiguresandevents. ExamplesoffolktalesincludeGiambattistaBasile'sThePentamerone,whichcontainsthetalesofPuss inBoots,Rapunzel,Cinderella,andBeautyandtheBeast,andJoelChandlerHarris'sUncleRemus stories,whichrepresenttransplantedAfricanfolktalesandAmericantalesaboutthecharactersMike Fink,JohnnyAppleseed,PaulBunyan,andPecosBill.(ComparewithTallTale.) Foot:ThesmallestunitofrhythminalineofPoetry.InEnglishlanguagepoetry,afootistypicallyone accentedsyllablecombinedwithoneortwounaccentedsyllables. Therearemanydifferenttypesoffeet.Whentheaccentisonthesecondsyllableofatwosyllableword (contort),thefootisan"iamb";thereverseaccentualpattern(torture)isa"trochee."Otherfeetthat commonlyoccurinpoetryinEnglishare"anapest",twounaccentedsyllablesfollowedbyanaccented syllableasinintercept,and"dactyl",anaccentedsyllablefollowedbytwounaccentedsyllablesasin suicide.(ComparewithAccent,Cadence,Measure,Meter,SprungRhythm,andVersification.)(See alsoScansion.) Foreshadowing:Adeviceusedinliteraturetocreateexpectationortosetupanexplanationoflater developments. InCharlesDickens'sGreatExpectations,thegraveyardencounteratthebeginningofthenovelbetween PipandtheescapedconvictMagwitchforeshadowsthebalefulatmosphereandeventsthatcomprise muchofthenarrative. Form:Thepatternorconstructionofaworkwhichidentifiesitsgenreanddistinguishesitfromother genres. Examplesofformsincludethedifferentgenres,suchasthelyricformortheshortstoryform,and variouspatternsforPoetry,suchastheVerseformorthestanzaform. Formalism:Inliterarycriticism,thebeliefthatliteratureshouldfollowprescribedrulesof

construction,suchasthosethatgovernthesonnetform. ExamplesofformalismarefoundintheworkoftheNewCriticsandstructuralists. FourteenerMeter:SeeMeter FreeVerse:(AlsoknownasVerslibre.)Poetrythatlacksregularmetricalandrhymepatternsbutthat triestocapturetheCadencesofeverydayspeech.Theformallowsapoettoexploitavarietyof rhythmicaleffectswithinasinglepoem. FreeversetechniqueshavebeenwidelyusedinthetwentiethcenturybysuchwritersasEzraPound,T. S.Eliot,CarlSandburg,andWilliamCarlosWilliams. Futurism:AflamboyantliteraryandartisticmovementthatdevelopedinFrance,Italy,andRussia from1908throughthe1920s.Futuristtheaterandpoetryabandonedtraditionalliteraryforms.Intheir place,followersofthemovementattemptedtoachievetotalfreedomofexpressionthroughbizarre imageryanddeformedornewlyinventedwords.TheFuturistswereselfconsciouslymodernartists whoattemptedtoincorporatetheappearancesandsoundsofmodernlifeintotheirwork. FuturistwritersincludeFilippoTommasoMarinetti,WyndhamLewis,GuillaumeApollinaire,Velimir Khlebnikov,andVladimirMayakovsky.

G
Genre:Acategoryofliterarywork.Incriticaltheory,genremayrefertoboththecontentofagiven worktragedy,Comedy,pastoralandtoitsform,suchasPoetry,novel,ordrama. Thistermalsoreferstotypesofpopularliterature,asinthegenresofScienceFictionorthedetective story. GenteelTradition:AtermcoinedbycriticGeorgeSantayanatodescribetheliterarypracticeof certainlatenineteenthcenturyAmericanwriters,especiallyNewEnglanders.FollowersoftheGenteel Traditionemphasizedconventionalityinsocial,religious,moral,andliterarystandards. SomeofthebestknownwritersoftheGenteelTraditionareR.H.StoddardandBayardTaylor. GeorgianAge:SeeGeorgianPoets GeorgianPeriod:SeeGeorgianPoets GeorgianPoets:AloosegroupingofEnglishpoetsduringtheyears19121922.TheGeorgiansreacted againstcertainliteraryschoolsandpractices,especiallyVictorianwordiness,turnofthecentury aestheticism,andcontemporaryurbanrealism.Intheirplace,theGeorgiansembracedthenineteenth centurypoeticpracticesofWilliamWordsworthandtheotherLakePoets. RupertBrooke,WalterdelaMare,andD.H.Lawrencearethreeofthemostprominentpoetsofthe GeorgianPeriod.(ComparewithDecadentsandLakeSchool.) Georgic:Apoemaboutfarmingandthefarmer'swayoflife,namedfromVirgil'sGeorgics. SeveralEnglishpoetsintheeighteenthcenturyproducedgeorgicsinimitationofVirgil,includingJohn Dyer(TheFleece)andJamesGrainger(TheSugarCane.) GildedAge:AperiodinAmericanhistoryduringthe1870scharacterizedbypoliticalcorruptionand materialism.Anumberofimportantnovelsofsocialandpoliticalcriticismwerewrittenduringthis time. ExamplesofGildedAgeliteratureincludeHenryAdams'sDemocracyandF.MarionCrawford'sAn AmericanPolitician.

Gothic:SeeGothicism Gothicism:Inliterarycriticism,workscharacterizedbyatasteforthemedievalormorbidlyattractive. Agothicnovelprominentlyfeatureselementsofhorror,thesupernatural,gloom,andviolence:clanking chains,terror,charnelhouses,ghosts,medievalcastles,andmysteriouslyslammingdoors.Theterm "gothicnovel"isalsoappliedtonovelsthatlackelementsofthetraditionalGothicsettingbutthat createasimilaratmosphereofterrorordread. MaryShelley'sFrankensteinisperhapsthebestknownEnglishworkofthiskind. GothicNovel:SeeGothicism GraveyardSchool:AgroupofeighteenthcenturyEnglishpoetswhowrotelong,picturesque meditationsondeath.Theirworksweredesignedtocausethereadertoponderimmortality. ThemostfamousworkofthisschoolisThomasGray'sElegyWritteninaCountryChurchyard. GreatChainofBeing:Thebeliefthatallthingsandcreaturesinnatureareorganizedinahierarchy frominanimateobjectsatthebottomtoGodatthetop.Thissystemofbeliefwaspopularinthe seventeenthandeighteenthcenturies. AsummaryoftheconceptofthegreatchainofbeingcanbefoundinthefirstepistleofAlexander Pope'sAnessayonMan,andmorerecentlyinArthurO.Lovejoy'sTheGreatChainofBeing:AStudy oftheHistoryofanIdea. Grotesque:Inliterarycriticism,thesubjectmatterofaworkorastyleofexpressioncharacterizedby exaggeration,deformity,freakishness,anddisorder.Thegrotesqueoftenincludesanelementofcomic absurdity. EarlyexamplesofliterarygrotesqueincludeFrancoisRabelais'sPantagruelandGargantuaand ThomasNashe'sTheUnfortunateTraveller,whilemorerecentexamplescanbefoundintheworksof EdgarAllanPoe,EvelynWaugh,EudoraWelty,FlanneryO'Connor,EugeneIonesco,GunterGrass, ThomasMann,MervynPeake,andJosephHeller,amongmanyothers.(SeealsoBlackHumor.)

H
Haiku:(AlsoknownasHokku.)TheshortestformofJapanesepoetry,constructedinthreelinesof five,seven,andfivesyllablesrespectively.Themessageofahaikupoemusuallycentersonsome aspectofspiritualityandprovokesanemotionalresponseinthereader. EarlymastersofhaikuincludeBasho,Buson,KobayashiIssa,andMasaokaShiki.Englishwritersof haikuincludetheImagists,notablyEzraPound,H.D.,AmyLowell,CarlSandburg,andWilliam CarlosWilliams.(ComparewithTanka.) HalfRhyme:SeeConsonance Hamartia:Intragedy,theeventoractthatleadstothehero'sorheroine'sdownfall.Thistermisoften incorrectlyusedasasynonymfortragicflaw. InRichardWright'sNativeSon,theactthatsealsBiggerThomas'sfateishisfirstimpulsivemurder. HarlemRenaissance:(AlsoknownasNegroRenaissanceandNewNegroMovement.)TheHarlem Renaissanceofthe1920sisgenerallyconsideredthefirstsignificantmovementofblackwritersand artistsintheUnitedStates.Duringthisperiod,newandestablishedblackwriterspublishedmore fictionandPoetrythaneverbefore,thefirstinfluentialblackliteraryjournalswereestablished,and blackauthorsandartistsreceivedtheirfirstwidespreadrecognitionandseriouscriticalappraisal.

AmongthemajorwritersassociatedwiththisperiodareClaudeMcKay,JeanToomer,CounteeCullen, LangstonHughes,ArnaBontemps,NellaLarsen,andZoraNealeHurston. WorksrepresentativeoftheHarlemRenaissanceincludeArnaBontemps'spoems"TheReturn"and "GolgothaIsaMountain,"ClaudeMcKay'snovelHometoHarlem,NellaLarsen'snovelPassing, LangstonHughes'spoem"TheNegroSpeaksofRivers,"andthejournalsCrisisandOpportunity,both foundedduringthisperiod. Harlequin:Astockcharacterofthecommediadell'artewhooccasionallyinterruptedtheactionwith sillyantics. HarlequinfirstappearedontheEnglishstageinJohnDay'sTheTravailesoftheThreeEnglish Brothers.TheSanFranciscoMimeTroupeisoneofthefewmoderngroupstoadaptHarlequintothe needsofcontemporarysatire. Hellenism:ImitationofancientGreekthoughtorstyles.Also,anapproachtolifethatfocusesonthe growthanddevelopmentoftheintellect."Hellenism"issometimesusedtorefertothebeliefthat reasoncanbeappliedtoexamineallhumanexperience. AcogentdiscussionofHellenismcanbefoundinMatthewArnold'sCultureandAnarchy. Heptameter:SeeMeter Hero/Heroine:Theprincipalsympatheticcharacter(maleorfemale)inaliterarywork.Heroesand heroinestypicallyexhibitadmirabletraits:idealism,courage,andintegrity,forexample. FamousheroesandheroinesincludePipinCharlesDickens'sGreatExpectations,theanonymous narratorinRalphEllison'sInvisibleMan,andSetheinToniMorrison'sBeloved.(Comparewith Antagonist,antihero,andprotagonist.) HeroicCouplet:Arhymingcoupletwritteniniambicpentameter(aVersewithfiveiambicfeet). ThefollowinglinesbyAlexanderPopeareanexample:"TruthguardsthePoet,sanctifiestheline,/And makesImmortal,Verseasmeanasmine."(SeealsoFoot.) HeroicLine:TheMeterandlengthofalineofVerseinepicorheroicPoetry.Thisvariesbylanguage andtimeperiod. Forexample,inEnglishpoetry,theheroiclineisiambicpentameter(aversewithfiveiambicfeet);in French,thealexandrine(aversewithsixiambicfeet);inclassicalliterature,dactylichexameter(averse withsixdactylicfeet).(SeealsoFoot,Poetics,Scansion,andVersification.) Heroine:SeeHero/Heroine Hexameter:SeeMeter HistoricalCriticism:Thestudyofaworkbasedonitsimpactontheworldofthetimeperiodinwhich itwaswritten. ExamplesofpostmodernhistoricalcriticismcanbefoundintheworkofMichelFoucault,Hayden White,StephenGreenblatt,andJonathanGoldberg. Hokku:SeeHaiku HolocaustLiterature:literatureinfluencedbyorwrittenabouttheHolocaustofWorldWarII.Such literatureincludestruestoriesofsurvivalinconcentrationcamps,escape,andlifeafterthewar,aswell asfictionalworksandPoetry. RepresentativeworksofHolocaustliteratureincludeSaulBellow'sMr.Sammler'sPlanet,AnneFrank's TheDiaryofaYoungGirl,JerzyKosinski'sThePaintedBird,ArthurMiller'sIncidentatVichy,

CzeslawMilosz'sCollectedPoems,WilliamStyron'sSophie'sChoice,andArtSpiegelman'sMaus. HomericSimile:(AlsoknownasEpicSimile.)Anelaborate,detailedcomparisonwrittenasasimile manylinesinlength. AnexampleofanepicsimilefromJohnMilton'sParadiseLostfollows: AngelForms,wholayentranced Thickasautumnalleavesthatstrowthebrooks InVallombrosa,wheretheEtrurianshades Highoverarchedembower;orscatteredsedge Afloat,whenwithfiercewindsOrionarmed HathvexedtheRedSeacoast,whosewaveso'erthrew BusirisandhisMemphianchivalry, Whilewithperfidioushatredtheypursued ThesojournersofGoshen,whobeheld Fromthesafeshoretheirfloatingcarcasses Andbrokenchariotwheels. HoratianSatire:SeeSatire Humanism:Aphilosophythatplacesfaithinthedignityofhumankindandrejectsthemedieval perceptionoftheindividualasaweak,fallencreature."Humanists"typicallybelieveinthe perfectibilityofhumannatureandviewreasonandeducationasthemeanstothatend. HumanistthoughtisrepresentedintheworksofMarsilioFicino,LudovicoCastelvetro,Edmund Spenser,JohnMilton,DeanJohnColet,DesideriusErasmus,JohnDryden,AlexanderPope,Matthew Arnold,andIrvingBabbitt. Humors:(AlsospelledHumours.)MentionsofthehumorsrefertotheancientGreektheorythata person'shealthandpersonalityweredeterminedbythebalanceoffourbasicfluidsinthebody:blood, phlegm,yellowbile,andblackbile.Adominanceofanyfluidwouldcauseextremesinbehavior.An excessofbloodcreatedasanguinepersonwhowasjoyful,aggressive,andpassionate;aphlegmatic personwasshy,fearful,andsluggish;toomuchyellowbileledtoacholerictemperamentcharacterized byimpatience,anger,bitterness,andstubbornness;andexcessiveblackbilecreatedmelancholy,astate oflaziness,gluttony,andlackofmotivation. LiterarytreatmentofthehumorsisexemplifiedbyseveralcharactersinBenJonson'splaysEveryMan inHisHumourandEveryManoutofHisHumour. Hyperbole:Inliterarycriticism,deliberateexaggerationusedtoachieveaneffect. InWilliamShakespeare'sMacbeth,LadyMacbethhyperbolizeswhenshesays,"Alltheperfumesof Arabiacouldnotsweetenthislittlehand." I amb:SeeFoot Idiom:Awordconstructionorverbalexpressioncloselyassociatedwithagivenlanguage. Forexample,incolloquialEnglishtheconstruction"howcome"canbeusedinsteadof"why"to introduceaquestion.Similarly,"apieceofcake"issometimesusedtodescribeataskthatiseasily done.

Image:Aconcreterepresentationofanobjectorsensoryexperience.Typically,sucharepresentation helpsevokethefeelingsassociatedwiththeobjectorexperienceitself.Imagesareeither"literal"or "figurative."Literalimagesareespeciallyconcreteandinvolvelittleornoextensionoftheobvious meaningofthewordsusedtoexpressthem.Figurativeimagesdonotfollowtheliteralmeaningofthe wordsexactly.Imagesinliteratureareusuallyvisual,buttheterm"image"canalsorefertothe representationofanysensoryexperience. Inhispoem"TheShepherd'sHour,"PaulVerlainepresentsthefollowingimage:"TheMoonisred throughhorizon'sfog;/Inadancingmistthehazymeadowsleeps."Thefirstlineisbroadlyliteral, whilethesecondlineinvolvesturnsofmeaningassociatedwithdancingandsleeping. Imagery:Thearrayofimagesinaliterarywork.Also,figurativelanguage. WilliamButlerYeats's"TheSecondComing"offersapowerfulimageofencroachinganarchy: Turningandturninginthewideninggyre Thefalconcannothearthefalconer; Thingsfallapart.... Imagism:AnEnglishandAmericanPoetrymovementthatflourishedbetween1908and1917.The Imagistsusedprecise,clearlypresentedimagesintheirworks.Theyalsousedcommon,everyday speechandaimedforconciseness,concreteimagery,andthecreationofnewrhythms. ParticipantsintheImagistmovementincludedEzraPound,H.D.(HildaDoolittle),andAmyLowell, amongothers. Inmediasres:ALatintermmeaning"inthemiddleofthings."Itreferstothetechniqueofbeginninga storyatitsmidpointandthenusingvariousflashbackdevicestorevealpreviousaction. ThistechniqueoriginatedinsuchepicsasVirgil'sAeneid. Induction:Theprocessofreachingaconclusionbyreasoningfromspecificpremisestoformageneral premise.Also,anintroductoryportionofaworkofliterature,especiallyaplay. GeoffreyChaucer's"Prologue"totheCanterburyTales,ThomasSackville's"Induction"toTheMirror ofMagistrates,andtheopeningsceneinWilliamShakespeare'sTheTamingoftheShrewareexamples ofinductionstoliteraryworks.(ComparewithDeduction.) IntentionalFallacy:Thebeliefthatjudgmentsofaliteraryworkbasedsolelyonanauthor'sstatedor impliedintentionsarefalseandmisleading.Criticswhobelieveintheconceptoftheintentionalfallacy typicallyarguethattheworkitselfissufficientmatterforinterpretation,eventhoughtheymayconcede thatanauthor'sstatementofpurposecanbeuseful. AnalysisofWilliamWordsworth'sLyricalBalladsbasedontheobservationsaboutPoetryhemakesin his"Preface"tothesecondeditionofthatworkisanexampleoftheintentionalfallacy. InteriorMonologue:Anarrativetechniqueinwhichcharacters'thoughtsarerevealedinawaythat appearstobeuncontrolledbytheauthor.Theinteriormonologuetypicallyaimstorevealtheinnerself ofacharacter.Itportraysemotionalexperiencesastheyoccuratbothaconsciousandunconscious level.imagesareoftenusedtorepresentsensationsoremotions. OneofthebestknowninteriormonologuesinEnglishistheMollyBloomsectionatthecloseofJames Joyce'sUlysses.TheinteriormonologueisalsocommonintheworksofVirginiaWoolf.(Compare withStreamofConsciousness.) InternalRhyme:rhymethatoccurswithinasinglelineofVerse. AnexampleisintheopeninglineofEdgarAllanPoe's"TheRaven":"Onceuponamidnightdreary, whileIponderedweakandweary."Here,"dreary"and"weary"makeaninternalrhyme.

IrishLiteraryRenaissance:AlatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturymovementinIrish literature.MembersofthemovementaimedtoreducetheinfluenceofBritishcultureinIrelandand createanIrishnationalliterature. WilliamButlerYeats,GeorgeMoore,andSeanO'Caseyarethreeofthebestknownfiguresofthe movement.(ComparewithCelticRenaissance.) Irony:Inliterarycriticism,theeffectoflanguageinwhichtheintendedmeaningistheoppositeof whatisstated. ThetitleofJonathanSwift's"AModestProposal"isironicbecausewhatSwiftproposesinthisessayis cannibalismhardly"modest." ItalianSonnet:SeeSonnet

J
JacobeanAge:TheperiodofthereignofJamesIofEngland(16031625).Theearlyliteratureofthis periodreflectedtheworldviewoftheElizabethanAge,butadarker,morecynicalattitudesteadilygrew intheartandliteratureoftheJacobeanAge.ThiswasanimportanttimeforEnglishdramaandPoetry. MilestonesincludeWilliamShakespeare'stragedies,tragicomedies,andsonnets;BenJonson'svarious dramas;andJohnDonne'smetaphysicalpoetry. Jargon:Languagethatisusedorunderstoodonlybyaselectgroupofpeople.Jargonmayreferto terminologyusedinacertainprofession,suchascomputerjargon,oritmayrefertoanynonsensical languagethatisnotunderstoodbymostpeople. LiteraryexamplesofjargonareFrancoisVillon'sBalladesenjargon,whichiscomposedinthesecret languageofthecoquillards,andAnthonyBurgess'sAClockworkOrange,narratedinthefictional characters'languageof"Nadsat." Journalism:Writingintendedforpublicationinanewspaperormagazine,orforbroadcastonaradio ortelevisionprogramfeaturingnews,sports,entertainment,orothertimelymaterial. TheessaysandreviewswrittenbyH.L.MenckenfortheBaltimoreMorningHeraldandcollectedin hisPrejudicesareanexampleofjournalism.(SeealsoNewJournalism.) JuvenalianSatire:SeeSatire

K
KnickerbockerGroup:AsomewhatindistinctgroupofNewYorkwritersofthefirsthalfofthe nineteenthcentury.Membersofthegroupwerelinkedonlybylocationandacommontheme:New Yorklife. TwofamousmembersoftheKnickerbockerGroupwereWashingtonIrvingandWilliamCullenBryant. Thegroup'snamederivesfromIrving'sKnickerbocker'sHistoryofNewYork. Kunstlerroman:SeeBildungsroman

L
Lais:SeeLay LakePoets:SeeLakeSchool

LakeSchool:(AlsoknownastheLakePoets)ThesepoetsalllivedintheLakeDistrictofEnglandat theturnofthenineteenthcentury.Asagroup,theyfollowednosingle"school"ofthoughtorliterary practice,althoughtheirworkswereuniformlydisparagedbytheEdinburghReview. ThepoetsoftheLakeSchoolwereRobertSouthey,WilliamWordsworth,andSamuelTaylor Coleridge. Lay:Asongorsimplenarrativepoem.TheformoriginatedinmedievalFrance.EarlyFrenchlaiswere oftenbasedontheCelticlegendsandothertalessungbyBretonminstrelsthusthenameofthe "Bretonlay."InfourteenthcenturyEngland,theterm"lay"wasusedtodescribeshortnarratives writteninimitationoftheBretonlays. ThemostnotableoftheseisGeoffreyChaucer's"TheMinstrel'sTale." Leitmotiv:SeeMotif LiteralLanguage:Anauthorusesliterallanguagewhenheorshewriteswithoutexaggeratingor embellishingthesubjectmatterandwithoutanytoolsoffigurativelanguage. Tosay"Heranveryquicklydownthestreet"istouseliterallanguage,whereastosay"Heranlikea haredownthestreet"wouldbeusingfigurativelanguage.(ComparewithFigurativeLanguage.) LiteraryBallad:SeeBallad Literature:Literatureisbroadlydefinedasanywrittenorspokenmaterial,butthetermmostoften referstocreativeworks. Literatureincludespoetry,drama,fiction,andmanykindsofnonfictionwriting,aswellasoral, dramatic,andbroadcastcompositionsnotnecessarilypreservedinawrittenformat,suchasfilmsand televisionprograms. LostGeneration:AtermfirstusedbyGertrudeSteintodescribethepostWorldWarIgenerationof Americanwriters:menandwomenhauntedbyasenseofbetrayalandemptinessbroughtaboutbythe destructivenessofthewar. ThetermiscommonlyappliedtoHartCrane,ErnestHemingway,F.ScottFitzgerald,andothers. LyricPoetry:Apoemexpressingthesubjectivefeelingsandpersonalemotionsofthepoet.Such poetryismelodic,sinceitwasoriginallyaccompaniedbyalyreinrecitals.MostWesternpoetryinthe twentiethcenturymaybeclassifiedaslyrical. ExamplesoflyricpoetryincludeA.E.Housman'selegy"ToanAthleteDyingYoung,"theodesof PindarandHorace,ThomasGrayandWilliamCollins,thesonnetsofSirThomasWyattandSirPhilip Sidney,ElizabethBarrettBrowningandRainerMariaRilke,andahostofotherformsinthepoetryof WilliamBlakeandChristinaRossetti,amongmanyothers.(ComparewithDramaticPoetryand NarrativePoetry.)

M
Mannerism:Exaggerated,artificialadherencetoaliterarymannerorstyle.Also,apopularstyleofthe visualartsoflatesixteenthcenturyEuropethatwasmarkedbyelongationofthehumanformandby intentionalspatialdistortion.Literaryworksthatareselfconsciouslyhightonedandartisticareoften saidtobe"mannered." AuthorsofsuchworksincludeHenryJamesandGertrudeStein. MasculineRhyme:SeeRhyme

Masque:Alavishandelaborateformofentertainment,oftenperformedinroyalcourts,that emphasizessong,dance,andcostumery.TheRenaissanceformofthemasquegrewoutofthe spectaclesofmaskedfigurescommoninmedievalEnglandandEurope.Themasquereacheditspeak ofpopularityanddevelopmentinseventeenthcenturyEngland,duringthereignsofJamesIand, especially,ofCharlesI.BenJonson,themostsignificantmasquewriter,alsocreatedthe"antimasque," whichincorporateselementsofhumorandthegrotesqueintothetraditionalmasqueandachieved greaterdramaticquality. MasquelikeinterludesappearinEdmundSpenser'sTheFaerieQueeneandinWilliamShakespeare's TheTempest.OneofthebestknownEnglishmasquesisJohnMilton'sComus. Measure:TheFoot,Verse,ortimesequenceusedinaliterarywork,especiallyapoem.Measureis oftenusedsomewhatincorrectlyasasynonymforMeter.(ComparewithMeter.) Melodrama:Aplayinwhichthetypicalplotisaconflictbetweencharacterswhopersonifyextreme goodandevil.Melodramasusuallyendhappilyandemphasizesensationalism.Otherliteraryformsthat usethesametechniquesareoftenlabeled"melodramatic."Thetermwasformerlyusedtodescribea combinationofdramaandmusic;assuch,itwassynonymouswith"opera." AugustinDaly'sUndertheGaslightandDionBoucicault'sTheOctoroon,TheColleenBawn,andThe PoorofNewYorkareexamplesofmelodramas.Themostpopularmediafortwentiethcentury melodramasaremotionpicturesandtelevision.(Comparewithdrama.) Memoirs:Anautobiographicalformofwritinginwhichtheauthorgiveshisorherpersonal impressionsofsignificantfiguresorevents.Thisformisdifferentfromtheautobiographybecauseit doesnotcenteraroundtheauthor'sownlifeandexperiences. EarlyexamplesofmemoirsincludetheViscountdeChateaubriand'sTheMemoirsofChateaubriand andGiacomoCasanova'sHistoryofMyLife,whilemodernmemoirsincludereminiscencesofWorld WarIIbyDwightEisenhower,ViscountMontgomery,andCharlesdeGaulle. Metaphor:Afigureofspeechthatexpressesanideathroughtheimageofanotherobject.Metaphors suggesttheessenceofthefirstobjectbyidentifyingitwithcertainqualitiesofthesecondobject. Anexampleis"Butsoft,whatlightthroughyonderwindowbreaks?/Itistheeast,andJulietisthesun" inWilliamShakespeare'sRomeoandJuliet.Here,Juliet,thefirstobject,isidentifiedwithqualitiesof thesecondobject,thesun.(ComparewithSimile.) MetaphysicalConceit:SeeConceit MetaphysicalPoetry:ThebodyofpoetryproducedbyagroupofseventeenthcenturyEnglishwriters calledthe"MetaphysicalPoets."ThegroupincludesJohnDonneandAndrewMarvell.The MetaphysicalPoetsmadeuseofeverydayspeech,intellectualanalysis,anduniqueimagery.They aimedtoportraytheordinaryconflictsandcontradictionsoflife.Theirpoemsoftentooktheformofan argument,andmanyofthememphasizephysicalandreligiousloveaswellasthefleetingnatureoflife. Elaborateconceitsaretypicalinmetaphysicalpoetry. Marvell's"ToHisCoyMistress"isawellknownexampleofametaphysicalpoem. Meter:Inliterarycriticism,therepetitionofsoundpatternsthatcreatesarhythminPoetry.The patternsarebasedonthenumberofsyllablesandthepresenceandabsenceofaccents.Theunitof rhythminalineiscalledaFoot.Typesofmeterareclassifiedaccordingtothenumberoffeetinaline. ThesearethestandardEnglishlines:Monometer,onefoot;Dimeter,twofeet;Trimeter,threefeet; Tetrameter,fourfeet;Pentameter,fivefeet;Hexameter,sixfeet(alsocalledtheAlexandrine); Heptameter,sevenfeet(alsocalledthe"Fourteener"whenthefeetareiambic).

ThemostcommonEnglishmeteristheiambicpentameter,inwhicheachlinecontainstensyllables,or fiveiambicfeet,whichindividuallyarecomposedofanunstressedsyllablefollowedbyanaccented syllable.BothofthefollowinglinesfromAlfred,LordTennyson's"Ulysses"arewritteniniambic pentameter: Madeweakbytimeandfate,butstronginwill Tostrive,toseek,tofind,andnottoyield. (SeealsoScansion,andSprungRhythm.) Miseenscene:Thecostumes,scenery,andotherpropertiesofadrama. HerbertBeerbohmTreewasrenownedfortheelaboratemisesensceneofhislavishShakespearean productionsatHisMajesty'sTheatrebetween1897and1915. Modernism:Modernliterarypractices.Also,theprinciplesofaliteraryschoolthatlastedfrom roughlythebeginningofthetwentiethcenturyuntiltheendofWorldWarII.Modernismisdefinedby itsrejectionoftheliteraryconventionsofthenineteenthcenturyandbyitsoppositiontoconventional morality,taste,traditions,andeconomicvalues. ManywritersareassociatedwiththeconceptsofModernism,includingAlbertCamus,MarcelProust, D.H.Lawrence,W.H.Auden,ErnestHemingway,WilliamFaulkner,WilliamButlerYeats,Thomas Mann,TennesseeWilliams,EugeneO'Neill,andJamesJoyce. Monologue:Acomposition,writtenororal,byasingleindividual.Morespecifically,aspeechgiven byasingleindividualinadramaorotherpublicentertainment.Ithasnosetlength,althoughitis usuallyseveralormorelineslong. Anexampleofan"extendedmonologue"thatis,amonologueofgreatlengthandseriousness occursintheoneAct,onecharacterplayTheStrongerbyAugustStrindberg.(ComparewithInterior MonologueandSoliloquy.) Monometer:SeeMeter Mood:Theprevailingemotionsofaworkoroftheauthorinhisorhercreationofthework.Themood ofaworkisnotalwayswhatmightbeexpectedbasedonitssubjectmatter. Thepoem"DoverBeach"byMatthewArnoldoffersexamplesoftwodifferentmoodsoriginatingfrom thesameexperience:watchingtheoceanatnight.Themoodofthefirstthreelines Theseaiscalmtonight Thetideisfull,themoonliesfair Uponthestraights.... isinsharpcontrasttothemoodofthelastthreelines Andwearehereasonadarklingplain Sweptwithconfusedalarmsofstruggleandflight, Whereignorantarmiesclashbynight. Motif:(AlsoknownasMotivorLeitmotiv.)Atheme,charactertype,image,Metaphor,orotherverbal elementthatrecursthroughoutasingleworkofliteratureoroccursinanumberofdifferentworksover aperiodoftime. Forexample,thevariousmanifestationsofthecolorwhiteinHermanMelville'sMobyDickisa "specific"motif,whilethetrialsofstarcrossedloversisa"conventional"motiffromtheliteratureofall periods. Motiv:SeeMotif

Muckrakers:AnearlytwentiethcenturygroupofAmericanwriters.Typically,theirworksexposed thewrongdoingsofbigbusinessandgovernmentintheUnitedStates. UptonSinclair'sTheJungleexemplifiesthemuckrakingnovel. Muses:NineGreekmythologicalgoddesses,thedaughtersofZeusandMnemosyne(Memory).Each musepatronizedaspecificareaoftheliberalartsandsciences.Calliopepresidedoverepicpoetry,Clio overhistory,Eratooverlovepoetry,EuterpeovermusicorLyricPoetry,Melpomeneovertragedy, Polyhymniaoverhymnstothegods,Terpsichoreoverdance,ThaliaoverComedy,andUraniaover astronomy.PoetsandwriterstraditionallymadeappealstotheMusesforinspirationintheirwork. JohnMiltoninvokestheaidofamuseatthebeginningofthefirstbookofhisParadiseLost: OfMan'sFirstdisobedience,andtheFruit oftheForbiddenTree,whosemortaltaste BroughtDeathintotheWorld,andallourwoe, WithlossofEden,tillonegreaterMan Restoreus,andregaintheblissfulSeat, SingHeav'nlyMuse,thatonthesecrettop ofOreb,orofSinai,didstinspire ThatShepherd,whofirsttaughtthechosenSeed, IntheBeginninghowtheHeav'nsandEarth RoseoutofChaos.... Mystery:SeeSuspense Myth:Ananonymoustaleemergingfromthetraditionalbeliefsofacultureorsocialunit.Mythsuse supernaturalexplanationsfornaturalphenomena.Theymayalsoexplaincosmicissueslikecreation anddeath.Collectionsofmyths,knownasmythologies,arecommontoallculturesandnations,butthe bestknownmythsbelongtotheNorse,Roman,andGreekmythologies. AfamousmythisthestoryofArachne,anarrogantyounggirlwhochallengedagoddess,Athena,toa weavingcontest;whenthegirlwon,AthenawasenragedandturnedArachneintoaspider,thus explainingtheexistenceofspiders.(ComparewithFable.) N Narration:Thetellingofaseriesofevents,realorinvented.Anarrationmaybeeitherasimple narrative,inwhichtheeventsarerecountedchronologically,oranarrativewithaplot,inwhichthe accountisgiveninastylereflectingtheauthor'sartisticconceptofthestory.Narrationissometimes usedasasynonymfor"storyline." Therecountingofscarystoriesaroundacampfireisaformofnarration. Narrative:AVerseorproseaccountingofaneventorsequenceofevents,realorinvented.Thetermis alsousedasanadjectiveinthesense"methodofnarration."Forexample,inliterarycriticism,the expression"narrativetechnique"usuallyreferstothewaytheauthorstructuresandpresentshisorher story. Narrativesrangefromtheshortestaccountsofevents,asinJuliusCaesar'sremark,"Icame,Isaw,I conquered,"tothelongesthistoricalorbiographicalworks,asinEdwardGibbon'sTheDeclineand FalloftheRomanEmpire,aswellasdiaries,travelogues,novels,ballads,epics,shortstories,andother fictionalforms.

NarrativePoetry:Anondramaticpoeminwhichtheauthortellsastory.Suchpoemsmaybeofany lengthorlevelofcomplexity. epicssuchasBeowulfandballadsareformsofnarrativepoetry.(ComparewithDramaticPoetryand LyricPoetry.) Narrator:Thetellerofastory.Thenarratormaybetheauthororacharacterinthestorythrough whomtheauthorspeaks. HuckleberryFinnisthenarratorofMarkTwain'sTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn.(Seealso narrationandnarrative.) Naturalism:Aliterarymovementofthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies.Themovement's majortheorist,FrenchnovelistEmileZola,envisionedatypeoffictionthatwouldexaminehumanlife withtheobjectivityofscientificinquiry.TheNaturaliststypicallyviewedhumanbeingsaseitherthe productsof"biologicaldeterminism,"ruledbyhereditaryinstinctsandengagedinanendlessstruggle forsurvival,orastheproductsof"socioeconomicdeterminism,"ruledbysocialandeconomicforces beyondtheircontrol.Intheirworks,theNaturalistsgenerallyignoredthehighestlevelsofsocietyand focusedondegradation:poverty,alcoholism,prostitution,insanity,anddisease. Naturalisminfluencedauthorsthroughouttheworld,includingHenrikIbsenandThomasHardy.Inthe UnitedStates,inparticular,Naturalismhadaprofoundimpact.Amongtheauthorswhoembracedits principlesareTheodoreDreiser,EugeneO'Neill,StephenCrane,JackLondon,andFrankNorris. Negritude:Aliterarymovementbasedontheconceptofasharedculturalbondonthepartofblack Africans,wherevertheymaybeintheworld.IttracesitsoriginstotheformerFrenchcoloniesof AfricaandtheCaribbean.Negritudepoets,novelists,andessayistsgenerallystressfourpointsintheir writings:One,blackalienationfromtraditionalAfricanculturecanleadtofeelingsofinferiority.Two, EuropeancolonialismandWesterneducationshouldberesisted.Three,blackAfricansshouldseekto affirmanddefinetheirownidentity.Four,Africanculturecanandshouldbereclaimed.Many Negritudewritersalsoclaimthatblackscanmakeuniquecontributionstotheworld,basedona heightenedappreciationofnature,rhythm,andhumanemotionsaspectsoflifetheysayarenotso highlyvaluedinthematerialisticandrationalisticWest. ExamplesofNegritudeliteratureincludethePoetryofbothSenegaleseLeopoldSenghorinHosties noiresandMartiniquaisAimeFernandCesaireinReturntoMyNativeLand. NegroRenaissance:SeeHarlemRenaissance NeoclassicalPeriod:SeeNeoclassicism Neoclassicism:(AlsoknownasAgeofReason.)Inliterarycriticism,thistermreferstotherevivalof theattitudesandstylesofexpressionofclassicalliterature.Itisgenerallyusedtodescribeaperiodin Europeanhistorybeginninginthelateseventeenthcenturyandlastinguntilabout1800.Initspurest form,Neoclassicismmarkedareturntoorder,proportion,restraint,logic,accuracy,anddecorum.In England,whereNeoclassicismperhapswasmostpopular,itreflectedtheinfluenceofseventeenth centuryFrenchwriters,especiallydramatists.Neoclassicalwriterstypicallyreactedagainsttheintensity andenthusiasmoftheRenaissanceperiod.Theywroteworksthatappealedtotheintellect,using elevatedlanguageandclassicalliteraryformssuchassatireandtheode.Neoclassicalworkswereoften governedbytheclassicalgoalofinstruction. EnglishneoclassicistsincludedAlexanderPope,JonathanSwift,JosephAddison,SirRichardSteele, JohnGay,andMatthewPrior;FrenchneoclassicistsincludedPierreCorneilleandJeanBaptiste Moliere.(ComparewithAgeofJohnson,classicism,Enlightenment,Renaissance,RestorationAge,and

romanticism.) Neoclassicists:SeeNeoclassicism NewCriticism:Amovementinliterarycriticism,datingfromthelate1920s,thatstressedclosetextual analysisintheinterpretationofworksofliterature.TheNewCriticssawlittlemeritinhistoricaland biographicalanalysis.Rather,theyaimedtoexaminethetextalone,freefromthequestionofhow externaleventsbiographicalorotherwisemayhavehelpedshapeit. ThispredominantlyAmericanschoolwasnamed"NewCriticism"byoneofitspractitioners,John CroweRansom.OtherimportantNewCriticsincludedAllenTate,R.P.Blackmur,RobertPenn Warren,andCleanthBrooks. NewJournalism:Atypeofwritinginwhichthejournalistpresentsfactualinformationinaform usuallyusedinfiction.Newjournalismemphasizesdescription,narration,andcharacterdevelopment tobringreadersclosertothehumanelementofthestory,andisoftenusedinpersonalityprofilesand indepthfeaturearticles.Itisnotcompatiblewith"straight"or"hard"newswriting,whichisgenerally composedinabrief,factbasedstyle. HunterS.Thompson,GayTalese,ThomasWolfe,JoanDidion,andJohnMcPheearewellknownNew Journalists.(SeealsoJournalism.) NewNegroMovement:SeeHarlemRenaissance NobleSavage:Theideathatprimitivemanisnobleandgoodbutbecomesevilandcorruptedashe becomescivilized.TheconceptofthenoblesavageoriginatedintheRenaissanceperiodbutismore closelyidentifiedwithsuchlaterwritersasJeanJacquesRousseauandAphraBehn. FirstdescribedinJohnDryden'splayTheConquestofGranada,thenoblesavageisportrayedbythe variousNativeAmericansinJamesFenimoreCooper's"LeatherstockingTales,"byQueequeg,Daggoo, andTashtegoinHermanMelville'sMobyDick,andbyJohntheSavageinAldousHuxley'sBraveNew World. Novel:Alongfictionalnarrativewritteninprose,whichdevelopedfromthenovellaandotherearly formsofnarrative.Anovelisusuallyorganizedunderaplotorthemewithafocusoncharacter developmentandaction. ThenovelemergedasafullyevolvedliteraryforminthemideighteenthcenturyinSamuel Richardson'sPamela;or,VirtueRewarded. Novella:AnItaliantermmeaning"story."Thistermhasbeenespeciallyusedtodescribefourteenth centuryItaliantales,butitalsoreferstomodernshortnovels. ThetalescomprisingGiovanniBoccaccio'sDecameronareexamplesofthenovella.Modernnovellas includeLeoTolstoy'sTheDeathofIvanIlich,FyodorDostoyevsky'sNotesfromtheUnderground, JosephConrad'sHeartofDarkness,andHenryJames's"TheAspernPapers." NovelofIdeas:Anovelinwhichtheexaminationofintellectualissuesandconceptstakesprecedence overcharacterizationoratraditionalstoryline. ExamplesofnovelsofideasincludeAldousHuxley'sCromeYellow,PointCounterPoint,andAfter ManyaSummer. NovelofManners:Anovelthatexaminesthecustomsandmoresofaculturalgroup. ThenovelsofJaneAustenandEdithWhartonarewidelyconsiderednovelsofmanners.(Comparewith ComedyofManners.)

O
ObjectiveCorrelative:Anoutwardsetofobjects,asituation,orachainofeventscorrespondingtoan inwardexperienceandevokingthisexperienceinthereader.Thetermfrequentlyappearsinmodern criticismindiscussionsofauthors'intendedeffectsontheemotionalresponsesofreaders. ThistermwasoriginallyusedbyT.S.Eliotinhis1919essay"Hamlet." Objectivity:Aqualityinwritingcharacterizedbytheabsenceoftheauthor'sopinionorfeelingabout thesubjectmatter.Objectivityisanimportantfactorincriticism. ThenovelsofHenryJamesand,toacertainextent,thepoemsofJohnLarkindemonstrateobjectivity, anditiscentraltoJohnKeats'sconceptof"negativecapability."Criticalandjournalisticwriting usuallyareorattempttobeobjective.(ComparewithSubjectivity.)(SeealsoJournalism.) OccasionalVerse:Poetrywrittenontheoccasionofasignificanthistoricalorpersonalevent.Versde societeissometimescalledoccasionalVersealthoughitisofalessseriousnature. FamousexamplesofoccasionalverseincludeAndrewMarvell's"HoratianodeuponCromwell'sReturn fromEngland,"WaltWhitman's"WhenLilacsLastintheDooryardBloom'd"writtenuponthe deathofAbrahamLincolnandEdmundSpenser'scommemorationofhiswedding,"Epithalamion." (ComparewithVersdesociete.) Octave:Apoemorstanzacomposedofeightlines.Thetermoctavemostoftenrepresentsthefirst eightlinesofaPetrarchansonnet. AnexampleofanoctaveistakenfromatranslationofaPetrarchansonnetbySirThomasWyatt: ThepillarperishtiswheretoIleant, Thestrongeststayofmineunquietmind; Thelikeofitnomanagaincanfind, FromEasttoWestStillseekingthoughhewent. Tomindunhap!forhapawayhathrent Ofallmyjoytheverybarkandrind; AndI,alas,bychanceamthusassigned Dailytomourntilldeathdoitrelent. Ode:Namegiventoanextendedlyricpoemcharacterizedbyexaltedemotionanddignifiedstyle.An odeusuallyconcernsasingle,serioustheme.Mostodes,butnotall,areaddressedtoanobjector individual.Odesaredistinguishedfromotherlyricpoeticformsbytheircomplexrhythmicandstanzaic patterns. AnexampleofthisformisJohnKeats's"OdetoaNightingale."(ComparewithLyricPoetry.) OedipusComplex:Ason'samorousobsessionwithhismother.Thephraseisderivedfromthestoryof theancientThebanheroOedipus,whounknowinglykilledhisfatherandmarriedhismother. LiteraryoccurrencesoftheOedipuscomplexincludeAndreGide'sOedipeandJeanCocteau'sLa Machineinfernale,aswellasthemostfamous,Sophocles'OedipusRex.(ComparewithElectra Complex.) Omniscience:SeePointofView Onomatopoeia:Theuseofwordswhosesoundsexpressorsuggesttheirmeaning.Initssimplest sense,onomatopoeiamayberepresentedbywordsthatmimicthesoundstheydenotesuchas"hiss"or "meow."Atamoresubtlelevel,thepatternandrhythmofsoundsandrhymesofalineorpoemmaybe onomatopoeic.

Acelebratedexampleofonomatopoeiaistherepetitionoftheword"bells"inEdgarAllanPoe'spoem "TheBells." Opera:Atypeofstageperformance,usuallyadrama,inwhichthedialogueissung. ClassicexamplesofoperaincludeGiuseppiVerdi'sLatraviata,GiacomoPuccini'sLaBoheme,and RichardWagner'sTristanundIsolde.MajortwentiethcenturycontributorstotheformincludeRichard StraussandAlbanBerg. Operetta:Ausuallyromanticcomicopera. JohnGay'sTheBeggar'sOpera,RichardSheridan'sTheDuenna,andnumerousworksbyWilliam GilbertandArthurSullivanareexamplesofoperettas. OralTradition:SeeOralTransmission OralTransmission:Aprocessbywhichsongs,ballads,folklore,andothermaterialaretransmittedby wordofmouth.Thetraditionoforaltransmissionpredatesthewrittenrecordsystemsofliteratesociety. Oraltransmissionpreservesmaterialsometimesovergenerations,althoughoftenwithvariations. Memoryplaysalargepartintherecitationandpreservationoforallytransmittedmaterial. Bretonlays,Frenchfabliaux,nationalepics(includingtheAngloSaxonBeowulf,theSpanishElCid, andtheFinnishKalevala),NativeAmericanmythsandlegends,andAfricanfolktalestoldbyplantation slavesareexamplesoforallytransmittedliterature. Oration:Formalspeakingintendedtomotivatethelistenerstosomeactionorfeeling.Suchpublic speakingwasmuchmorecommonbeforethedevelopmentoftimelyprintedcommunicationsuchas newspapers. FamousexamplesoforationincludeAbrahamLincoln's"GettysburgAddress"andDr.MartinLuther KingJr.'s"IHaveaDream"speech. OttavaRima:AneightlinestanzaofPoetrycomposediniambicpentameter(afiveFootlineinwhich eachfootconsistsofanunaccentedsyllablefollowedbyanaccentedsyllable),followingtheabababcc rhymescheme. ThisformhasbeenprominentlyusedbysuchimportantEnglishwritersasLordByron,Henry WadsworthLongfellow,andW.B.Yeats. Oxymoron:Aphrasecombiningtwocontradictoryterms.Oxymoronsmaybeintentionalor unintentional. ThefollowingspeechfromWilliamShakespeare'sRomeoandJulietusesseveraloxymorons: Why,then,Obrawlinglove!Olovinghate! Oanything,ofnothingfirstcreate! Oheavylightness!seriousvanity! Misshapenchaosofwellseemingforms! Featheroflead,brightsmoke,coldfire,sickhealth! ThislovefeelI,thatfeelnoloveinthis. P Pantheism:TheideathatallthingsarebothamanifestationorrevelationofGodandapartofGodat thesametime.PantheismwasacommonattitudeintheearlysocietiesofEgypt,India,andGreece thetermderivesfromtheGreekpanmeaning"all"andtheosmeaning"deity."Itlaterbecamea

significantpartoftheChristianfaith. WilliamWordsworthandRalphWaldoEmersonareamongthemanywriterswhohaveexpressedthe pantheisticattitudeintheirworks. Parable:Astoryintendedtoteachamorallessonoransweranethicalquestion. IntheWest,thebestexamplesofparablesarethoseofJesusChristintheNewTestament,notably"The ProdigalSon,"butparablesalsoareusedinSufism,rabbinicliterature,Hasidism,andZenBuddhism. Paradox:Astatementthatappearsillogicalorcontradictoryatfirst,butmayactuallypointtoan underlyingtruth. "Lessismore"isanexampleofaparadox.LiteraryexamplesincludeFrancisBacon'sstatement,"The mostcorrectedcopiesarecommonlytheleastcorrect,"and"Allanimalsareequal,butsomeanimals aremoreequalthanothers"fromGeorgeOrwell'sAnimalFarm. Parallelism:Amethodofcomparisonoftwoideasinwhicheachisdevelopedinthesamegrammatical structure. RalphWaldoEmerson's"Civilization"containsthisexampleofparallelism:Raphaelpaintswisdom; Handelsingsit,Phidiascarvesit,Shakespearewritesit,Wrenbuildsit,Columbussailsit,Luther preachesit,Washingtonarmsit,Wattmechanizesit. Parnassianism:AmidnineteenthcenturymovementinFrenchliterature.Followersofthemovement stressedadherencetowelldefinedartisticformsasareactionagainsttheoftenchaoticexpressionof theartist'segothatdominatedtheworkoftheRomantics.TheParnassiansalsorejectedthemoral, ethical,andsocialthemesexhibitedintheworksofFrenchRomanticssuchasVictorHugo.The aestheticdoctrinesoftheParnassiansstronglyinfluencedthelatersymbolistanddecadentmovements. MembersoftheParnassianschoolincludeLecontedeLisle,SullyPrudhomme,AlbertGlatigny, FrancoisCoppee,andTheodoredeBanville.(ComparewithDecadents,romanticism,andSymbolism.) Parody:Inliterarycriticism,thistermreferstoanimitationofaseriousliteraryworkorthesignature styleofaparticularauthorinaridiculousmanner.Atypicalparodyadoptsthestyleoftheoriginaland appliesittoaninappropriatesubjectforhumorouseffect.Parodyisaformofsatireandcouldbe consideredtheliteraryequivalentofacaricatureorcartoon. HenryFielding'sShamelaisaparodyofSamuelRichardson'sPamela.(ComparewithBurlesque.)(See alsosatire.) Pastoral:AtermderivedfromtheLatinword"pastor,"meaningshepherd.Apastoralisaliterary compositiononaruraltheme.Theconventionsofthepastoralwereoriginatedbythethirdcentury GreekpoetTheocritus,whowroteabouttheexperiences,loveaffairs,andpastimesofSicilian shepherds.Inapastoral,charactersandlanguageofacourtlynatureareoftenplacedinasimplesetting. Thetermpastoralisalsousedtoclassifydramas,elegies,andlyricsthatexhibittheuseofcountry settingsandshepherdcharacters. PercyByssheShelley's"Adonais"andJohnMilton's"Lycidas"aretwofamousexamplesofpastorals. Pastorela:TheSpanishnamefortheshepherdsplay,afolkdramareenactedduringtheChristmas season. ExamplesofpastorelasincludeGomezManrique'sRepresentaciondelnacimientoandthedramasof LucasFernandezandJuandelEncina. PatheticFallacy:(AlsoknownasPoeticFallacy.)AtermcoinedbyEnglishcriticJohnRuskinto identifywritingthatfalselyendowsnonhumanthingswithhumanintentionsandfeelings,suchas

"angryclouds"and"sadtrees." Thepatheticfallacyisarequiredconventionintheclassicalpoeticformofthepastoralelegy,anditis usedinthemodernpoetryofT.S.Eliot,EzraPound,andtheImagists.(SeealsoPastoraland Imagism.) Pelado:Literallythe"skinnedone"orshirtlessone,hewasthestockunderdog,sharpwittedpicaresque characterofMexicanvaudevilleandtentshows. ThepeladoisfoundinsuchworksasDonCatarino'sLoseffectosdelacrisisandRegresoamitierra. PenName:SeePseudonym Pentameter:SeeMeter Persona:ALatintermmeaning"mask."Personaearethecharactersinafictionalworkofliterature. Thepersonagenerallyfunctionsasamaskthroughwhichtheauthortellsastoryinavoiceotherthan hisorherown.Apersonaisusuallyeitheracharacterinastorywhoactsasanarratororan"implied author,"avoicecreatedbytheauthortoactasthenarratorforhimselforherself. PersonaeincludethenarratorofGeoffreyChaucer'sCanterburyTalesandMarlowinJosephConrad's HeartofDarkness.(ComparewithRaisonneur.) Personae:SeePersona PersonalPointofView:SeePointofView Personification:(AlsoknownasProsopopoeia.)Afigureofspeechthatgiveshumanqualitiesto abstractideas,animals,andinanimateobjects. WilliamShakespeareusedpersonificationinRomeoandJulietinthelines"Arise,fairsun,andkillthe enviousmoon,/Whoisalreadysickandpalewithgrief."Here,themoonisportrayedasbeingenvious, sick,andpalewithgriefallmarkedlyhumanqualities.(ComparewithAnthropomorphism.) PetrarchanSonnet:SeeSonnet Phenomenology:Amethodofliterarycriticismbasedonthebeliefthatthingshavenoexistence outsideofhumanconsciousnessorawareness.Proponentsofthistheorybelievethatartisaprocess thattakesplaceinthemindoftheobserverasheorshecontemplatesanobjectratherthanaqualityof theobjectitself. AmongphenomenologicalcriticsareEdmundHusserl,GeorgePoulet,MarcelRaymond,andRoman Ingarden. PicaresqueNovel:Episodicfictiondepictingtheadventuresofaroguishcentralcharacter("picaro"is Spanishfor"rogue").Thepicaresqueheroiscommonlyalowbornbutcleverindividualwhowanders intoandoutofvariousaffairsoflove,danger,andfarcicalintrigue.Theseinvolvementsmaytakeplace atallsociallevelsandtypicallypresentahumorousandwiderangingsatireofagivensociety. ProminentexamplesofthepicaresquenovelareDonQuixotebyMigueldeCervantes,TomJonesby HenryFielding,andMollFlandersbyDanielDefoe. Plagiarism:Claiminganotherperson'swrittenmaterialasone'sown.Plagiarismcantaketheformof direct,wordforwordcopyingorthetheftofthesubstanceorideaofthework. Astudentwhocopiesanencyclopediaentryandturnsitinasareportforschoolisguiltyofplagiarism. PlatonicCriticism:Aformofcriticismthatstressesanartisticwork'susefulnessasanagentofsocial engineeringratherthananyqualityorvalueoftheworkitself.

PlatoniccriticismtakesasitsstartingpointtheancientGreekphilosopherPlato'scommentsonartin hisRepublic.(ComparewithAristotelianCriticism.) Platonism:TheembracingofthedoctrinesofthephilosopherPlato,popularamongthepoetsofthe RenaissanceandtheRomanticperiod.PlatonismismoreflexiblethanAristotelianCriticismandplaces moreemphasisonthesupernaturalandunknownaspectsoflife. PlatonismisexpressedinthelovePoetryoftheRenaissance,thefourthbookofBaldassare Castiglione'sTheBookoftheCourtier,andthepoetryofWilliamBlake,WilliamWordsworth,Percy ByssheShelley,FriedrichHolderlin,WilliamButlerYeats,andWallaceStevens. Play:SeeDrama Plot:Inliterarycriticism,thistermreferstothepatternofeventsinanarrativeordrama.Initssimplest sense,theplotguidestheauthorincomposingtheworkandhelpsthereaderfollowthework.Typically, plotsexhibitcausalityandunityandhaveabeginning,amiddle,andanend.Sometimes,however,a plotmayconsistofaseriesofdisconnectedevents,inwhichcaseitisknownasan"episodicplot." InhisAspectsoftheNovel,E.M.Forsterdistinguishesbetweenastory,definedasa"narrativeofevents arrangedintheirtimesequence,"andplot,whichorganizestheeventstoa"senseofcausality."This definitioncloselymirrorsAristotle'sdiscussionofplotinhisPoetics. Poem:Initsbroadestsense,acompositionutilizingrhyme,meter,concretedetail,andexpressive languagetocreatealiteraryexperiencewithemotionalandaestheticappeal. Typicalpoemsincludesonnets,odes,elegies,haiku,ballads,andfreeverse. Poet:AnauthorwhowritesPoetryorVerse.Thetermisalsousedtorefertoanartistorwriterwhohas anexceptionalgiftforexpression,imagination,andenergyinthemakingofartinanyform. WellknownpoetsincludeHorace,Basho,SirPhilipSidney,SirEdmundSpenser,JohnDonne,Andrew Marvell,AlexanderPope,JonathanSwift,GeorgeGordon,LordByron,JohnKeats,ChristinaRossetti, W.H.Auden,StevieSmith,andSylviaPlath. Poetemaudit:AtermderivedfromPaulVerlaine'sLespoetesmaudits(TheAccursedPoets),a collectionofessaysontheFrenchsymbolistwritersStephaneMallarme,ArthurRimbaud,andTristan Corbiere.InthesenseintendedbyVerlaine,thepoetis"accursed"forchoosingtoexploreextremesof humanexperienceoutsideofmiddleclasssociety. ThepoetemauditisdescribedinCharlesBaudelaire'spoem"Benediction,"fromwhichVerlainemay havetakenhistitle.(ComparewithSymbolism.) PoeticFallacy:SeePatheticFallacy PoeticJustice:Anoutcomeinaliterarywork,notnecessarilyapoem,inwhichthegoodarerewarded andtheevilarepunished,especiallyinwaysthatparticularlyfittheirvirtuesorcrimes. Forexample,amurderermayhimselfbemurdered,orathiefwillfindhimselfpenniless.(Seealso Deusexmachina.) PoeticLicense:Distortionsoffactandliteraryconventionmadebyawriternotalwaysapoetfor thesakeoftheeffectgained.Poeticlicenseiscloselyrelatedtotheconceptof"artisticfreedom." Anauthorexercisespoeticlicensebysayingthatapileofmoney"reachesashighasamountain"when thepileisactuallyonlyafootortwohigh. Poetics:Thistermhastwocloselyrelatedmeanings.Itdenotes(1)anaesthetictheoryinliterary criticismabouttheessenceofPoetryor(2)rulesprescribingthepropermethods,content,style,or

dictionofpoetry.Thetermpoeticsmayalsorefertotheoriesaboutliteratureingeneral,notjustpoetry. Poetry:Initsbroadestsense,writingthataimstopresentideasandevokeanemotionalexperiencein thereaderthroughtheuseofmeter,imagery,connotativeandconcretewords,andacarefully constructedstructurebasedonrhythmicpatterns.Poetrytypicallyreliesonwordsandexpressionsthat haveseverallayersofmeaning.Italsomakesuseoftheeffectsofregularrhythmontheearandmay makeastrongappealtothesensesthroughtheuseofimagery. EdgarAllanPoe's"AnnabelLee"andWaltWhitman'sLeavesofGrassarefamousexamplesofpoetry. (ComparewithProse.)(SeealsoDramaticPoetry,LyricPoetry,andNarrativePoetry.) PointofView:Thenarrativeperspectivefromwhichaliteraryworkispresentedtothereader.There arefourtraditionalpointsofview.The"thirdpersonomniscient"givesthereadera"godlike" perspective,unrestrictedbytimeorplace,fromwhichtoseeactionsandlookintothemindsof characters.Thisallowstheauthortocommentopenlyoncharactersandeventsinthework.The"third person"pointofviewpresentstheeventsofthestoryfromoutsideofanysinglecharacter'sperception, muchliketheomniscientpointofview,butthereadermustunderstandtheactionasittakesplaceand withoutanyspecialinsightintocharacters'mindsormotivations.The"firstperson"or"personal"point ofviewrelateseventsastheyareperceivedbyasinglecharacter.Themaincharacter"tells"thestory andmayofferopinionsabouttheactionandcharacterswhichdifferfromthoseoftheauthor.Muchless commonthanomniscient,thirdperson,andfirstpersonisthe"secondperson"pointofview,wherein theauthortellsthestoryasifitishappeningtothereader. JamesThurberemploystheomniscientpointofviewinhisshortstory"TheSecretLifeofWalter Mitty."ErnestHemingway's"AClean,WellLightedPlace"isashortstorytoldfromthethirdperson pointofview.MarkTwain'snovelHuckFinnispresentedfromthefirstpersonviewpoint.Jay McInerney'sBrightLights,BigCityisanexampleofanovelwhichusesthesecondpersonpointof view.(Seealsocharacter,narrative,novel,andShortStory.) Polemic:Aworkinwhichtheauthortakesastandonacontroversialsubject,suchasabortionor religion.Suchworksareoftenextremelyargumentativeorprovocative. ClassicexamplesofpolemicsincludeJohnMilton'sAeropagiticaandThomasPaine'sTheAmerican Crisis. Pornography:Writingintendedtoprovokefeelingsoflustinthereader.Suchworksareoften condemnedbycriticsandteachers,butthosewhichcanbeshowntohaveliteraryvalueareviewedless harshly. LiteraryworksthathavebeendescribedaspornographicincludeOvid'sTheArtofLove,Margaretof Angouleme'sHeptameron,JohnCleland'sMemoirsofaWomanofPleasure;or,theLifeofFannyHill, theanonymousMySecretLife,D.H.Lawrence'sLadyChatterley'sLover,andVladimirNabokov's Lolita. PostAestheticMovement:AnartisticresponsemadebyAfricanAmericanstotheblackaesthetic movementofthe1960sandearly'70s.Writerssincethattimehaveadoptedasomewhatdifferenttone intheirwork,withlessemphasisplacedonthedisparitybetweenblackandwhiteintheUnitedStates. InthewordsofpostaestheticauthorssuchasToniMorrison,JohnEdgarWideman,andKristinHunter, AfricanAmericansareportrayedaslookinginwardforanswerstotheirownquestions,ratherthan alwayslookingtotheoutsideworld. TwowellknownexamplesofworksproducedaspartofthepostaestheticmovementarethePulitzer PrizewinningnovelsTheColorPurplebyAliceWalkerandBelovedbyToniMorrison.

Postmodernism:Writingfromthe1960sforwardcharacterizedbyexperimentationandcontinuingto applysomeofthefundamentalsofmodernism,whichincludedexistentialismandalienation. Postmodernistshavegoneastepfurtherintherejectionoftraditionbegunwiththemodernistsbyalso rejectingtraditionalforms,preferringtheantinoveloverthenovelandtheantiherooverthehero. PostmodernwritersincludeAlainRobbeGrillet,ThomasPynchon,MargaretDrabble,JohnFowles, AdolfoBioyCasares,andGabrielGarciaMarquez. PreRaphaelites:AcircleofwritersandartistsinmidnineteenthcenturyEngland.Valuingthepre Renaissanceartisticqualitiesofreligioussymbolism,lavishpictorialism,andnaturalsensuousness,the PreRaphaelitescultivatedasenseofmysteryandmelancholythatinfluencedlaterwritersassociated withtheSymbolistandDecadentmovements. ThemajormembersofthegroupincludeDanteGabrielRossetti,ChristinaRossetti,Algernon Swinburne,andWalterPater.(ComparewithDecadentsandSymbolism.) Primitivism:Thebeliefthatprimitivepeopleswerenoblerandlessflawedthancivilizedpeoples becausetheyhadnotbeensubjectedtothetaintinginfluenceofsociety. ExamplesofliteratureespousingprimitivismincludeAphraBehn'sOroonoko:Or,TheHistoryofthe RoyalSlave,JeanJacquesRousseau'sJulieoulaNouvelleHeloise,OliverGoldsmith'sTheDeserted Village,thepoemsofRobertBurns,HermanMelville'sstoriesTypee,Omoo,andMardi,manypoems ofWilliamButlerYeatsandRobertFrost,andWilliamGolding'snovelLordoftheFlies.(Compare withNobleSavage.) ProjectiveVerse:(AlsoknownasBreathVerse.)AformoffreeVerseinwhichthepoet'sbreathing patterndeterminesthelinesofthepoem.Poetswhoadvocateprojectiveverseareagainstallformal structuresinwriting,includingMeterandform. Besidesitscreators,RobertCreeley,RobertDuncan,andCharlesOlson,twootherwellknown projectiveversepoetsareDeniseLevertovandLeRoiJones(AmiriBaraka). Prologue:Anintroductorysectionofaliterarywork.Itoftencontainsinformationestablishingthe situationofthecharactersorpresentsinformationaboutthesetting,timeperiod,oraction.Indrama, theprologueisspokenbyaChorusorbyoneoftheprincipalcharacters. Inthe"GeneralPrologue"ofTheCanterburyTales,GeoffreyChaucerdescribesthemaincharacters andestablishesthesettingandpurposeofthework.(ComparewithEpilogue.) Prose:Aliterarymediumthatattemptstomirrorthelanguageofeverydayspeech.Itisdistinguished frompoetrybyitsuseofunmetered,unrhymedlanguageconsistingoflogicallyrelatedsentences.Prose isusuallygroupedintoparagraphsthatformacohesivewholesuchasanessayoranovel. RecognizedmastersofEnglishprosewritingincludeSirThomasMalory,WilliamCaxton,Raphael Holinshed,JosephAddison,MarkTwain,andErnestHemingway. Prosopopoeia:SeePersonification Protagonist:Thecentralcharacterofastorywhoservesasafocusforitsthemesandincidentsandas theprincipalrationaleforitsdevelopment.Theprotagonistissometimesreferredtoindiscussionsof modernliteratureastheheroorantihero. WellknownprotagonistsareHamletinWilliamShakespeare'sHamletandJayGatsbyinF.Scott Fitzgerald'sTheGreatGatsby.(ComparewithAntagonist.)(Seealsoconflict.) ProtestFiction:Protestfictionhasasitsprimarypurposetheprotestingofsomesocialinjustice,such asracismordiscrimination.

OneexampleofprotestfictionisaseriesoffivenovelsbyChesterHimes,beginningin1945withIfHe HollersLetHimGoandendingin1955withThePrimitive.Theseworksdepictthedestructiveeffects ofraceandgenderstereotypinginthecontextofinterracialrelationships.AnotherAfricanAmerican authorwhoseworksoftenrevolvearoundthemesofsocialprotestisJohnOliverKillens.James Baldwin'sessay"Everybody'sProtestNovel"generatedcontroversybyattackingtheauthorsofprotest fiction. Proverb:Abrief,sagesayingthatexpressesatruthaboutlifeinastrikingmanner. "Theyarenotallcookswhocarrylongknives"isanexampleofaproverb. Pseudonym:Anameassumedbyawriter,mostoftenintendedtopreventhisorheridentificationas theauthorofawork.Twoormoreauthorsmayworktogetherunderonepseudonym,oranauthormay useadifferentnameforeachgenreheorshepublishesin.Somepublishingcompaniesmaintain"house pseudonyms,"underwhichanynumberofauthorsmaywriteinstallationsinaseries.Someauthorsalso chooseapseudonymovertheirrealnamesthewayanactormayuseastagename. Examplesofpseudonyms(withtheauthor'srealnameinparentheses)includeVoltaire(FrancoisMarie Arouet),Novalis(FriedrichvonHardenberg),CurrerBell(CharlotteBronte),EllisBell(EmilyBronte), GeorgeEliot(MaryannEvans),HonorioBustosDonmecq(AdolfoBioyCasaresandJorgeLuis Borges),andRichardBachman(StephenKing). Pun:Aplayonwordsthathavesimilarsoundsbutdifferentmeanings. AseriousexampleofthepunisfromJohnDonne's"AHymnetoGodtheFather": Swearebythyself,thatatmydeaththysonne Shallshineasheshinesnow,andheretofore; And,havingdonethat,Thouhastedone; Ifearnomore. PurePoetry:Poetrywrittenwithoutinstructionalintentormoralpurposethataimsonlytopleasea readerbyitsimageryormusicalflow.Thetermpurepoetryisusedastheantonymoftheterm "didacticism." ThepoetryofEdgarAllanPoe,StephaneMallarme,PaulVerlaine,PaulValery,JuanRamozJimenez, andJorgeGuillenofferexamplesofpurepoetry. Q Quatrain:Afourlinestanzaofapoemoranentirepoemconsistingoffourlines. ThefollowingquatrainisfromRobertHerrick's"ToLiveMerrily,andtoTrusttoGoodVerses": Round,round,therootdo'srun; Andbeingravishtthus, Come,IwilldrinkaTun TomyPropertius.

R
Raisonneur:Acharacterinadramawhofunctionsasaspokespersonforthedramatist'sviews.The raisonneurtypicallyobservestheplaywithoutbecomingcentraltoitsaction. Raisonneurswereverycommoninplaysofthenineteenthcentury.(ComparewithChorusand Persona.)

Realism:AnineteenthcenturyEuropeanliterarymovementthatsoughttoportrayfamiliarcharacters, situations,andsettingsinarealisticmanner.Thiswasdoneprimarilybyusinganobjectivenarrative pointofviewandthroughthebuildupofaccuratedetail.Thestandardforsuccessofanyrealisticwork dependsonhowfaithfullyittransferscommonexperienceintofictionalforms.Therealisticmethod maybealteredorextended,asinstreamofconsciousnesswriting,torecordhighlysubjective experience. SeminalauthorsinthetraditionofRealismincludeHonoredeBalzac,GustaveFlaubert,andHenry James. Refrain:Aphraserepeatedatintervalsthroughoutapoem.Arefrainmayappearattheendofeach stanzaoratlessregularintervals.Itmaybealteredslightlyateachappearance. Somerefrainsarenonsenseexpressionsaswith"Nevermore"inEdgarAllanPoe's"TheRaven" thatseemtotakeonadifferentsignificancewitheachuse. Renaissance:TheperiodinEuropeanhistorythatmarkedtheendoftheMiddleAges.ItbeganinItaly inthelatefourteenthcentury.Inbroadterms,itisusuallyseenasspanningthefourteenth,fifteenth, andsixteenthcenturies,althoughitdidnotreachGreatBritain,forexample,untilthe1480sorso.The Renaissancesawanawakeninginalmosteverysphereofhumanactivity,especiallyscience, philosophy,andthearts.Theperiodisbestdefinedbytheemergenceofageneralphilosophythat emphasizedtheimportanceoftheintellect,theindividual,andworldaffairs.Itcontrastsstronglywith themedievalworldview,characterizedbythedominantconcernsoffaith,thesocialcollective,and spiritualsalvation. ProminentwritersduringtheRenaissanceincludeNiccoloMachiavelliandBaldassareCastiglionein Italy,MigueldeCervantesandLopedeVegainSpain,JeanFroissartandFrancoisRabelaisinFrance, SirThomasMoreandSirPhilipSidneyinEngland,andDesideriusErasmusinHolland.(Compare withElizabethanAge.) Repartee:Conversationfeaturingsnappyretortsandwitticisms. MastersofreparteeincludeSydneySmith,CharlesLamb,andOscarWilde.Anexampleisrecordedin themeetingof"Beau"NashandJohnWesley:Nashsaid,"Inevermakewayforafool,"towhich Wesleyresponded,"Don'tyou?Ialwaysdo,"andsteppedaside. Resolution:Theportionofastoryfollowingtheclimax,inwhichtheconflictisresolved. TheresolutionofJaneAusten'sNorthangerAbbeyisneatlysummedupinthefollowingsentence: "HenryandCatherineweremarried,thebellsrangandeverybodysmiled." Restoration:SeeRestorationAge RestorationAge:AperiodinEnglishliteraturebeginningwiththecrowningofCharlesIIin1660and runningtoabout1700.Theera,whichwascharacterizedbyareactionagainstPuritanism,wasthefirst greatageofthecomedyofmanners.Thefinestliteratureoftheeraistypicallywittyandurbane,and oftenleb. ProminentRestorationAgewritersincludeWilliamCongreve,SamuelPepys,JohnDryden,andJohn Milton. RevengeTragedy:(AlsoknownasTragedyofBlood.)AdramaticformpopularduringtheElizabethan Age,inwhichtheprotagonist,directedbytheghostofhismurderedfatherorson,inflictsretaliation uponapowerfulvillain.Notablefeaturesoftherevengetragedyincludeviolence,bizarrecriminalacts, intrigue,insanity,ahesitantprotagonist,andtheuseofsoliloquy. ThomasKyd'sSpanishTragedyisthefirstexampleofrevengetragedyinEnglish,andWilliam

Shakespeare'sHamletisperhapsthebest.Extremeexamplesofrevengetragedy,suchasJohnWebster's TheDuchessofMalfi,arelabeled"tragediesofblood."(Comparewithtragedy.) Revista:TheSpanishtermforavaudevillemusicalrevue. ExamplesofrevistasincludeAntonioGuzmanAguilera'sMexicoparalosmexicanos,DanielVanegas's Malditojazz,andDonCatarino'sWhiskey,morfinaymarihuanaandEldesterrado. Rhetoric:Inliterarycriticism,thistermdenotestheartofethicalpersuasion.Initsstrictestsense, rhetoricadherestovariousprinciplesdevelopedsinceclassicaltimesforarrangingfactsandideasina clear,persuasive,appealingmanner.Thetermisalsousedtorefertoeffectiveproseingeneraland theoriesoformethodsforcomposingeffectiveprose. ClassicalexamplesofrhetoricsincludeTheRhetoricofAristotle,Quintillian'sInstitutioOratoria,and Cicero'sAdHerennium. RhetoricalQuestion:Aquestionintendedtoprovokethought,butnotanexpressedanswer,inthe reader.Itismostcommonlyusedinoratoryandotherpersuasivegenres. ThefollowinglinesfromThomasGray's"ElegyWritteninaCountryChurchyard"askrhetorical questions: Canstoriedurnoranimatedbust Backtoitsmansioncallthefleetingbreath? CanHonour'svoiceprovokethesilentdust, OrFlatterysoothethedullcoldearofDeath? Rhyme:Whenusedasanouninliterarycriticism,thistermgenerallyreferstoapoeminwhichwords soundidenticalorverysimilarandappearinparallelpositionsintwoormorelines.Rhymesare classifiedintodifferenttypesaccordingtowheretheyfallinalineorstanzaoraccordingtothedegree ofsimilaritytheyexhibitintheirspellingsandsounds.Somemajortypesofrhymeare"masculine" rhyme,"feminine"rhyme,and"triple"rhyme.Inamasculinerhyme,therhymingsoundfallsinasingle accentedsyllable,aswith"heat"and"eat."Femininerhymeisarhymeoftwosyllables,onestressed andoneunstressed,aswith"merry"and"tarry."Triplerhymematchesthesoundoftheaccented syllableandthetwounaccentedsyllablesthatfollow:"narrative"and"declarative." RobertBrowningalternatesfeminineandmasculinerhymesinhis"SoliloquyoftheSpanishCloister": Grrrtherego,myheart'sabhorrence! Wateryourdamnedflowerpots,do! Ifhatekilledmen,BrotherLawrence, God'sblood,wouldnotminekillyou! What?Yourmyrtlebushwantstrimming? Oh,thatrosehaspriorclaims Needsitsleadenvasefilledbrimming? Helldryyouupwithflames! TriplerhymescanbefoundinThomasHood's"BridgeofSighs,"GeorgeGordonByron'ssatirical verse,andOgdenNash'scomicpoems.(ComparewithAlliteration,Assonance,Consonance,and InternalRhyme.) RhymeRoyal:Astanzaofsevenlinescomposediniambicpentameterandrhymedababbcc.Thename issaidtobeatributetoKingJamesIofScotland,whomademuchuseoftheforminhisPoetry. ExamplesofrhymeroyalincludeGeoffreyChaucer'sTheParlementofFoules,WilliamShakespeare's TheRapeofLucrece,WilliamMorris'sTheEarlyParadise,andJohnMasefield'sTheWidowinthe ByeStreet.(SeealsoStanza.)

RhymeScheme:SeeRhyme Rhythm:Aregularpatternofsound,timeintervals,oreventsoccurringinwriting,mostoftenand mostdiscernablyinPoetry.Regular,reliablerhythmisknowntobesoothingtohumans,while interrupted,unpredictable,orrapidlychangingrhythmisdisturbing.Theseeffectsareknownto authors,whousethemtoproduceadesiredreactioninthereader. Anexampleofaformofirregularrhythmissprungrhythmpoetry;quantitativeVerse,ontheother hand,isveryregularinitsrhythm.(SeealsoAssonance,Consonance,Dissonance,andSprung Rhythm.) RisingAction:Thepartofadramawheretheplotbecomesincreasinglycomplicated.Risingaction leadsuptotheclimax,orturningpoint,ofadrama. Thefinal"chasescene"ofanactionfilmisgenerallytherisingactionwhichculminatesinthefilm's climax.(ComparewithDenouement.) Rococo:AstyleofEuropeanarchitecturethatflourishedintheeighteenthcentury,especiallyinFrance. Themostnotablefeaturesofrococoareitsextensiveuseofornamentationanditsthemesoflightness, gaiety,andintimacy.Inliterarycriticism,thetermisoftenuseddisparaginglytorefertoadecadentor overornamentalstyle. AlexanderPope's"TheRapeoftheLock"isanexampleofliteraryrococo.(ComparewithBaroque.) Romanaclef:AFrenchphrasemeaning"novelwithakey."Itreferstoanarrativeinwhichreal personsareportrayedunderfictitiousnames. JackKerouac,forexample,portrayedvariousreallifebeatgenerationfiguresunderfictitiousnamesin hisOntheRoad. Romance:Abroadterm,usuallydenotinganarrativewithexotic,exaggerated,oftenidealized characters,scenes,andthemes. NathanielHawthornecalledhisTheHouseoftheSevenGablesandTheMarbleFaunromancesin ordertodistinguishthemfromclearlyrealisticworks. RomanticAge:SeeRomanticism Romanticism:Thistermhastwowidelyacceptedmeanings.Inhistoricalcriticism,itreferstoa Europeanintellectualandartisticmovementofthelateeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturiesthat soughtgreaterfreedomofpersonalexpressionthanthatallowedbythestrictrulesofliteraryformand logicoftheeighteenthcenturyneoclassicists.TheRomanticspreferredemotionalandimaginative expressiontorationalanalysis.Theyconsideredtheindividualtobeatthecenterofallexperienceand soplacedhimorheratthecenteroftheirart.TheRomanticsbelievedthatthecreativeimagination revealsnoblertruthsuniquefeelingsandattitudesthanthosethatcouldbediscoveredbylogicor byscientificexamination.Boththenaturalworldandthestateofchildhoodwereimportantsourcesfor revelationsof"eternaltruths.""Romanticism"isalsousedasageneraltermtorefertoatypeof sensibilityfoundinallperiodsofliteraryhistoryandusuallyconsideredtobeinoppositiontothe principlesofclassicism.Inthissense,Romanticismsignifiesanyworkorphilosophyinwhichthe exoticordreamlikefigurestrongly,orthatisdevotedtoindividualisticexpression,selfanalysis,ora pursuitofahigherrealmofknowledgethancanbediscoveredbyhumanreason. ProminentRomanticsincludeJeanJacquesRousseau,WilliamWordsworth,JohnKeats,LordByron, andJohannWolfgangvonGoethe.(ComparewithNeoclassicism,andTranscendentalism.) Romantics:SeeRomanticism

RussianSymbolism:ARussianpoeticmovement,derivedfromFrenchsymbolism,thatflourished between1894and1910.WhilesomeRussianSymbolistscontinuedintheFrenchtradition,stressing aestheticismandtheimportanceofsuggestionabovedidacticintent,otherssawtheircraftasaformof mysticalworship,andthemselvesasmediatorsbetweenthesupernaturalandthemundane. RussiansymbolistsincludeAleksandrBlok,VyacheslavIvanovichIvanov,FyodorSologub,Andrey Bely,NikolayGumilyov,andVladimirSergeyevichSolovyov.(ComparewithSymbolism.) S Satire:Aworkthatusesridicule,humor,andwittocriticizeandprovokechangeinhumannatureand institutions.Therearetwomajortypesofsatire:"formal"or"direct"satirespeaksdirectlytothereader ortoacharacterinthework;"indirect"satirereliesupontheridiculousbehaviorofitscharactersto makeitspoint.Formalsatireisfurtherdividedintotwomanners:the"Horatian,"whichridicules gently,andthe"Juvenalian,"whichderidesitssubjectsharshlyandbitterly. Voltaire'snovellaCandideisanindirectsatire.JonathanSwift'sessay"AModestProposal"isa Juvenaliansatire. Scansion:Theanalysisor"scanning"ofapoemtodetermineitsMeterandoftenitsrhymescheme. Themostcommonsystemofscansionusesaccents(slantedlinesdrawnabovesyllables)toshow stressedsyllables,breves(curvedlinesdrawnabovesyllables)toshowunstressedsyllables,andvertical linestoseparateeachFoot. InthefirstlineofJohnKeats'sEndymion, "Athingofbeautyisajoyforever:" theword"thing,"thefirstsyllableof"beauty,"theword"joy,"andthesecondsyllableof"forever"are stressed,whilethewords"A"and"of,"thesecondsyllableof"beauty,"theword"a,"andthefirstand thirdsyllablesof"forever"areunstressed.Inthesecondline: "Itslovelinessincreases;itwillnever" apairofverticallinesseparatethefootendingwith"increases"andtheonebeginningwith"it." Scene:AsubdivisionofanActofadrama,consistingofcontinuousactiontakingplaceatasingletime andinasinglelocation.Thebeginningsandendingsofscenesmaybeindicatedbyclearingthestage ofactorsandpropsorbytheentrancesandexitsofimportantcharacters. ThefirstactofWilliamShakespeare'sWinter'sTaleiscomprisedoftwoscenes. ScienceFiction:Atypeofnarrativeaboutorbaseduponrealorimaginedscientifictheoriesand technology.Sciencefictionisoftenpeopledwithaliencreaturesandsetonotherplanetsorindifferent dimensions. KarelCapek'sR.U.R.isamajorworkofsciencefiction.(ComparewithFantasy.) SecondPerson:SeePointofView Semiotics:Thestudyofhowliteraryformsandconventionsaffectthemeaningoflanguage. SemioticiansincludeFerdinanddeSaussure,CharlesSandersPierce,ClaudeLeviStrauss,Jacques Lacan,MichelFoucault,JacquesDerrida,RolandBarthes,andJuliaKristeva.(Comparewith Structuralism.)(Seealsocriticism.) Sestet:Anysixlinepoemorstanza. ExamplesofthesestetincludethelastsixlinesofthePetrarchansonnetform,thestanzaformofRobert Burns's"APoet'sWelcometohislovebegottenDaughter,"andthesestinaforminW.H.Auden's

"PaysageMoralise." Setting:Thetime,place,andcultureinwhichtheactionofanarrativetakesplace.Theelementsof settingmayincludegeographiclocation,characters'physicalandmentalenvironments,prevailing culturalattitudes,orthehistoricaltimeinwhichtheactiontakesplace. ExamplesofsettingsincludetheromanticizedScotlandinSirWalterScott's"Waverley"novels,the FrenchprovincialsettinginGustaveFlaubert'sMadameBovary,thefictionalWessexcountryof ThomasHardy'snovels,andthesmalltownsofsouthernOntarioinAliceMunro'sshortstories. ShakespeareanSonnet:SeeSonnet ShortStory:Afictionalprosenarrativeshorterandmorefocusedthananovella.Theshortstory usuallydealswithasingleepisodeandoftenasinglecharacter.The"tone,"theauthor'sattitudetoward hisorhersubjectandaudience,isuniformthroughout.Theshortstoryfrequentlyalsolacks denouement,endinginsteadatitsclimax. WellknownshortstoriesincludeErnestHemingway's"HillsLikeWhiteElephants,"Katherine Mansfield's"TheFly,"JorgeLuisBorge's"Tlon,Uqbar,OrbisTertius,"EudoraWelty's"Deathofa TravellingSalesman,"YukioMishima's"ThreeMillionMen,"andMilanKundera's"TheHitchhiking Game."(Comparewithnovelandnovella.) SignifyingMonkey:Apopulartricksterfigureinblackfolklore,withhundredsoftalesaboutthis characterdocumentedsincethe19thcentury. HenryLouisGatesJr.examinesthehistoryofthesignifyingmonkeyinTheSignifyingMonkey: TowardsaTheoryofAfroAmericanLiteraryCriticism,publishedin1988.(SeealsoTrickster.) Simile:Acomparison,usuallyusing"like"or"as",oftwoessentiallydissimilarthings,asin"coffeeas coldasice"or"Hesoundedlikeabrokenrecord." ThetitleofErnestHemingway's"HillsLikeWhiteElephants"containsasimile.(Comparewith Metaphor.) Slang:Atypeofinformalverbalcommunicationthatisgenerallyunacceptableforformalwriting. Slangwordsandphrasesareoftencolorfulexaggerationsusedtoemphasizethespeaker'spoint;they mayalsobeshortenedversionsofanoftenusedwordorphrase. ExamplesofAmericanslangfromthe1990sinclude"yuppie"(anacronymforYoungUrban Professional),"awesome"(for"excellent"),wired(for"nervous"or"excited"),and"chillout"(for relax).(SeealsoColloquialism.) SlantRhyme:SeeConsonance SlaveNarrative:AutobiographicalaccountsofAmericanslavelifeastoldbyescapedslaves.These worksfirstappearedduringtheabolitionmovementofthe1830sthroughthe1850s. OlaudahEquiano'sTheInterestingNarrativeofOlaudahEquiano,orGustavusVassa,TheAfricanand HarrietAnnJacobs'sIncidentsintheLifeofaSlaveGirlareexamplesoftheslavenarrative. SocialRealism:SeeSocialistRealism SocialistRealism:(AlsoknownasSocialRealism.)TheSocialistRealismschoolofliterarytheory wasproposedbyMaximGorkyandestablishedasadogmabythefirstSovietCongressofWriters.It demandedadherencetoacommunistworldviewinworksofliterature.Itsdoctrinesrequiredan objectiveviewpointcomprehensibletotheworkingclassesandthemesofsocialstrugglefeaturing strongproletarianheroes.

AsuccessfulworkofsocialistrealismisNikolayOstrovsky'sKakzakalyalasstal(HowtheSteelWas Tempered). Soliloquy:Amonologueinadramausedtogivetheaudienceinformationandtodevelopthespeaker's character.Itistypicallyaprojectionofthespeaker'sinnermostthoughts.Usuallydeliveredwhilethe speakerisaloneonstage,asoliloquyisintendedtopresentanillusionofunspokenreflection. AcelebratedsoliloquyisHamlet's"Tobeornottobe"speechinWilliamShakespeare'sHamlet. (ComparewithMonologue.) Sonnet:Afourteenlinepoem,usuallycomposediniambicpentameter,employingoneofseveral rhymeschemes.Therearethreemajortypesofsonnets,uponwhichallothervariationsoftheformare based:the"Petrarchan"or"Italian"sonnet,the"Shakespearean"or"English"sonnet,andthe "Spenserian"sonnet.APetrarchansonnetconsistsofanoctaverhymedabbaabbaanda"sestet"rhymed eithercdecde,cdccdc,orcdedce.Theoctaveposesaquestionorproblem,relatesanarrative,orputs forthaproposition;thesestetpresentsasolutiontotheproblem,commentsuponthenarrative,or appliesthepropositionputforthintheoctave.TheShakespeareansonnetisdividedintothreequatrains andacoupletrhymedababcdcdefefgg.Thecoupletprovidesanepigrammaticcommentonthe narrativeorproblemputforthinthequatrains.TheSpenseriansonnetusesthreequatrainsanda coupletliketheShakespearean,butlinkstheirthreerhymeschemesinthisway:ababbcbccdcdee. TheSpenseriansonnetdevelopsitsthemeintwopartslikethePetrarchan,itsfinalsixlinesresolvinga problem,analyzinganarrative,orapplyingapropositionputforthinitsfirsteightlines. ExamplesofsonnetscanbefoundinPetrarch'sCanzoniere,EdmundSpenser'sAmoretti,Elizabeth BarrettBrowning'sSonnetsfromthePortuguese,RainerMariaRilke'sSonnetstoOrpheus,and AdrienneRich'spoem"TheInsusceptibles." SpenserianSonnet:SeeSonnet SpenserianStanza:AninelinestanzahavingeightVersesiniambicpentameter,itsninthversein iambichexameter,andtherhymeschemeababbcbcc. ThisstanzaformwasfirstusedbyEdmundSpenserinhisallegoricalpoemTheFaerieQueene. Spondee:InPoetryMeter,aFootconsistingoftwolongorstressedsyllablesoccurringtogether.This formisquiterareinEnglishVerse,andisusuallycomposedoftwomonosyllabicwords. ThefirstfootinthefollowinglinefromRobertBurns's"GreenGrowtheRashes"isanexampleofa spondee:Greengrowtherashes,O SprungRhythm:Versificationusingaspecificnumberofaccentedsyllablesperlinebutdisregarding thenumberofunaccentedsyllablesthatfallineachline,producinganirregularrhythminthepoem. GerardManleyHopkins,whocoinedtheterm"sprungrhythm,"isthemostnotablepractitionerofthis technique.(SeealsoAccent,Rhythm,andVersification.) Stanza:Asubdivisionofapoemconsistingoflinesgroupedtogether,ofteninrecurringpatternsof rhyme,linelength,andMeter.Stanzasmayalsoserveasunitsofthoughtinapoemmuchlike paragraphsinprose. Examplesofstanzaformsincludethequatrain,terzarima,ottavarima,Spenserian,andthesocalled InMemoriamstanzafromAlfred,LordTennyson'spoembythattitle.Thefollowingisanexampleof thelatterform:Loveisandwasmylordandking,AndinhispresenceIattendTohearthetidingsof myfriend,Whicheveryhourhiscouriersbring. Stereotype:Astereotypewasoriginallythenameforaduplicationmadeduringtheprintingprocess;

thisledtoitsmoderndefinitionasapersonorthingthatis(orisassumedtobe)thesameasallothers ofitstype. Commonstereotypicalcharactersincludetheabsentmindedprofessor,thenaggingwife,the troublemakingteenager,andthekindheartedgrandmother. StreamofConsciousness:Anarrativetechniqueforrenderingtheinwardexperienceofacharacter. Thistechniqueisdesignedtogivetheimpressionofaneverchangingseriesofthoughts,emotions, images,andmemoriesinthespontaneousandseeminglyillogicalorderthattheyoccurinlife. ThetextbookexampleofstreamofconsciousnessisthelastsectionofJamesJoyce'sUlysses. Structuralism:Atwentiethcenturymovementinliterarycriticismthatexamineshowliterarytexts arriveattheirmeanings,ratherthanthemeaningsthemselves.Therearetwomajortypesofstructuralist analysis:oneexaminesthewaypatternsoflinguisticstructuresunifyaspecifictextandemphasize certainelementsofthattext,andtheotherinterpretsthewayliteraryformsandconventionsaffectthe meaningoflanguageitself. ProminentstructuralistsincludeMichelFoucault,RomanJakobson,andRolandBarthes.(Compare withSemiotics.) Structure:Theformtakenbyapieceofliterature.Thestructuremaybemadeobviousforeaseof understanding,asinnonfictionworks,ormayobscuredforartisticpurposes,asinsomePoetryor seemingly"unstructured"prose. Examplesofcommonliterarystructuresincludetheplotofanarrative,theactsandscenesofadrama, andsuchpoeticformsastheShakespeareansonnetandthePindaricode. SturmundDrang:AGermantermmeaning"stormandstress."ItreferstoaGermanliterary movementofthe1770sand1780sthatreactedagainsttheorderandrationalismoftheenlightenment, focusinginsteadontheintenseexperienceofextraordinaryindividuals. Highlyromantic,worksofthismovement,suchasJohannWolfgangvonGoethe'sGotzvon Berlichingen,aretypifiedbyrealism,rebelliousness,andintenseemotionalism.(Comparewith Enlightenment,The.) Style:Awriter'sdistinctivemannerofarrangingwordstosuithisorherideasandpurposeinwriting. Theuniqueimprintoftheauthor'spersonalityuponhisorherwriting,styleistheproductofanauthor's wayofarrangingideasandhisorheruseofdiction,differentsentencestructures,rhythm,figuresof speech,rhetoricalprinciples,andotherelementsofcomposition. Stylesmaybeclassifiedaccordingtoperiod(Metaphysical,Augustan,Georgian),individualauthors (Chaucerian,Miltonic,Jamesian),level(grand,middle,low,plain),orlanguage(scientific,expository, poetic,journalistic). Subject:Theperson,event,orthemeatthecenterofaworkofliterature.Aworkmayhaveoneor moresubjectsofeachtype,withshorterworkstendingtohavefewerandlongerworkstendingtohave more. ThesubjectsofJamesBaldwin'snovelGoTellItontheMountainincludethethemesoffatherson relationships,religiousconversion,blacklife,andsexuality.ThesubjectsofAnneFrank'sDiaryofa YoungGirlincludeAnneandherfamilymembersaswellasWorldWarII,theHolocaust,andthe themesofwar,isolation,injustice,andracism. Subjectivity:Writingthatexpressestheauthor'spersonalfeelingsabouthissubject,andwhichmayor maynotincludefactualinformationaboutthesubject. SubjectivityisdemonstratedinJamesJoyce'sPortraitoftheArtistasaYoungMan,SamuelButler's

TheWayofAllFlesh,andThomasWolfe'sLookHomeward,Angel.(ComparewithObjectivity.) Subplot:Asecondarystoryinanarrative.Asubplotmayserveasamotivatingorcomplicatingforce forthemainplotofthework,oritmayprovideemphasisfor,orrelieffrom,themainplot. TheconflictbetweentheCapuletsandtheMontaguesinWilliamShakespeare'sRomeoandJulietisan exampleofasubplot.(Comparewithplot.)(Seealsonarrative.) Surrealism:AtermintroducedtocriticismbyGuillaumeApollinaireandlateradoptedbyAndre Breton.ItreferstoaFrenchliteraryandartisticmovementfoundedinthe1920s.TheSurrealistssought toexpressunconsciousthoughtsandfeelingsintheirworks.Thebestknowntechniqueusedfor achievingthisaimwasAutomaticWritingtranscriptionsofspontaneousoutpouringsfromthe unconscious.TheSurrealistsproposedtounifythecontrarylevelsofconsciousandunconscious,dream andreality,objectivityandsubjectivityintoanewlevelof"superrealism." SurrealismcanbefoundinthepoetryofPaulEluard,PierreReverdy,andLouisAragon,amongothers. Suspense:Aliterarydeviceinwhichtheauthormaintainstheaudience'sattentionthroughthebuildup ofevents,theoutcomeofwhichwillsoonberevealed. SuspenseinWilliamShakespeare'sHamletissustainedthroughoutbythequestionofwhetherornot thePrincewillachievewhathehasbeeninstructedtodoandofwhatheintendstodo. Syllogism:Amethodofpresentingalogicalargument.Initsmostbasicform,thesyllogismconsistsof amajorpremise,aminorpremise,andaconclusion. Anexampleofasyllogismis: Majorpremise:Whenitsnows,thestreetsgetwet. Minorpremise:Itissnowing. Conclusion:Thestreetsarewet. Symbol:Somethingthatsuggestsorstandsforsomethingelsewithoutlosingitsoriginalidentity.In literature,symbolscombinetheirliteralmeaningwiththesuggestionofanabstractconcept.Literary symbolsareoftwotypes:thosethatcarrycomplexassociationsofmeaningnomatterwhattheir contexts,andthosethatderivetheirsuggestivemeaningfromtheirfunctionsinspecificliteraryworks. Examplesofsymbolsaresunshinesuggestinghappiness,rainsuggestingsorrow,andstormclouds suggestingdespair.(ComparewithArchetypeandSymbolism.) Symbolism:Thistermhastwowidelyacceptedmeanings.Inhistoricalcriticism,itdenotesanearly modernistliterarymovementinitiatedinFranceduringthenineteenthcenturythatreactedagainstthe prevailingstandardsofrealism.Writersinthismovementaimedtoevoke,indirectlyandsymbolically, anorderofbeingbeyondthematerialworldofthefivesenses.Poeticexpressionofpersonalemotion figuredstronglyinthemovement,typicallybymeansofaprivatesetofsymbolsuniquelyidentifiable withtheindividualpoet.TheprincipalaimoftheSymbolistswastoexpressinwordsthehighly complexfeelingsthatgrewoutofeverydaycontactwiththeworld.Inabroadersense,theterm "symbolism"referstotheuseofoneobjecttorepresentanother. EarlymembersoftheSymbolistmovementincludedtheFrenchauthorsCharlesBaudelaireandArthur Rimbaud;WilliamButlerYeats,JamesJoyce,andT.S.Eliotwereinfluencedasthemovementmoved toIreland,England,andtheUnitedStates.Examplesoftheconceptofsymbolismincludeaflagthat standsforanationormovement,oranemptycupboardusedtosuggesthopelessness,poverty,and despair.(ComparewithRealismandSymbol.)(SeealsoModernism.) Symbolist:SeeSymbolism

SymbolistMovement:SeeSymbolism SympatheticFallacy:SeeAffectiveFallacy T Tale:Astorytoldbyanarratorwithasimpleplotandlittlecharacterdevelopment.Talesareusually relativelyshortandoftencarryasimplemessage. ExamplesoftalescanbefoundintheworkofRudyardKipling,SomersetMaugham,Saki,Anton Chekhov,GuydeMaupassant,andArmisteadMaupin.(ComparewithFable,FairyTales,andShort Story.) TallTale:Ahumoroustaletoldinastraightforward,credibletonebutrelatingabsolutelyimpossible eventsorfeatsofthecharacters.Suchtaleswerecommonlytoldoffrontieradventuresduringthe settlementofthewestintheUnitedStates. TalltaleshavebeenspunaroundsuchlegendaryheroesasMikeFink,PaulBunyan,DavyCrockett, JohnnyAppleseed,andCaptainStormalongaswellasthereallifeWilliamF.CodyandAnnieOakley. LiteraryuseoftalltalescanbefoundinWashingtonIrving'sHistoryofNewYork,MarkTwain'sLife ontheMississippi,andintheGermanR.F.Raspe'sBaronMunchausen'sNarrativesofHisMarvellous TravelsandCampaignsinRussia. Tanka:AformofJapanesepoetrysimilartohaiku.Atankaisfivelineslong,withthelinescontaining five,seven,five,seven,andsevensyllablesrespectively. SkilledtankaauthorsincludeIshikawaTakuboku,MasaokaShiki,AmyLowell,andAdelaideCrapsey. TeatroGrottesco:SeeTheateroftheGrotesque TerzaRima:AthreelinestanzaforminPoetryinwhichtherhymesaremadeonthelastwordofeach lineinthefollowingmanner:thefirstandthirdlinesofthefirststanza,thenthesecondlineofthefirst stanzaandthefirstandthirdlinesofthesecondstanza,andsoonwiththemiddlelineofanystanza rhymingwiththefirstandthirdlinesofthefollowingstanza. AnexampleofterzarimaisPercyByssheShelley's"TheTriumphofLove": AsinthattranceofwondrousthoughtIlay Thiswasthetenourofmywakingdream. MethoughtIsatebesideapublicway Thickstrewnwithsummerdust,andagreatstream Ofpeopletherewashurryingtoandfro Numerousasgnatsupontheeveninggleam,... Tetrameter:SeeMeter TextualCriticism:Abranchofliterarycriticismthatseekstoestablishtheauthoritativetextofa literarywork.Textualcriticstypicallycompareallknownmanuscriptsorprintingsofasingleworkin ordertoassessthemeaningsofdifferencesandrevisions.Thisprocedureallowsthemtoarriveata definitiveversionthat(supposedly)correspondstotheauthor'soriginalintention. TextualcriticismwasappliedduringtheRenaissancetosalvagetheclassicaltextsofGreeceandRome, andmodernworkshavebeenstudied,forinstance,toundodeliberatecorrectionorcensorship,asinthe caseofnovelsbyStephenCraneandTheodoreDreiser. TheaterofCruelty:Termusedtodenoteagroupoftheatricaltechniquesdesignedtoeliminatethe

psychologicalandemotionaldistancebetweenactorsandaudience.Thisconcept,introducedinthe 1930sinFrance,wasintendedtoinspireamoreintensetheatricalexperiencethanconventionaltheater allowed.The"cruelty"ofthisdramatictheorysignifiednotsadismbutheightenedactor/audience involvementinthedramaticevent. ThetheaterofcrueltywastheorizedbyAntoninArtaudinhisLeTheatreetsondouble(TheTheatre andItsDouble),andalsoappearsintheworkofJerzyGrotowski,JeanGenet,JeanVilar,andArthur Adamov,amongothers. TheateroftheAbsurd:ApostWorldWarIIdramatictrendcharacterizedbyradicaltheatrical innovations.InworksinfluencedbytheTheateroftheabsurd,nontraditional,sometimesgrotesque characterizations,plots,andstagesetsrevealameaninglessuniverseinwhichhumanvaluesare irrelevant.Existentialistthemesofestrangement,absurdity,andfutilitylinkmanyoftheworksofthis movement. TheprincipalwritersoftheTheateroftheAbsurdareSamuelBeckett,EugeneIonesco,JeanGenet, andHaroldPinter.(SeealsoExistentialism.) TheateroftheGrotesque:(AlsoknownasTeatroGrottesco.)AnItaliantheatricalmovement characterizedbyplayswrittenaroundtheironicandmacabreaspectsofdailylifeintheWorldWarI era. TheateroftheGrotesquewasnamedaftertheplayTheMaskandtheFacebyLuigiChiarelli,which wasdescribedas"agrotesqueinthreeacts."ThemovementinfluencedtheworkofItaliandramatist LuigiPirandello,authorofRightYouAre,IfYouThinkYouAre. Theme:Themainpointofaworkofliterature.Thetermisusedinterchangeablywiththesis. ThethemeofWilliamShakespeare'sOthellojealousyisacommonone. Thesis:Athesisisbothanessayandthepointarguedintheessay.Thesisnovelsandthesisplaysshare thequalityofcontainingathesiswhichissupportedthroughtheactionofthestory. Amaster'sthesisandadoctoraldissertationaretwothesesrequiredofgraduatestudents.(Seealso Theme.) ThesisNovel:SeeThesis ThesisPlay:SeeThesis ThirdPerson:SeePointofView ThreeUnities:SeeUnities Tone:Theauthor'sattitudetowardhisorheraudiencemaybededucedfromthetoneofthework.A formaltonemaycreatedistanceorconveypoliteness,whileaninformaltonemayencourageafriendly, intimate,orintrusivefeelinginthereader.Theauthor'sattitudetowardhisorhersubjectmattermay alsobededucedfromthetoneofthewordsheorsheusesindiscussingit. ThetoneofJohnF.Kennedy'sspeechwhichincludedtheappealto"asknotwhatyourcountrycando foryou"wasintendedtoinstillfeelingsofcamaraderieandnationalprideinlisteners. Tragedy:AdramainproseorPoetryaboutanoble,courageousheroofexcellentcharacterwho, becauseofsometragiccharacterflaworhamartia,bringsruinuponhimorherself.Tragedytreatsits subjectsinadignifiedandseriousmanner,usingpoeticlanguagetohelpevokepityandfearandbring aboutcatharsis,apurgingoftheseemotions.Thetragicformwaspracticedextensivelybytheancient Greeks.IntheMiddleAges,whenclassicalworkswerevirtuallyunknown,tragedycametodenoteany

worksaboutthefallofpersonsfromexaltedtolowconditionsduetoanyreason:fate,vice,weakness, etc.Accordingtotheclassicaldefinitionoftragedy,suchworkspresentthe"pathetic"thatwhich evokespityratherthanthetragic.Theclassicalformoftragedywasrevivedinthesixteenthcentury; itflourishedespeciallyontheElizabethanstage.Inmoderntimes,dramatistshaveattemptedtoadapt theformtotheneedsofmodernsocietybydrawingtheirheroesfromtheranksofordinarymenand womenanddefiningthenobilityoftheseheroesintermsofspiritratherthanexaltedsocialstanding. ThegreatestclassicalexampleoftragedyisSophocles'OedipusRex.The"pathetic"derivationis exemplifiedin"TheMonk'sTale"inGeoffreyChaucer'sCanterburyTales.Notableworksproduced duringthesixteenthcenturyrevivalincludeWilliamShakespeare'sHamlet,Othello,andKingLear. ModerndramatistsworkinginthetragictraditionincludeHenrikIbsen,ArthurMiller,andEugene O'Neill.(ComparewithComedy.)(SeealsoElizabethanAge,tragicflaw.) TragedyofBlood:SeeRevengeTragedy TragicFlaw:Inatragedy,thequalitywithintheheroorheroinewhichleadstohisorherdownfall. ExamplesofthetragicflawincludeOthello'sjealousyandHamlet'sindecisiveness,althoughmostgreat tragediesdefysuchsimpleinterpretation.(ComparewithHamartia.) Transcendentalism:AnAmericanphilosophicalandreligiousmovement,basedinNewEnglandfrom around1835untiltheCivilWar.TranscendentalismwasaformofAmericanromanticismthathadits rootsabroadintheworksofThomasCarlyle,SamuelColeridge,andJohannWolfgangvonGoethe. TheTranscendentalistsstressedtheimportanceofintuitionandsubjectiveexperiencein communicationwithGod.Theyrejectedreligiousdogmaandtextsinfavorofmysticismandscientific naturalism.Theypursuedtruthsthatliebeyondthe"colorless"realmsperceivedbyreasonandthe sensesandwereactivesocialreformersinpubliceducation,women'srights,andtheabolitionof slavery. ProminentmembersofthegroupincludeRalphWaldoEmersonandHenryDavidThoreau.(Compare withNaturalismandRomanticism.) Trickster:AcharacterorfigurecommoninNativeAmericanandAfricanliteraturewhouseshis ingenuitytodefeatenemiesandescapedifficultsituations.Trickstersaremostoftenanimals,suchas thespider,hare,orcoyote,althoughtheymaytaketheformofhumansaswell. ExamplesoftrickstertalesincludeThomasKing'sACoyoteColumbusStory,AshleyF.Bryan'sThe DancingGrannyandIshmaelReed'sTheLastDaysofLouisianaRed.(SeealsoSignifyingMonkey.) Trimeter:SeeMeter TripleRhyme:SeeRhyme Trochee:SeeFoot

U
Understatement:SeeIrony Unities:(AlsoknownasThreeUnities.)Strictrulesofdramaticstructure,formulatedbyItalianand FrenchcriticsoftheRenaissanceandbasedlooselyontheprinciplesofdramadiscussedbyAristotlein hisPoetics.Foremostamongtheseruleswerethethreeunitiesofaction,time,andplacethatcompelled adramatistto:(1)constructasingleplotwithabeginning,middle,andendthatdetailsthecausal relationshipsofactionandcharacter;(2)restricttheactiontotheeventsofasingleday;and(3)limit

thescenetoasingleplaceorcity.TheunitieswereobservedfaithfullybycontinentalEuropeanwriters untiltheRomanticAge,buttheywereneverregularlyobservedinEnglishdrama.Moderndramatists aretypicallymoreconcernedwithaunityofimpressionoremotionaleffectthanwithanyofthe classicalunities. TheunitiesareobservedinPierreCorneille'stragedyPolyeuctesandJeanBaptisteRacine'sPhedre. UrbanRealism:Abranchofrealistwritingthatattemptstoaccuratelyreflecttheoftenharshfactsof modernurbanexistence. SomeworksbyStephenCrane,TheodoreDreiser,CharlesDickens,FyodorDostoyevsky,EmileZola, AbrahamCahan,andHenryFullerfeatureurbanrealism.ModernexamplesincludeClaudeBrown's ManchildinthePromisedLandandRonMilner'sWhattheWineSellersBuy. Utopia:Afictionalperfectplace,suchas"paradise"or"heaven." EarlyliteraryutopiaswereincludedinPlato'sRepublicandSirThomasMore'sUtopia,whilemore modernutopiascanbefoundinSamuelButler'sErewhon,TheodorHerzka'sAVisittoFreeland,H.G. Wells'AModernUtopia,andCharlottePerkinsGilman'sHerland.(ComparewithDystopia.) Utopian:SeeUtopia Utopianism:SeeUtopia

V
Verisimilitude:Literally,theappearanceoftruth.Inliterarycriticism,thetermreferstoaspectsofa workofliteraturethatseemtruetothereader. VerisimilitudeisachievedintheworkofHonoredeBalzac,GustaveFlaubert,andHenryJames, amongotherlatenineteenthcenturyrealistwriters. Versdesociete:SeeOccasionalVerse Verslibre:SeeFreeVerse Verse:Alineofmeteredlanguage,alineofapoem,oranyworkwritteninverse. ThefollowinglineofverseisfromtheepicpoemDonJuanbyLordByron:"Mywayistobeginwith thebeginning." Versification:Thewritingofverse.Versificationmayalsorefertothemeter,rhyme,andother mechanicalcomponentsofapoem. Compositionofa"Rosesarered,violetsareblue"poemtosuitanoccasionisacommonformof versificationpracticedbystudents. Victorian:(AlsoknownasVictorianAgeandVictorianPeriod.)RefersbroadlytothereignofQueen VictoriaofEngland(18371901)andtoanythingwithqualitiestypicalofthatera.Forexample,the qualitiesofsmugnarrowmindedness,bourgeoismaterialism,faithinsocialprogress,andpriggish moralityareoftenconsideredVictorian.Thisstereotypeiscontradictedbysuchdramaticintellectual developmentsasthetheoriesofCharlesDarwin,KarlMarx,andSigmundFreud(whichstirredstrong debatesinEngland)andthecriticalattitudesofseriousVictorianwriterslikeCharlesDickensand GeorgeEliot.Inliterature,theVictorianPeriodwasthegreatageoftheEnglishnovel,andthelatter partoftheerasawtheriseofmovementssuchasdecadenceandsymbolism. WorksofVictorianliteratureincludethePoetryofRobertBrowningandAlfred,LordTennyson,the criticismofMatthewArnoldandJohnRuskin,andthenovelsofEmilyBronte,WilliamMakepeace

Thackeray,andThomasHardy. (SeealsoAestheticism,Decadents,andSymbolism.) VictorianAge:SeeVictorian VictorianPeriod:SeeVictorian

W
Weltanschauung:AGermantermreferringtoaperson'sworldvieworphilosophy. ExamplesofweltanschauungincludeThomasHardy'sviewofthehumanbeingasthevictimoffate, destiny,orimpersonalforcesandcircumstances,andthedisillusionedandlaconiccynicismexpressed bysuchpoetsofthe1930sasW.H.Auden,SirStephenSpender,andSirWilliamEmpson. Weltschmerz:AGermantermmeaning"worldpain."Itdescribesasenseofanguishaboutthenature ofexistence,usuallyassociatedwithamelancholy,pessimisticattitude. WeltschmerzwasexpressedinEnglandbyGeorgeGordon,LordByroninhisManfredandChilde Harold'sPilgrimage,inFrancebyViscountdeChateaubriand,AlfreddeVigny,andAlfreddeMusset, inRussiabyAleksandrPushkinandMikhailLermontov,inPolandbyJuliuszSlowacki,andinAmerica byNathanielHawthorne.

Z
Zarzuela:AtypeofSpanishoperetta. WritersofzarzuelasincludeLopedeVegaandPedroCalderon.(SeealsoOpera.) Zeitgeist:AGermantermmeaning"spiritofthetime."Itreferstothemoralandintellectualtrendsofa givenera. Examplesofzeitgeistincludethepreoccupationwiththemoremorbidaspectsofdyinganddeathin someJacobeanliterature,especiallyintheworksofdramatistsCyrilTourneurandJohnWebster,and thedecadenceoftheFrenchSymbolists.