Electric Systems, Dynamics, and Stability with Artificial Intelligence Applications

Jarnes A. Mornoh
Howard University Washington, D.C.

Mohamed E. El-Hawary
Dalhousie University Hali&r, Nova Scotia, Canada

m
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Series Introduction

Power engineering is the oldest and most traditional of the various areas within electrical engineering, yet no other facet of modern technology is currently undergoing a more dramatic revolution in both technology and industry structure. Among the most exciting changes are those where new solutions are being applied to classical problem areas. System dynamics and stability engineering have been crucial elements of power system engineering since early in the twentieth century. Smooth, continuous operation of modern power supply systems depends greatly on the accurate anticipation of interconnected equipment, dynamic behavior, and correct identification of the systems operating limits. Proper engineering requires precise methods that can manage that knowledge and direct it to the design of economical and secure power systems. Artificial intelligence offers an exciting new basis for performing dynamic modeling and stability analysis, one that can provide considerable value and new insight to these often difficult aspects of power system performance. Electric Systems, Dynamics, and Stabiliv with Artificial Intelligence Applications is an exceedingly comprehensive and practical guide to both power system dynamics and stability concepts, and to the use of artificial intelligence in their modeling and engineering. Drs. Momoh and El-Hawary provide a comprehensive introduction to power system dynamics and stability, along with a thorough discussion of recently developed concepts such as transient energy func-

tions. Their book is rich in its appreciation of the intricate operating constraints and issues that real-world power system engineers and operators must face every day. But wtiat sets this book apart is its application of artificial intelligence to these long-recognized power system engineering challenges. Chapters 7-9 expI a i n h o 11 i i ra I tie t u rk s, espert sy s t e 111 s us i in g know I edge - ba sed fra in e u'ork s. e w and t ' u ~ z ylogic can be applied to the solution of sotlie of the thorniest problems in power system dynamics. Like all books in Marcel Dekker's Power Engineering series, Elecstr-ic. SJ.Ytettr.v, ~ > j w t t i i c * s i, t i d Sttihilitjv Il'itli A rlificitrl Itit~~ligutic*ci t App/ic.trliotis present? tnodern power technology i n ;I context of proven. practical applications: iiset'u ;is a reference book iis well iis for self-study and classroom use. Marcel Dekker':, Pourer Engineering series bill e\~entuallyinclude books co\w-ing the entire field of p o n w engineering, in all ot' its specialties and sub-genres, all ainned at provid ing practicing p o u w engineers u,ith the knou~ledge and techniyiies they need to tneet the electric industrlf's challenges in the twenty-first century.

Preface

The intention of this book is to offer the reader a firm foundation for understanding and analyzing power system dynamics and stability problems as \yell as the application of artificial intelligence technology to these problems. Issues in this area are extremely important not only for real-time operational considerations, but also in planning, design, and operational scheduling. The significance of dynamics and stability studies grows as interconnected systems evolve to meet the requirements of a competitive and deregulated operational environment. The complexities introduced give rise to new types of control strategies based on advances in modeling and simulation of the power system. The material presented in this book combines the experience of the authors in teaching and research at a number of schools and professional developtnent venues. The work reported here draws on experience gained in conducting research sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute. the National Science Foundation, the Department of Energy, and NASA for Dr. Momoh. Dr. EIHawary's work was supported by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Rcsearch Council of Canada and Canadian Utilities Funding. This book is intended to meet the needs of practicing engineers invol\.ed i n the electric power utility business, as well as graduate students and researchers. It provides necessary fundamentals, by explaining the practical aspects of artificial intelligence applications and offering an integrated treatment o f the evolution of modeling techniques and analytical tools.

Chapter I discusses the structure of interconnected power systems, foundations of system dynamics, and definitions for stability and security assessment. Chapter 2 deals with static electric network models and synchronous machine representation and its dynamics. Limits for operations of a synchronous machine and static load models are discussed as well. Chapter 3 deals with dynamic models of the electric network including the excitation. and prime mover and governing system models. The chapter concludes with a discussion of dynamic load models. Chapter 4 covers concepts of dynamic security assessment based on transient stability evaluation. This chapter includes both conventional and extended formulations of the problem. Chapter 5 , a complement to Chapter 4, treats the more recent approach of angle stability assessment via the transient energy function idea. Chapter 6 introduces the idea of voltage stability and discusses techniques for its assessment. Chapters 7 through 9 are devoted to an expose of artificial intelligence technology and its application to problems of system stability, from both the angle and the voltage sides. In Chapter 7, we introduce basic concepts of artificial neural networks, knowledge-based systems, and fuzzy logic. In Chapter 8. we deal with the application of artificial intelligence to angle stability problems. and the extension to voltage stability is presented in Chapter 9. Chapter I C offers conclusions and directions for future work in this field. In developing this book. we have benefited from input from many of 0111' students. colleagues, and associates. While they are too many to count, we wish to tnention specifically encouragement by H. Lee Willis, the editor of the PoweiEngineering Series for Marcel Dekker, Inc. The continual counsel and prodding o f B. J. Clark was extremely helpful. We acknowledge the able administrative support of Linda Schonberg and the assistance of our respective deans. We are grateful to Dr. Chieh for the great inspiration and generous contribu tions, and to many others, whose names are not included, in the development ot' this volume. Our students, both present and former. contributed their time and many valuable suggestions. Many thanks to them and especially to the young research assistants at the Center for Energy Systems and Control for putting up with the burdensome challenge of producing this book just in time. Finally. the book would not have been published without the help of our Creator and the support of our families.

Contents

Series 1titi.odiic.tiotz Prefiice

H. Lee Willis

1 Introduction 1 . 1 Historical Background 1.2 Structure at a Generic Electric Power System I .3 Power System Security Assessment

2 Static Electric Network Models Introduction 2.1 Complex Power Concepts 2.2 Three-Phase Systems 2.3 Synchronous Machine Modeling 2.4 Reactive Capability Limits 2.5 Static Load Models Conclusions

10 10
11 14

21 31 32 35 36 36 36 40

3 Dynamic Electric Network Models

Introduction 3.1 Excitation System Model 3.2 Prime Mover and Governing System Models

3.3 Modeling of Loads CO c1LI s io n s n

4

Philosophy of Security Assessment Introduction 4.1 The Swing Equation 4.2 Some Alternative Forms 4.3 Transient and Subtransient Reactances 4.4 Synchronous Machine Model in Stability Analysis 4.5 S U b t ran s i en t Eq u at i on s 4.6 Machine Models 4.7 Groups of Machines and the Infinite Bus 4.8 Stability Assessment 4.9 Concepts in Transient Stability 4.10 A Method for Stability Assessment 4.1 1 Matheinatical Models and Solution Methods i n Transient Stab i I it y Asse ss me n t for General Networks 4.12 Integration Techniques 4.13 The Transient Stability Algorithm Conc 1us ion s

S Assessing Angle Stability via Transient Energy Function

5.I 5.2 5.3 5.4
Introduction Stability Concepts System Model Description Stability of a Single-Machine System Stability Assessment for ri-Generator System by the TEF Method Application to ;I Practical Power System Boundary of the Region of Stability Conclusion

5.5
5.6

Voltage Stability Assessment Introduction 6. I Worhing Definition o f Voltage Collap\e Study Terms 6.2 Typical Scenario of Voltage Collapse 6.3 Time-Frame Voltage Stability 6.4 Modeling for Voltage Stability Studie\ 6.5 Voltage Collapse Prediction Methods 6.6 C las\ i fica t i o n c) f Vo 1t age Stabi 1 it y Pro b Ie1 1 1s 6.7 Voltage Stability As\es\ment Techniques

Col 1 ter 1 f.\

xi

6.8 Analysis Techniques for Steady-State Voltage Stability Studies 6.9 Parameterization 6.10 The Technique of Modal Analysis 6.1 1 Analysis Techniques for Dynamic Voltage Stability Studies Conclusion Modal Analysis: Worked Example

135 IS 1

156
157

169 170
175 175 177 177 183
191

Technology of Intelligent Systems Introduction 7.1 Fuzzy Logic and Decision Trees 7.2 Artificial Neural Networks 7.3 Robust Artificial Neural Network 7.4 Expert Systems 7.5 Fuzzy Sets and Systems 7.6 Expert Reasoning and Approximate Reasoning Conclusion

206 213 220

8 Application of Artificial Intelligence to Angle Stability Studies Introduction 8. I ANN Application in Transient Stability Assessment 8.2 A Knowledge-Based System for Direct Stability Analysis Conclusions
9 Application of Artificial Intelligence to Voltage Stability Assessment and Enhancement to Electrical Power Systems Introduction 9.1 ANN-Based Voltage Stability Assessment 9.2 ANN-Based Voltage Stability Enhancement 9.3 A Knowledge-Based Support System for Voltage Collapse Detection and Prevention 9.4 Implementation for KBVCDP 9.5 Utility Environment Application Conclusion
10 Epilogue and Conclusions

22 1 22 I
eh&

333

238 257

259 259 260 265

272 278 287 287

289
298 31 I 332 35 I

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Electric Systems, Dynamics, and Stability with Artificial Intelligence Applications

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1
Introduction

1.1

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Electric power has shaped and contributed to the progress and technological advances of humans over the past century. It is not surprising then that the growth of electric energy consumption in the world has been nothing but phenomenal. In the United States, for example, electric energy sales have grown to well over 400 times in the period between the turn of the century and the early 1970s. This growth rate was 50 times as much as the growth rate in all other energy forms used during the same period. Edison Electric of New York pioneered the central station electric pouter generation by opening of the Pearl Street station in 1881. This station had a capacity of four 250-hp boilers supplying steam to six engine-dynamo sets. Edison's system used a I 10-dc underground distribution network with copper conductors insulated with a jute wrapping. The l o b i t \ d t c i g e of tlic-, cii-mit limited the service area of a central station, and consequently central stations proliferated throughout metropolitan areas. The invention of the transformer, then known as the "inductorium." made ac systems possible. The first practical ac distribution system in the United States was installed by W. Stanley at Great Barrington, Massachusetts. in 1866 for Westinghouse, who acquired the American rights to the transformer from its

British investors Gaulard and Gibbs. Early ac distribution utilized 1000 V overhead lines. By 1895, Philadelphia had about twenty electric companies with distribution systems operating at 100 V and 500 V two-wire dc and 220 V three-wire dc: single-phase, two-phase, and three-phase ac; with frequencies of 60, 66. 125, and 133 cycles per second; and feeders at 1000-1200 V and 2000-2300 V. The consolidation of electric companies enabled the realization of economies o f scale in generating facilities. the introduction of a certain degree o f equipment standardization, and the utilization of the load diversity between areas. Generating unit sizes of up to 1300 MW are in service, an era that w;i? started in I973 by the Cumberland Station of the Tennessee Valley Authority. Underground distribution o f Lwltages up to 5 kV was made possible by thc de\.elopment of rubber-base insulated cables and paper insulated, lead-co\.erec cables in the early 1900s. Since that time higher distribution voltages hi1L.e beer necessitated by load growth that would otherwise overload low-voltage circuit!, and by the requirement to transmit large blocks of power over great distances. Coninion distribution voltages in today's systems are in 5 , IS, 25, 35. and 6'1 kV \vltage classes. The growth in size of power plants and in the higher voltage equipment u ' a s accompanied by interconnections of the generating facilities. These interconnections decreased the probability of service interruptions, made the utilization of the most economical units possible, and decreased the total reserve capacity required to meet equipment-forced outages. This growth was ;11so accompanied by the use of sophisticated analytical tools. Central control of thc interconnected systems was introduced for reasons of economy and safety. Th,: advent of the load dispatcher heralded the dawn of power systems engineering. \+!hoseobjective is to provide the best system to meet the load demand reliablq. safe 1y , and economical 1y , U ti 1i zi ng state-of-the-art computer fac i 1i ties. Extra high voltage (EHV) has become the dominant factor in the transmi>sion o f electric power over great distances. By 1896, an 1 1 kV three-phase line M . ~ Stransmitting 10 MW from Niagara Falls to Buffalo over a distance of 2 3 miles. Today, transmission voltages of 230 kV, 287 kV, 345 kV, 500 kV, 735 k V , and 765 k V are commonplace, with the first I100 kV line scheduled fclr energization in the early 1990s. One prototype is the I200 kV transmission tower. The trend is possible. resulting in more efficient use of right-of-wa;!. lower transmission losses, and reduced environmental impact. The preference for ac was first challenged in 1954 when the Swedish Stale Power Board energized the 60-mile, 100 kV dc submarine cable utilizing I!. Larnm's Mercury Arc FAves at the sending and receiving ends of the world s first high-voltage direct current (HVDC) link connecting the Baltic island o f Gotland and the Swedish mainland. Today, numerous installations with voltages up to 800 kV dc have become operational around the globe. Solid-state technol-

ogy advances have also enabled the use of the silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR) of thyristor for HVDC applications since the late 1960s. Whenever cable transmission is required (underwater or in a metropolitan area), HVDC is more economically attractive than ac. Protecting isolated systems has been a relatively simple task, which is carried out using overcurrent directional relays with selectivity being obtained by time grading. High-speed relays have been developed to meet the increased short-circuit currents due to the larger size units and the complex interconnections. For reliable service, an electric power system must remain intact and be capable of withstanding a wide variety of disturbances. It is essential that the system be operated so that the more probable contingencies can be sustained without loss of load (except that connected to the faulted element) and so that the most adverse possible contingencies do not result in widespread and cascading power interrupt ions. The November 1965 blackout in the northeastern part of the United States and Ontario had a profound impact on the electric utility industry. Many questions were raised and led to the formation of the National Electric Reliability Council in 1968. The name was later changed to the North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC). Its purpose is to augment the reliability and adequacy of bulk power supply in the electricity systems of North America. NERC is composed of nine regional reliability councils and encompasses \Tirtually all the power systems in the United States and Canada. Reliability criteria for system design and operation have been established by each regional council. Since differences exist in geography, load pattern, and power sources, criteria for the various regions differ to some extent. Design and operating criteria play an essential role in preventing major system disturbances following severe contingencies. The use of criteria ensures that, for all frequently occurring contingencies, the system will, at worst, transmit from the normal state to the alert state, rather than to a more severe state such as the emergency state or the in extreenzis state. When the alert state is entered following a contingency, operators can take action to return the system to the normal state.

1.2

STRUCTURE OF A GENERIC ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEM

While no two electric power systems are alike, all share some common fundamental characteristics including:
1.

Electric power is generated using synchronous machines that are driven by turbines (steam, hydraulic, diesel, or internal combustion).

Generated power is transmitted from the generating sites o\rer long distances to load centers that are spread over wide areas. 3. Three phase ac systems comprise the main means of generation. transmission and distribution o f electric power. 4. Voltage and frequency levels are required to remain within tight tolerance lekrels to assure a high quality product. The basic elements of ii generic electric poww system are displayed i n Figure I . 1 . Electric power is produced at generating stations (GS) and transmitted to consumers through an intricate network of apparatus including transmission lines, transformers. and switching devices. Transmission network is classified as the folloufing:
I . Transmission system 2. S i i bt ran smi ssi on system 3. Distribution system

2.

The t i . i ~ i i ~ s i ~ i i . s . s i ~ ) i i ,s~~.strin t erconnec t s a I 1 major genera t i ng st ;i t i c) n s ;I nd in main load centers in the system. It forms the backbone of the integrated p o \ \ ~ r system and operates at the highest voltage levels (typically, 230 kV and ab0F.e The generator \vltages are usually i n the range of 11-35 kV. These are steppej up to the transmission cultage level, and power is transmitted to transmission hubstations where the voltages are stepped down to the subtransmission It.\,c.l (typically, 69 kV to I38 kV). The generation and transmission subsystems ;it e often referred to as the hiilk po\r.ei. systerii. The .viihtr.iiri.siiii,s.siori sy.stew transmits power at a lower voltage and in s m ii 1 le r q it a n t i t i es froi n the t ran siii is s io n sii bst a t i on to the d i s t ri bi i t i o n subs t ;Itions. Large industrial customers are commonly supplied directly from the s u b transmission system. In some systems, there expansion and higher \,ohage l e \ ~ l s becoming necessary for transmission, the older transmission lines are otten re1 2gat ed to sii bt ra n smi ssion function . The di.stri/mtioii .sj:steiri is the final stage in the transfer of' pourer to tlie individual customers. The primary distribution voltage is typically betwwn 4.0 k V and 34.5 kV. Small industrial customers are supplied by primary feedcrs at this \.oltage level. The secondary distribution feeders supply residential and commercial customers at I20/240 V. The function o f an electric power system is t o con\.ert energy from one of the naturally available forms to the electrical form and to transport it to the points of consumption. Energy is seldom consumed i n electrical form but is rather converted to other forms such as heat, light, and mechanical energy. The rid\rantage of the electrical form of energy is that it can be transported and controlled with relative ease and with a high degree of efficiency and reliability. A properly designed and operated power system should. therefore. meet lie fol low i ng fit nda men t a I reqii iremen t s:
1.

22 kV

20 kV
Tie line to neighboring system
I
I
I

500 kV

500kV

230kV

1 1

Transmission

Transmission system (230 kV)

Tie line

distribution

Subtransmission

-Residential
H

Commercial

Figure 1.1 Basic elements of

power system.

The system must be able to meet the continually changing load demand for active and reactive power. Unlike other types of energy. electricity cannot be conveniently stored in sufficient quantities. Therefore, adequate spinning reserve of active and reactive power should be maintained and appropriately controlled at all times. The system should supply energy at minimum cost and with minimum 2. ecological impact. 3. The quality of power supply must meet certain minimum standards

1.

with regard to the following factors: ( I ) constancy of frequency; (l ) constancy of voltage; and (3) level of reliability. Several levels of controls it~vol\~ingcomplex array of devices are used to a meet the above requirements. These are depicted in Figure I .2, which identifit*s the various subsystems of a power system and the associated controls. In this overall structure, there are controllers operating directly on individual system elements. In a generating unit these consist of prime mover controls and excihtion controls. The prime mover controls are concerned with speed regulaticm and control of energy supply system variables such as boiler pressures, temperitures, and tlows. The function of the excitation control is to regulate generatlir bultage and reactive power output. The desired MW outputs of the individual generating units are determined by the system-generation control. The primary purpose of the system-generation control is to balance the total system generation against system load and losses so that the desired frequency and power interchange with neighboring systems (tie flows) is maintained. The transmission controls include power and bdtage control devices. sw:h as static viir compensators, synchronous condensers, switched capacitors ;I id

Frequency

Tie flows

Generator power

Supplementary
I I

---- ,Cmd-. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---------- - - - - - -- - - ,

---------I I I

t I

I
I

I
I I

I
I I I I

+
Voltage

Excitation System and control

4-

I I

speed/ power

I I I

I I I I I I I 1

I
I 1 I I

W Rime mover

Shaft Power

- Generator Power

i; i
I

Transmission Controls Reactive power arid Voltage control, INDC transmission and associated contro s

Figure 1.2 Subsystems of a power system and associated controls.

I n t roduc t i ri o

reactors, tap-changing transformers, phase-shifting transformers, and HVDC transmission controls. These controls described above contribute to the satisfactory operation of the power system by maintaining system voltages and frequency and other system variables within their acceptable limits. They also have a profound effect on the dynamic performance of the power system and on its ability to cope with disturbances. The control objectives are dependent on the operating state of the power system. Under normal conditions, the control objective is to operate as efficiently as possible with voltages and frequency close to nominal values. When an abnormal condition develops, new objectives must be met to restore the system to normal operation. Major system failures are rarely the result of a single catastrophic disturbance causing collapse of an apparently secure system. Such failures are usually brought about by a combination of circumstances that stress the network beyond its capability. Severe natural disturbances (such as a tornado, severe storm, or freezing rain), equipment malfunction, human error, and inadequate design combine to weaken the power system and eventually lead to its breakdown. This may result in cascading outages that must be contained within a small part of the system if a major blackout is to be prevented.

1.3

POWER SYSTEM SECURITY ASSESSMENT

The term Po\ivr. Sysfeni Stability is used to define the ability of the bulk power electric power system to withstand sudden disturbances such as electric short circuits or unanticipated loss of system components. In terms of the requirements for the proper planning and operation of the power system, it means that following the occurrence of a sudden disturbance, the power system will: Survive the ensuing transient and move into an acceptable steady-state condition, and 2. In this new steady state condition, all power system components are operating within established limits. Electric utilities require security analysis to ensure that, for a defined set of contingencies, the above two requirements are met. The analysis required to survive a transient is complex, because of increased system size, greater dependence on controls, and more interconnections. Additional complicating factors include the operation of the interconnected system with greater interdependence among its member systems, heavier transmission loadings, and the concentration of the generation among few large units at light loads. The second requirement is verified using steady state analysis in what is
1.

Power Svstern Stablllty

1
+
I
O h e r Tvpes

+
Strwrural

I I

Volruge (Slow)

+ (SSR,
T

Lo 6

Frequencb Oscillatiw s, etc

Cntical

Sensitir it y

Eigenvaluc Analyv\

AMIYSIS Bifurcation

+I
Bifurcation Theory (Hopf. etc.) Energy Functions
Linear Rogramrmng

Small Disturbance (Contingency)

Small Disturbance (Quasi-Static)

Static (Power

Bifurcation T a p Changer Singular Value Decompoiition

Techniques

Frequency Domin Analysis Selective

A MI y si s

Angle Stability

Vdtage Stability
~

MaNmm Lnadability

Jacobian

~~~~-~~~~~~~

Unlned Approach

I
Load Control

Use of the Energy Function and h e Bifurcalion Analytical Studies

Enhancement
(Prevcatlve Coatrol)

Linear Rogrammng for Germation Rescheduling dnd

DecompositionOpimal

Power H o w (OPR wth Transieru Energy Margin and Vdcagc Energy Margin d s

Nonlinear Ragramming (NLP)with quadratic objccti~cfunctions and Linear Rogramrmng (LP) f u Generation and Load Control

intelligent Support System

Control using Exper( System IFS) Pnmiizatim

Control Selections. output Classifier and Analyzer

Arttndal Neural N e t w o r b

(ANN),and/ a Expert
Systems fasolution output

re l'er red to :is "s t ;i t i c sec ii r i t y iis se ssme n t . The t'i r st req U i re nit' 11t i s the h i i bjec t de ii 1t \v i t h i 11 "d y n am i c sec ii r i t y assess m e 11t . Dy n am i c sec 11 r i t y s t i i d i e s ;I re broadly classified ;is being either "angle stability studies" o r "voltage stabil;t),'' ;is depicted i n Figure 1.3. In "angle stability studies." problems are classified as either "large distitrbmce.' tix transient e\'aluiitioii, or "small disturbance" for steady state stability t'\,:ilurition. A similar classification for \soltage probleiix is indicated in Figure 1 ..3. Solution techniqites tor transient unglc stability e\,aluation incluck:
" "

Ti me doma i n si m ii 1at ion Direct methods Hybrid methods Pro babi I i st ic nie t hods. pat t e 1-11 recog n i t ion COnn pit t ;it iona 1 i n t e 1I i ge nce

Time domain simulation techniques invol\Ve judicious use of integration methods such as Runge-Kutta. trapezoidal rule of integration, and ~ ~ a \ . e t c ~ r m re 1axat i on. These met hods are part i c 41ar 1y use fu 1 for off- 1i ne transit11 st abi 1it y t ana I y si s. On the other hand, in voltage stability studies. the problems are classified as large disturbance in some contingency cases, small disturbance i n quasistatic cases. and static, which requires solutions to the general pouw tlo\v (algebraic) equations only. It is as a result of this classification that the solution techniques and requirements are derived. The bifurcation theory. Linear Programming applications. and the use of the energy fiinction are but ii few such tec h n i q Le s. Ag ai n, the t i me domai n si m u I a t i on s t h ii t ;ire i 11\YII \red take ad \,;in t age i of various numerical integration methods mentioned earlier. (The machine dj8namics lead to differential equations that are inherently nonlinear.) The unified approach as indicated on Figure 1.3 is aimed at encompassing the similarities and differences that distinguishes the Lrarious techniques used in assessing the stability of the electric power system. This is \4,hether or not the problems are a result of voltage or angle instability. The resulting enliancenient that is brought forth by this approach, measurable ;is a benefit-to-cost index. lies in the de\~lopmentand use of more robust tools for solLting present ~indlongrange problems. I n this light, various programming and optimization schemes that are applicable include decomposition Optiiutrl Po\t*or Flo\tp (OPF). Liiiorrr P i . o S r . c r i i i i i i i r i , ~ (LP), and Qir(rcltntic. P i . o R t . c r i i i i i i i i i S (QP), with the necessary and su f fi ci e n t sy stem and net work con st rai n t s. Finally. this book introduces three fundamental types of intelligence support systems that truly adds the rigor, value, and robustness to the desired enhancement schemes. These support systems include expert systems (ES), fuzzy logic (FL). and artificial neural network (ANN). Each have their unique characteristics (decision-support, classifiers, learning capabilities, etc.) and are ridaptable in providing viable solutions to a variety of voltage/angle instability problems associated with the electric power system. The discussion on this area of artificial intelligence applications to power system stability rind dynamics is presented i n the final few chapters of this book.

&

Static Electric Network Models

INTRODUCTION
The power industry in the United States has engaged in a changing busincss environment for some time, by moving away from a centrally planned s y s t m to one in which players operate in a decentralized fashion with little knowleclge of the full-state of the network, and where decision-making is likely to be market driven rather than through technical considerations alone. This new environment is quite different from the one in which the system operated in the past. This leads to the requirement of new techniques and analysis methods for functions of system operation, operational planning, and long-term planning. Electrical power systems vary in size, topography and structural components. However, what is consistent is that the overall system can be diLiried into three subsystems, namely, the generation, transmission, and distribution subsystems. System behavior is affected by the characteristics of each of the major elements of the system. The representation of these elements by means of appropriate mathematical models is critical to successful analysis of sys ;em hehavior. Due to computational efficiency considerations for each diffe -ent problem, the system is modeled in a different way. This chapter describes some system models for analysis purposes. We begin in Section 2.1 by introducing concepts of power expressed as active, reactive, and apparent. This is followed in Section 2.2 by a brief reLiew

of three phase systems. Section 2.3 deals with modeling the synchronous machine from an electric network standpoint. Reactive capability curves are examined in Section 2.4. Static and dynamic load models are discussed in Section 2.5 to conclude the chapter.

2.1

COMPLEX POWER CONCEPTS

In electrical power systems one is mainly concerned with the flow of electrical power in the circuit rather than the currents. As the power into an element is basically the product of the voltage across and current through it, it is reasonable to exchange the current for power without losing any information. I n treating sinusoidal steady-state behavior of an electric circuit. some further definitions are necessary. To illustrate, we use a cosine representation of the sinusoidal waveforms involved. Consider an impedance element 2 = ZL$. For a sinusoidal voltage, v ( r ) is given by
v(t) = tlC O S O t

The instantaneous current in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.1 is

i(r)= /,,, cos(or - Q)

where the current magnitude is:

The instantaneous power is given by

p(r) = ir(t)i(t)= XI I,,,[cos(or)cos(or $)] -

Using the trigonometric identity

1 coscl cosp = -[cos(a - p) + cos(cl + p)]

we can write the instantaneous power as

+
V

Figure 2.1 Instantaneous current in a circuit.

The average power p ( , is seen to be

Since through 1 cycle. the a \ erage of co\( 2 o t - @ ) i \ zero. this term contri bnothing to the acerage of / I . I t i \ more convenient to use the effectiLre ( r i m ) calue\ of boltage and curt-cnt than the iiiiixiinuni ~ a l u e s Sub\tituting xi = v% Ci,,,,). and I,,, = -\/'?(/,,,,,). \+e get .
ute\

Thus the p o ~ w entering any network is the product of the effectilre v:iIies of' terminal iaoltage and current and the cosine ol' the phase angle betLveen the \,oltage and ciirrent which is called the i ~ o ~ ~ i ~ ~ ) (PF)./This o ) . . , t ~ ~ . t applies to siniisoidal Lroltages and currents only. For ii purely resistive load. cos$ = 1. and I he current in the circuit is fully engaged in c o n \ q i n g power from the soiirce to the load resistance. When reactance (inductive o r capacitilte) as t+,ell ;is m i s [;incc are present, ii component o f the current in the circuit is engaged i n con\~r:~ ing energy that is periodically stored in and discharged from the reactance. This stored energy, being shuttled into and out of the rnagnelic field of ;it1 inductaiice o r the electric field of a capacitance. adds to the magnitude of the current in the circuit but does not add to the a\.erage power. The a\wage power in ii circuit is called i1ctiL.e power. and loosely speaking the po\+rer that supplies the stored energy in reacti\re elements is called reacliite po\i.er. Acti1.c pou.cr is denoted bjf P, and the rci1ctii.e pourer. is designattx ;i\ Q.Thej' are expressed as

I n both equations. 1' and 1 are rim calues of terminal Lfoltage and current. and Q, is the phase angle by mrhich the current lags the \,oltage. Both P and Q arc of the same dimension, that is in (Joules/s) Watts. Houeb'er, to emphasize the fact that Q represents the nonactive power, it is measiired i n reiictiLpe k~oltampereunits (\'at-).Larger and tiiore practical units arc k i 1 o r . m and megavars. related to the basic unit by

' 1 As\urnt. that 1'. 1 cos$, and 1 sin@,a11 shown in Fig. 2.2, are each multiplied bqr /. the r i m cralue of the current. When the components of iultage 1 ,:OS@ '

Static' Electric N e t u v r k Models

vv
I3

Isin $

Figure 2.2 Phasor diagrams leading to power triangles.

and V sin$ are multiplied by current, they become P and Q respectively. Siniilarly, if I, I cos$, and I sin$ are each multiplied by V, they become V I , P. and Q respectively. This defines a power triangle. We define a quantity called the complex or apparent poufer, designated S. of which P and Q are orthogonal components. By definition,
S = P + j Q = i/*
= V/ cos@+ j V 1 sin@ = V/ (cos@ , j sin@) +

Using Euler's identity, we thus have

s = VIC"*
or

s =VIL$
If we introduce the conjugate current defined by the asterisk
I* = l l ( L @
(*')

it becomes obvious that an equivalent definition of complex er is

01-

apparent

POW-

s = VI"

(2.5)

We can write the complex power in two alternati\,e f o r m by using the relationships Z7 and 7 = Y v This leads to

v=

s = ZI I"
or

=ZJIJ?

(2.6)

S=VY*V"= Y",VI"

(2.7)

I
Figure 2.3 Series circuit o f n impedances.

Consider the series circuit shown in Fig. 2.3. Here the applied Lvltage i:, cqual to the sum of the voltage drops:
\'=I(&

+ z , + . . +Z,:)

Multiplying both sides of. this relation by /* results in

s = \'I* = I / * ( Z ,+ 2 + . . . + Z , ! ) 2
or

uith

s,= ,II? z,
being the individual element's complex power. Equation (2.8) is knourn as tke sunimiition rule for complex powers. The summation rule also applies to paral1i:l circuits. The use of the summation rule and concepts of complex pourer ai.e ai\rantageous i n solving problems of power system analysis. The phasor diagrams shown in Fig. 2.2 can be converted into compltmx pourer diagrams by simply following the definitions relating complex power .o tzoltage and current. Consider the situation with an inductive circuit i n urhic-h the current lags the voltage by the angle $. The complex conjugate of the current M i l l be in the first quadrant in the complex plane as shown in Fig. 2.3(a). Multiplying the phasors by V, we obtain the complex power diagram in Fig. 2 . 4 b). Inspection of the diagram as well as previous development lexis to ii relation for the power factor of the circuit:
cos$ = __

1I s

2.2

THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

A significant portion of all the electric power presently used is generated. trailsmitted. and distributed using balanced three-phase bultage systems. The single-

Static Electric N e t w w k Models

1.5

Figure 2.4 Complex power diagram showing the relationship among voltage. current, and power components.

phase voltage sources referred to in the preceding section originate in many instances as part of the three-phase system. Three-phase operation is preferable to single-phase because a three-phase winding makes more efficient use of generator copper and iron. Power flow in single-phase circuits is known to be pulsating. This drawback is not present in a three-phase system as will be shown later. Also, three-phase motors start more conveniently and, having constant torque, run more satisfactorily than single-phase motors. However, the complications of additional phases are not compensated for by the slight increase of operating efficiency when polyphase systems of order higher than three-phase are used. A balanced three-phase voltage system consists of three single-phase voltages having the same magnitude and frequency but time-displaced from one another by 120". Figure 2.5(a) shows a schematic representation where the sin-

120
120

120

van

Figure 2.5 diagram.

(a) A Y-connected three-phase system and (b) the corresponding phasor

gle-phase \,()Itage sources appear in ii wye o r Y-connection; a delta o r A configuration is also possible, as discussed later. A phasor diagram shouring each the phase voltages is also given in Figure 2.S(b). As the phasors rotate at the iiiigular t'reqiiency cu with respect to the refkrence line in the counterclockc~,isc (ciesignated as positive) direction, the positive maximum value first occurs t ' c r phase ( I and then in siiccession for phases h and ( * . Stated in ;I different ~t'aq'.o t ;in ohser\~ern the phasor space. the voltage of phase ( I arri\,es t i n t follo\zred 1'4, i that o f h and then that of ( * . For this reitson the three-phase Lroltage of Fig. 2 5 i h said to have the phase sequcncc trbc. (order, phase sequence. o r rotation a11 mean the ss;itiie thing). This is important tor certain applications. For es~irnple. in three-phase induction motors. the phase seqitence dcterniines u,hether tlic i i i o t o r rotates clock\i.ise o r coiinterclock~ise.

2.2.1

Current and Voltage Relations

Balanced three-pha+e \y\tem\ c;in be \tudied u\ing technique\ de\reloped t o r $ingle-phaw circuit\. The arrangement o f the three \ingle-phaw Ioltagc\ i n t o ;I Y o r ;i A configuration require\ \ome modification\ in dealing U ith the o\er.iIl \>\tern.

2.2.2

Y -Connection

With reference to Fig. 2.6. the cotiimon terminal I I I \ called the neutral o r <tar (k')point. The ~ o l t a g e s appearing between any t u o of the line terminal\ 1 1 . h, m d ( h a b e different relation\hips in magnitude and phaw to the \oltage\ apptaring bet\$een any one line terminal and the neutral point 1 1 . The \et o f colta;e\ \', . 1 , ,itid ; itre called the line coltage\, and the \et of coltage+ li,. and \' c i ~ referred to ii\ the phaw c oltage\. Con\ideration o f p h a w r diagram\ pro\ ide\ c t he rcq ii I red re I ;it ions h i p \. The etfectike kaliie\ o f the phase \wlt:ige\ ;ire \hohn III Fig. 2.6 ii\ \,',, \;,. and l'!. Each ha\ the wile magnitude, and each 15 di\placed 120" from the olher tuo ph;i\or\. To obtain the magnitude and phare angle o f the line \oltnge froin ( I to h (i.e . \',,I. L+C apply Kirchhoff'\ voltage l a ~ :
\'(

This equatioii state\ that the ~ o l t a g e existing from ( I to h i h equal to the coltage from ( i to 11 (i.e.. \,',) piu\ the voltage from I I to h. Thus Eq. ( 2 . 1 0 ) can be re~irittenas
(.!.I

I7

Qn

= vp L -120O

Figure 2.6 Illustration of the phase and magnitude relation\ beiueen thc phaw and line coltage of' a Y-connection.

let

UI

Since for a balanced system, each phase Lroltage has the same magnitude. set
I K,! I =

'

&,I

I = I Yll I = 1;

(2.12)

where 1;: denotes the effective magnitude of the phase voltage. Accordinglj u e may write

K,, = y,o0
Kll = y - - 120"

(2.13)
(2.14)

yl,= y L - 230" = y L120"

Substituting Eqs. (2.13) and (2.14) in Eq. (2.1 I ) yields

(2.1s)

K,?= y

(1

-1

120")
(2.16)

= fip300

S i ni i 1arl y we obt ai n X( = fiy- - 90"

(3.17)

(2.18)

The expressions obtained above for the line boltages shou that they constitute a balanced three-phase voltage system Mhose magnituctes are v? time\ thow of the phase voltages. Thus we write
1.: =

fiy
( a )

(2.111)

A current tlowing out of a line terminal ci (or 11 or i\ the same a\ thi\t tlon ing through the phase source Lroltage appearing between terminal\ 11 and ( I (or 1 1 and h or I I and c ) . We can thus conclude that for a Y-connected three phase wurce, the line current equals the phase current. Thu\
l, = f,,

(2.2 ) )

In the aboce equation, l, denotes the effective \ d u e of the line current aid
/,, denotes the effectike tfalue for the pha\e current.

2.2.3 A-Connection
We n o w consider the case when the three single-phase sources are rearrangd to forrn ;I three-phase A-connection as shown in Fig. 2.7. It is clear from in5ptction of the circuit shown that the line and phase \oltage\ haw the wine magiii-

tude:

The phase and line currents. howec er are not identical, and the relation\liip betkveen them can be obtained by using Kirchhoffs current lau at one of he 1i ne term i nal s . In a manner similar to that adopted for the Y-connected source, let U\ con\icier the pha\or diagram shoun i n Fig. 2.8. Assume the phaw currents to t w

/
C

\b
Ibc

bb ob

I,,

Figure 2.7 A A-connected three-phase s w r w .

Stn t ic Elect t-ic Net UY)t-k Mode Is

Figure 2.8 Illustration of the relation between phase arid line currents in a A-connection.

/<I/,

= I/,

I/,[ I,, - 1 20" = i

I,,, = I,,i 120"

The current that flows in the line joining given by

[I

to

ci'

is denoted by l$,,,, is and

As a result, we have

I,,,,, I,,[I 1 20" - 1 i 01 =

L !

which simplifies to

I,,,,, &,L =
Similarly.

I 50"

Note that a set of balanced three-phase currents yields a corresponding set of balanced line currents whose magnitudes are fi times the rnagnitudes of the phase values:

20

\+hx denotes the m:ignitude 01' any o f the three line currents. l,

2.2.4 Power Relationships

Arrume that ii three-phare generator is supplq ing a balanced loud \+,ith thc t h r w rintiroidal phase voltagcs:
\' ( f 1 = \ '7 1: ;
\',(f)

\lIl(l)t

= \ 21,: \111((1)/ - 1 2 0 - )

\' ( I ) = \

21,: \lll((I)f

+ 120

~chcre is the phase angle bt.t\swn thc current iind voltage i n c d i ph;iw. ?'he @ total po\ser in the load is

This t i m s out to be expanded

US:

L:sing

;I

trigonometric identit,~, ive get

Yote that the last three terms in the abo\.e equation add tip to ~ r o l'hus . n'c obtain

When referring to the voltage level of' a three-phase s\'stem. by con\'ention. one in\.ariably tinderstands the line l-oltages. From the iibo\.e cliscussion thc relationship bet\\,t.cn the linc and phase \.oltages i n ;i Y-connectetl s ~ ~ s t e m s

The power equation thus reads in t e r m of line quantities:

p10=

f i , l f l 1, l C O 4 1

We note that the total instantaneous power is constant. hairing a magnitude of three times the real power per phase. We may be tempted to assume that the reactiLre power is of no importance in a three-phase system since the Q terms cancel out. Houte\zer, this situation is analogous to the summation of balanced three-phase currents and \dtages that also cancel out. Although the sum cancels out, these quantities are still \very much in evidence within each phase. We extend the concept of complex or apparent power ( S ) to three-phase systems by defining
SIO= 3y1;

where the L1ctik.e and reactijre powers are obtained from

In terms of line Lralues, we can assert that

sl,=
and

fiv1:

2.3

SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE MODELING

I n po\s'er system stability analysis. there are several types of models used for representing the dynamic behavior of the synchronous machine. These models are deduced by using some approximations to the basic machine equations. This section gives a brief introduction to synchronous machine equations.
2.3.1

Stator and Rotor Voltage Equations

In de\.eloping performance equations of a synchronous machine, the follou,ing assumptions are made:

The stator urindings are sinusoidally distributed along the air-gap its far a s the mutual inductance effects with the rotor are concerned. 2. The stator slots cause no appreciable variation of the rotor inductances Lvith rotor position. 3. Magnetic hysteresis is negligible. 1. Magnetic saturation effects are negligible.
Based on these assumptions, a synchronous machine can be represented b j six Lvindings as shown in Fig. 2.9. The stator circuit consists of three-phast;irniatiire uindings carrying alternating currents. The rotor circuit consists o .

I.

field and iiniortisseur windings. The positive direction of ;I stittor winding cur. rent is rissumed to be into the machine. The Lwltage equations of the three-phase armature uindings are:

(),,

= tlt

- N,,i,,

Rot ation
0,

elec. rad/s

c
Figure 2.9 Stator m f rotor circuits of ;I synchronous rnachinc. ci. h. c: Stator ph: w c windings: jil: field cvinding: k d : d-axis armature circuit; k q : q-axis armature circuit; 1 = I . 2, . . . . r l ; I I = number o f xinature circuits; 0 = angle by Lvhich c l - a x i 5 leads the iiiagCO, rietic axis o f phase ( I winding. electrical radiaii~;: = rotor angular \elocitj. clectri1:al rad/x.

Static Electric Net\t*ork Models

23

where

L,,,,. L,,,,, L,, are self-inductance of nhc windings. L,,/,.L,,,, LI,,,, LI,,, L,,,,LIIl re mutual inductances between two stator winding a (cih, hc, N C ' ) L,,,,/,L/,,,/,L,,,/ are mutual inductances between stator and fields windings L,lL,I, LlIAll, are mutual inductances between stator winding and d-axis LlL,/ armature circuit L,,A,,, L,A,lare mutual inductances between stator windings and q-axis LhAll, armature circuit.
The rotor circuit voltage equations are given by:

(2.24)

The rotor circuit flux linkages are given by

v/d= Lff,/;/,/L[?.diA[/ Ldd;/> + &iAdi,i

LhAili/i -

L,k q i ,
A,/;(

vd = Llldild + LALdilrl k - LRAdili - L, vq = LAAqikt, - LiiAyio - Lldqih - LcAq;c A

(2.25)

Equations (2.22) and (2.23) associated with the stator circuits together with equations (2.24) and (2.25) associated with the rotor circuits completely describe the electrical performance of a synchronous machine. The fact that mutual and self inductances of the stator circuits vary with rotor position q which in turn varies with time, complicates the synchronous machine Eqs. (2.22) to (2.25). The variations in inductances are caused by the variations in the permeance of the magnetic flux path due to nonuniform air gap. This is pronounced in a salient pole machine in which the permeances along the two axes are significantly different. Even in a round rotor machine there are differences between the two axes due mostly to the large number of slots associated with the field winding. The self and mutual inductances of the stator circuits are given by

I,, = I,

(,

+ 1,

! CO\

78

1, = I. ,, +

3 '

[:]=:
4!! K ,;,,
-

r.1.28,

tit

where

All the inductances expressed as dqO components are seen to be constant, i.e.. they are independent of the rotor position. It is interesting to note that i,, does not appear i n the rotor flux linkage equation. This is because the zero sequence components of armature current do not produce net mmf :icross the air-gap. While the dqO transformation has resulted in constant inductances i n Eqs. (2.28) to (2.30). the mutual inductances between stator and rotor quantities are not. For example, the mutual inductance associated with the flux linking the field ufinding due to current i,, flowing in the d-axis stator winding from equation (2.30) is (3/2) L,,,,,. whereas from equation (2.29) the mutual inductance associated with flux in the d-axis stator winding due to field current is L,,,,,.This difficulty is overcome by an appropriate choice of the per unit sqrstcm for the rotor q u an t i t i es.

2.3.3 Per Unit Representation

It is usually conivenient to use a per unit system to normalize system irariables. to offer computational simplicity by eliminating units and expressing sqrstem quantities as dimensionless ratios. Thus

A we 11-c h ose n per unit s y st eni can m i n i 111 i ze c om p i t ;i t i on a I effort , x i m p 1i f y e\'aluation. rind facilitate understanding of system characteristics. Some baw quantities may be chosen independently and quite arbitrarily, Lvhile others t'ol-

low automatically depending on the fundamental relationships between system \.ariables. Normally, the base values are chosen so that the principal ttariable? mrill be equal to one per unit under rated operating conditions. I n the case of a synchronous machine, the per unit system inay be used tcI remoF.e arbitrary constants and simplify mathematical equations s o that they rnq be expressed in terms of equivalent circuits. The basis for selecting the per uni system for the stator is straightforward, while it requires careful consideration for the rotor. The L,,,,-base reciprocal per unit system will be discussed here. The following base quantities for the stator are chosen (denoted by subscripts)
f?,h,l,r.

= peak ~(alue rated line-to-line voltage, of

= peak value of rated line-to-line current, A

,f\.,,,< = rated frequency, Hz

The base \ d u e of each o f the remaining quantities ;ire automatically and depend on the above :is follows:

st't

271 .fh,l,c. electrical rad/s 2 o,,,,,.,,, mechanical rad/s = \clh.l,, CO,,,~,,=

Tf ' F

Z+lre - -ohms = :,
1\h,i\r.

~\t7.lW

The stator voltage equations expressed in per unit notations are g i \ m b j

27

The corresponding flux linkage equations may be written as __ - - -

w,/ = --&/id + LJ/</ +

_-

L<lL,/~L/

w q

= -L& + Ld,/i</ _ _ W = -MO O

(2.32)

The rotor circuit base quantities will be chosen so as to make the flux linkage equations simple by satisfying the following: I . The per unit mutual inductances between different windings are to be reciprocal. This will allow the synchronous machine model to be represented by simple equivalent circuits. 2. All per unit mutual inductances between stator and rotor circuits i n each axis are to be equal. 3. The following base quantities for the rotor are chosen, i n view of the L,,,/-baseper unit system choose,

(2.33)

The per unit rotor flux linkage equations are given by

(2.34)

Since all quantities in Eqs. (2.31) to (2.34) are in per unit, we drop the overbar notation in subsequent discussion. If the frequency of the stator quantities is equal o the base frequency, the per unit reactance of a winding reactance is numerically equal to the per unit inductance. For example:

xl/= 2zf Ll/

(Q)

Dividing by Z\hd\c 2nfhd,rL\hd\r.,f b d , c , then the per unit values of X,/ and L,, = if f = are equal.
2.3.4 Classical Representation of the Synchronous Machine

The per unit equations completely describe the electrical and dynamic performance of a synchronous machine. However, except for the analysis of very

\mall \ j \tern\, these equation\ cannot be used directly for \}stem \tability \tudI C \ . Some \implification\ and approxitiiations are required to reprewit the \ j nchronoii\ machine in stabilitj \tudie\. For large \y stem\. i t i \ nece\wrq to neg1ec.t the tr:in\tornier voltage term\ \ir<, rid \ir, atid the et'f'ttct o f \peed \ ariation\. a Therefore, the rnachine equation tie\cribed bjf Eys. (2.33)and ( 2 . 3 3 )become

(2.36,

By defining the follou~ingvariables

the riiachine eyuationx becomes

( 2 . 37 )

Et: i \ the q-a\ii\ c-omponent of the \ oltage behind transient rcactanc\e I",, i \ the open-circuit tran\ient time con\tant. E, i \ the \folt:ige proportiond to I , , and olo i \ the ~ o l t a g eproportional to E,<,.S incc per u n i t \ = I_ , l'rom l!c~u~ltlon2.37) m e hace (
M here

\'.

For studies i n \i.hich the period of analj'sis is sinall in comparison c+,itli I-,:, thc riiachine inodel ix often simplified bj' assuming that E'; is constant throiigho i i t the s t lidy period. T h i s ;is sii nip t ion e 1i m i na t e s t he on 1j , d i fte re n t i a 1 e y i i ;it i on asxociiited M i t h the electrical chxiicteristics o f the machine. A further approuirriation is to ignore transient saliency by assuniing that .v(; = .v(; and to :issiiriie that the t'lux linkage alw remains constant. With these assuinptions. the \,oIt;ige

behind the transient impedance R,,+ j x $ has a constant magnitude. The equi\.alent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.10. The machine terminal voltage phasor is represented by

q= Ei 6 - (R(,+.j.~;)i,
The machine dynamic model is represented by
T, @4! = M,,,- M , (It

P, = R , ( V , I )

v,= EJ

- (R,,+j x ; ) i,

(2.39)

where V , is the machine terminal voltage phasor and can be calculated from power flow considerations. Then can be calculated. The machine scl?ingequation can then be solved. Equation (2.39) is the so-called classical model of the synchronous machine and is widely used in power system stability studies. This classical model is often used for three different time frames: subtransient, transient. and steadystate. Figure 2.1 I surnmarizes these three simple synchronous machine models. The subtransient and transient assume constant rotor flux linkages. and the steady-state model assumes constant field current. These models neglect saliency effects and stator resistance and offer considerable structural and computat i onal s i m pl i c i t y .

Figure 2.10 Eqiii\~alcnt ircuit synchronous urith c

x,;= xi:.

(a) Subtransient model

EL6

(b) Transient model

EqL6

( c )Steady-state model
Figure 2.11
Simple hjmchronous machine model.

Stcrtic Electric Netwwrk

Models

2.4

REACTIVE CAPABILITY LIMITS

It is important in voltage stability and long-term stability studies to consider the reactive capability limits of synchronous machines. Synchronous machines are rated in terms of maximum MVA output at specified voltage and power factor (usually 0.85 or 0.9 lagging) which they can carry continuously without overheating. The active power output is limited by the prime mover capability to a value within the MVA rating. The continuous reactive power output capability is limited by three considerations: armature current limit, field current limit, and end region heating limit. Figure 2.12 demonstrates a family of reactive capability areas for three different values of hydrogen coolant pressure. Note that the higher the pressure. the larger the capability curve. In Fig. 2.12, the region AB is the field current limited while the region BC is due to armature heating constraints.

0.6 p.f. lag

t

Figure 2.12

Reactive capability curves of a hydrogen-cooled generator at rated \dtage.

2.5

STATIC LOAD MODELS

I v ed main 1y w it h gene rat o r st ii . bilit),. and little importance wits attached to loads. Recently, significant atteiitioii has been g i \ w to load modeling. Much ot' the domestic load and some industrial load consist o f heating and lighting. particularly i n the winter. and in earl)' loati 111ode 1s t hese \+'ere con s i de red iis constant i m pedances . Rot ii t i ng ecl LI i pine n t often inodeled ;IS ii siiiiple form o f synchronous machine and coniposite load u'ere simulated by a mixture of these two types o f load. A lot of uurk hits gon: i n t o the development ot' more accurate load models. These include some cornples niodels of specific large loads. Most loads. howe\ter. consist o f ;I I x g c c l i i a n t i t y of cli \wse eqii i pmen t of v;iry i ng I c \ ~sl atid coinposi t ion and s o m e cq 11 i va I e n I modc1 is iiece ssary . A static l o d model expresses the churacteristic o f the load at m y instarit ot' tirric in terms o f algebraic functions o f the bus \.()Itage niagnitude and t'wqi1cnc.y at that instant. The active power component P and the reacti\,c po\f.crr c 0111 pone 11 Q are c 011 si de red separate I y . t ,A general load chxacteristic may be adopted such that the M V A loadii ~g Lit : particulx bus is ; function of' lroltage m d fi-eclucncj~: I I
Con\re 11 t i onit 1 transient - stab i 1it y st L i d i e s were i n

Q = K,/\'" f
$1 here

A',, atid A( are constant\ \+hich depend upon the nominal ', :triable\ P and Q. For constant frequencq operation. u e write:

alue o f t ie

~+hmand Q are acti\,e and reacti\re coinponetits of the load \+(hen the hiis P \'oltage niagnitude is 1'. The siibscript 0 identifies the Fdiics o f the rcspccri\~ \ , x i ii b Ics ;it the i ii i t i 11 I or iiom i nal c i perat i tig cond i t ion. Static loads are reliiti\Jeljf iiniiffected by frecliicncj' change\, i.e.. ni,= = 0. and with constant impedance loads i i i , = 1 1 , = 2. The iniportance of' acciiiate
1 1 ,

load models has been deriionstrated f o r \coltage sensitive loads. Figure 2. I3 dtbiiioiistratcs the po~verand current characteristics 01' constant poLver, constant c iirrent, and constant inipedance loads. Manq reseiirchers identified the characteristic load parameters f:x \,iirioiis homogeneous loads. iypical \,alues are shoLvii i n Table 2.1 . These charac*terihtic*\

II V
Nominal voltage (a) Nominal voltage
(b)

Figure 2.13 Characteristic4 of different load models. ( a ) ActiLte and rcacti\c po\\er \ersus voltage. ( b ) Current \er\u\ \oltage.

inay be combined to @\re the overall load characteristic at a bus. For esample, a group of homogeneous loads, each with a characteristic of N.j , and a nominal power of P, inay be combined to give an overall characteristic of:

,=I

Table 2.1 Typical Values of Characteristic Load Parameters

Filament lamp FI Uoresc t'n t I amp Heater Induction motor half load Induction motor full load Reduction furnace A 1iiini nu m plant

I .6 1.2 2.0 0.2 0.I 1.9 I .8

0 3.o

-I

.o

0 -2.8
0 -0.3 I .8 0 0.6

0
1.6 0.6 2. I -.-3 3

0 I .s 2.8

-03 -0.3

An iilternatii,e model which has been widely used to represent the Lroltagc: dependence of loads is the polynomial model:

This nwdel is corninonly referred to as the ZIP model. since i t is composed of constant impedance ( Z ) ,constant current (11,and constant power ( P ) coniponents. The parameters of the model are the coefficients P , to P , and Q , to which define the proportion of each component. When the load parameters m , and 1 1 , are less than or equal t o unity, a problem can occur when the voltage drops to a low value. As the voltage magnitilde decreases, the current magnitude does not decrease. In the limiting c;i!,e with zero cultage magnitude, ii load current flows m*hich is clearly irration: 1. gikren the nondynamic nature of the load model. From a purely practical poi i t of Lieut. then the load characteristics are only valid for a srnall L d t a g e deviation from nominal. Further, if the voltage is sinall. small errors in magnitude a i d phase produce large errors in current rnagnitiide and phase. This results in lo.;s of accuracy and with iterative solution methods of poor convergence. The ie effects ciin be overcome by using ii constant impedance characteristic to represent loads where the voltage is below some predefined ~ ~ a l u for example e, 0 . 8 p11. The parameters o f this model are exponents ci and h. With these exponerrts equal to 0, 1 . or 2, the model represents constant power. constant current, or constant i Inpe dan ce char;ict e r i st i c s, respect i c'e1y . For composite I oad s, thei r v i 1lies depend on the aggregate characteristics of load components. The frequency dependence of load characteristics is represented by niultiplying the exponential model or the polynomial niodel by ;I f'actor as follow>:

or

where Af is the frequency derivation (.f-.f;,).

CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter we offered a review of power concepts for single and three phase systems. We also treated the fundamentals of synchronous machine models for stability evaluation including the idea of a reactive capability curke and static load models. The per unit system was reviewed and extended to quantities not frequently encountered, such as time and frequency. Also. some modeling aspects of static loads, such as frequency dependent loads in typical electric po\tw systems, were also discussed. The reader is referred to the bibliography section for references dealing with materials in the chapter and contributions made by many other pioneers in the field. Please note that an annotated glossary of terms is given to summarize the key definitions and terminology employed in this chapter.

3
Dynamic Electric Network Models

INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2 focused on steady-state models to represent power system elemcr'is for the s o ~.alledstatic analysis studies. We nou turn O L I ~ attention to inodt Is for t ransi cii t o r d y niiiii ic operation a1 s t lidies. Th i s c ha pter describes soiiie sy s t e n i niodclh for analytical purposes. A model of an excitation system is studied i n Section 3.1 and Section 3.2 gikres ii discussion of a model of' the prime nio\er and go\~eriiorsystem. Dyii;iinic load models arc discussed i n Section 3.3 to conclude the chapter.

3.1

EXCITATION SYSTEM MODEL

The basic function of an excitation system is t o probride ; direct current to lit. i synchronous machine field Lvinding. I n addition, the excitation system performs control and protecti\,e functions essential t o the secure operation of the s>rstm by controlling the field Lmoltage and hence the field current 10 be within Licccpt;b Ie le\.e1 s 11nder d i fferent operat i rig conditions. i The control tunction~include the control o f iroltage and reiictiire po'i'er tl ow , there by en hanc i ng pourer s y ste 111 stabi I i t y . The protect i ve functions e n s i i re t h ;i t t he c ii pi1b i 1i t y 1i 111its o t the s y iic hronou s iii iic h i ne , e sc itat i o n s ~ 'ts 111, In d e other ecliiipmcnt are not exceeded.

37

Power source (regulator)

Power i source ; (regulator) i

i j

Power 'iource (exciter)

i
:

Reamplitier
I 1 I
I

Power i Amplifier i

+
I I

i
: I :

Excitation power SWrCe (exciter)

7
I

4-1
machine

L-

I I
I I

I I I I I

I
I

I
I I I

I
I

I I

I Regulator Excitation system Excitation control system Manu 'iiConlrol:a L E ~ S + S~y n c h, r o n o u s ~ ; machine ~

* :

Figure 3.1

Functional block diagram of a synchronous excitation control sy\tein.

Figure 3.1 shows the functional block diagram of a tj'pical excitation control system for ii synchronous generator. The following is ; brief description of' i the various subsysteins identified in the figure. The exciter pro\sides dc p o ~ ' e r to the synchronous machine field winding and constitutes the pouw stage of' the excitation system. Usually an exciter is modeled by the first-order system as shown in Fig. 3.2. The effect of saturation is considered by introducing S, and K,,, and thus the exciter model is given by
E, =
1

v, + S,, + K, + T , s

(3.1 1

The \.ohage regulator processes and amplifies the input control \ign;il\ to ii leiel and form appropriate for the control of the exciter. This include\ both regulating and excitation system stabilizing function (rate feedbach or lead-lag compensation). Nornially. the regulator is inodeled by a fir\t-order \ j stem a\ sho\+n i n Fig. 3.3. The regulator model is given by

Figure 3.2

Block diagram model of exciter

The terminal c oltage transducer senses the generator terminal voltage. rectifie\ and filters it t o dc, and compares it with a reference which repre\ent\ the h i r e d terminal c oltage. Figure 3.3 shows the terminal voltage tran\duc-er model given by:

The power system stabilizer provides an additional input signal to the r e p lator to further damp power system oscillations. Some commonly used i n w t signals iire rotor speed deviation, accelerating power, and frequency debiatirn. A pouw system stabilizer is modeled as shown in Fig. 3.5. The PSS model is gikwi by
A V = K,,G'(s)Au+ Ki,G(.\)At;'
U'here

(.$.4)

Figure 3.3

Block diagram of the voltage regulator.

V
S

vF

Figure 3.4

Block diagram of a terminal voltage transducer model.

Limiters and protective circuits ensure that the capability limits of excitor and synchronous generator are not exceeded. The full excitation system is modeled as shown in Fig. 3.6. The system is represented by the following set of linear differential equations:
T,&V-Ij dt

?;C'VX=-V,-K(I::,-y+l(+y)
dt

dr dV = T, --t dr

= V, - (S, K , +

+ I ) E, + K , + 1 ) E,)

-v+ &(& T

- (S,

KPSS

X2
l+T 2s

1+T1S

'"s

I + T5S

1+T2S

Figure 3.5

Block diagram of a typical Power System Stabiliter (PSS) model.

40

3.2
of

PRIME MOVER AND GOVERNING SYSTEM MODELS

The prinie soiirces of electrical energy supplied by utilities itre the kinetic enctg>' U ater and the thermul energ~' deri\wl frorn fossil fuels m d nucleiir fission. The prirnc rnoi.ers cot1Lw-t these soiirces of energj' into niechanicd entrgj' tl- at. in turn. is con\,erted to electrical form by the synchronous generator. The pri iiie m0 i . er go 1.ern i ng s y st e 111 prov i de s a means of c 011 t 1-0ng pow e r and t'rccl iic I L' 1'. I 1i I The !.Utict i o ti;i 1 re I iit i on s h i p betw ee 11 the biis i c e Ic me 11s ;is soc i ii t ed w i t 11 PO\Ic I t gcner:itioii and control i x shokkrn in Fig. 3.7. This section introduces the i i i o c cls I'oi- 111 draiilic turbines and go\,crning systems ;is well iis steam turbines atid tlicir go\~crnitig s>~stcms.

3.2.1

Hydraulic Turbines and Governing System Model

The h>draulic turbine model describes the characteristics of' gate opening p :incl o 11 t p i t rncc ha 11cal pow e r . I 11 pow e r system d y nam i c ;I 11a 1y s i s . the h >,d LI I i c t LI ri rii biiic is ~isually modeled by an ideal lossless turbine along U ith the consideration ot' "wiitcr hiitiinicr" effect caused by the uwer inertia. is gic,en bl,
3.h)
M

here T , )i \ \+raterstarting time. BCC;ILIW f the "LI. ater h;itiiiiier" effect, o

; I

change in gate position produce\

Energy Supply System

t

Speed Governor

Valve or

1_1) Turbine

Generator

Speed
Figure 3.7 Functional block diagram of pobver generation and control.

an initial turbine pouer change which is opposite that \shich I \ de\ired. For stable control performance, a large transient (temporari\ ) droop M it11 a long rcsetting time I \ therefore required. This is accomplisht.d by introducing a transient gain reduction compensation in the governing \i\ \tern. The coiiipen\ation retard\ o r limit\ the gate niovement until the mater flou and pouer output h a ~ c time to catch up. The gmerning system model i\ \ho\+n in Fig. 3.8.

Pilot Valve and

max gate

Figure 3.8 Bloch dingram of gojwning system for

;I

hjdraulic rurbinc.

42

The goirerning system model is given by

7(-,4 = -p !
tft

+ x,

(3.7)

= pilot v a l \ ~ and ser\mi(itor time constant K , = servo gain 7;7 = main servo time constant R,, = permanent droop R , = temporary droop & = reset time ql,,,,, ,,,, = maximum gate opening rate q,ll,i, = maximum gate closing rate il,,rC p = gate position

3.2.2 Steam Turbines and Governing System Model

A \team turbine convert\ stored energy of high preswre and high teniperatiire

jteani into rotating energy. The input of the steam turbine i\ control \,al\e pvsition (Ayl). thile its output is torque (AT,). In power \tability analj\is. a n order rnodel is used for \team turbine, i.e.,

ufhere = time constant Comparing the turbine models for hydraulic turbine and \team turbine, I t I \ clear that the re\ponse of a \teain turbine has no peculiarity wch a\ that extiib1tt.d by ;I hydraulic turbine d ~ i e water inertia. The governing requiremen('t o f to \team turbine\, in this re\pect, are more straightforward. There i\ no need for t riin 4 i e 11 droop coin pe n \a t ion. t The go\ erning \ j \tern model i \ given by

r,,

max gate

band
@

KS

'

r x l

1
l+sTG

Figure 3.9 Typical block diagram of a steam turbine

cx , =K
lit

(, U

- U, - R,,X,)

(3.9)

A typical governing model for steam turbine is shown i n Fig. 3.9.

3.3

MODELING OF LOADS

Load models are traditionally classified into two broad categories: static models and dynamic models. Earlier, we considered the static load models (Chap. 2). In this section, the dynamic load model is discussed.

3.3.1

Dynamic Load Models

Typically, motors consume 60 to 70% of the total energy supplied by a power system. Therefore, the dynamic effects due to motors are usually the most significant aspects of dynamic characteristics of system loads. Modeling of motors is discussed in this section. An induction motor can be represented by the equivalent circuit shomm i n Fig. 3.10. which accounts for quantities in one phase. In the equivalent circuit all quantities have been referred to the stator side. The directions of current shown are positive when operating as a motor, i n which case the slip s is positive. The rotor equation of motion is given by
(3.10)

The torque

(r)is slip-dependent,

44

Figure 3.10

f:qiiiwlc.iit circuit

ol' ;I

ihrw-pli;isc.

iiiductioii in;icliiiic..

(3.1 I I

where / is the nuinher o f poles atid :

,<

is the slip. def'incd

11,

;IS:

=! C '! I !

bvith 11,

being the synchronous speed of the machine. where P is the number of' pdes. aiicl,/'is the frequency. I n Eq. (3.I I ) we have

U ,+,;

(K, U) x, = J - .U,,, +j ., K. +.; IX. + x,..,

'

I t is noted that Ecl. (3.10)represents ;I stendy state pcrformaiice nioclcl 01 the intluction motor. with all qiiantities referrecl to the stator siclc. There ;ire inodcls that represent the trnnsicnt performance of the niotor th;it are bnsccl on I l u x liiikngcs. volt;iges. and torque variutions.

CONCLUSIONS
In this brief chapter w e concentrated on models ibr power ~ystciiistahiliiy i n the tiiiie domain. We discussed electric excitation model as well as prime iiIover and governor system models. We concluded with a brief introduction to dynamic load model. For fiirther reading on the topic. ii reference list a r d an annotated glossary of teriiis is provided ;it the hack o f the book.

Philosophy of Security Assessment

IN TRO DUCTI 0N
We are concerned with the implications of il major network disturbance such as a short circuit on a transmission line, the opening of a line or the switching 011 of a major load to name just a few. Here, we will consider the behaivior of the system immediately following such a disturbance. Studies of this nature are called transient stability analysis. The tendency of a power system to react to disturbances in such a manner as to maintain its equilibrium (stay i n synchronism) is referred to as stability. One way of classifying disturbances is through the categorization of small versus large. A disturbance is assumed to be small if the behavior of the system can be adequately represented through a linsarization of the nonlinear system of dynamic equations of the system. Stability considerations have been recognized to be among the essential tools in electric power system planning. The possible consequences of instabilitj, in an electric power system were dramatized by the northeast pobrer failure of 1965. This is an example of a situation that arises when il seLFere disturbance is not cleared away quickly enough. The blackout began with a loss of ;I transmission corridor. which isolated a significant amount of generation from its lo:id. More recently. a transmission tower in the Consolidated Edison sj~stemu ' a s hit by a severe lightning stroke in July 1977. The events that follo\s.ed led to the
45

shutdown o f power in New York City. Both events dramatized the consequences o f iiii instability in an interconnected electric power system. Our intention is to give ;in introduction to transient stability in electric power sjrstems. We treat the ciise of a single machine operating to supply iir infinite bus. The analysis of the tiiore complex problem of large electric po~vei' riet\\.orks 1t.ith the i titerconnections taken into consideration is treated ;is istell.

4.1

THE SWING EQUATION

I n the p o ~ er \j'stem\ engineer'\ terminology, the dynamic equation relating t h t s s inertial toryue to the net accelerating torque o f the s j nchrotious machine rotor i \ called the s~ ing equation. Thi\ \imply \tate\
(1% , - T',, tlt i4.1 t

The left-hand-side i \ the inertial torque uhich is the product of the inerti,i ( i n hg In') o f all rotating tii;i\se\ attached to the rotor shaft arid the angul: r :icccler:ition. The accelcrating torque T , , is in Nc\\ ton-meter\ and can be c'\ pres\ect as:

I n the abole, T,,,i \ the dritirig mechanical torque and i\ the retarding or load electrical torque. The angular po4tion of the rotor 0 may be eupre\\ed ii\ the f o l l o ~ win of angle\ ing

The angle cc is a constant Nhich is needed if the angle 0 is mea\ured from different from the iingular reference. The angle w,?t I \ the re\ult of the rotor angular motion at rated \peed. The angle 8 i \ time \ a r j ing and repre\erts de\ iation\ from the rated angular displacement\. This gi\ es the ba\i\ f-or our ~ i1s I-c;it i on e 1
;in

We find it iiiore conLtenient to substitute the dot notation

Therefore we have
Jii' = T,,,- T,,
(4.5)

4.2

SOME ALTERNATIVE FORMS

Some useful alternative forms of Eq. (4.5) have been developed. The first is the power form which is obtained by multiplying both sides of by 03 and recalling that the product of the torque T and angular velocity is the shaft power. This results in
J g = P ,,, - P,, o

The quantity J o ~s called the inertia constant and is truly an angular moi mentum denoted by M (Jdrad.):

Thus the power form is:

M 8 = P,,,- P ,
(3.7)

A normalized form of the swing equation can be obtained by dividing Eq.

(4.5) the rated torque THto obtain the dimensionless equation. by

The left-hand side of the above equation can be further manipulated to yield a form frequently used. Recall the definition of the kinetic energy of a rotating body. This gives the kinetic energy at rated speed as
1 Wi = - J o ~

then
L2W, TH o?,T,

We know further that the rated power is

-I8

Thus

Consequently we huvc

to thc kinetic energy itt rated

A constant which has proved very useful is c-noted by H. which is equ.11 speed divided by the rntcd power PK

The units of H ;ire in sec. As suing equation its

il

result we write the per unit or iiortiia1izi:d

Obscrving thiit .,,, = P,,,,, wc cat1 then write

ZH 6 = p,,,- p ,
On

(4.0)

\vlicrc thc cquution is in p i i .

4.2.1 Machine Inertia Constants

Thc iltigttlitr iiionicntuiii inertia constant M as defined by Eq. (1.6) cu11be ohtainctl from mnnufacturcr supplicd machine datil. The machine kinetic ~11crgy. ,V. iiiay be written i n ter111sof M i1S follows:

where w K is the angular speed rclutccl to the frequency by

in electrical degrees per second. This i n tttrtl is

We c m therefore conclude that

The value of N is obtained from the moment of inertia of the machine Lisually denoted by WR and traditionally given i n Ib-f. The con\-ersion formula is:

The relation between H and M can be obtained using Eq. ( 3 . 8 )re\s<rittenas

H = -N G
(4.14)

Here G is the machine rating. Thus

(4.15)

The quantity H does not vary greatly with the rated power and speed of the machine, but instead has a characteristic value or set of \ d u e \ for each cla\s of machine. In the absence of definite information typical \ alues o f H may be used. The cur\,es in Figs. 3 . I . 3.2. and 4.3 give the general characteristic \ ariation of H for exi\ting and future large turbo generators.

--

#S
below.

Figure 4.1 Inertia conatantb for large turbo generator rated 500 M V A and

C'htrpter I
4-

3.5
A

--

E
2
c

i . s 3
I
cn

CrJ

3--

2.5

---

3600 RPM FOSSIL

cn c 0

2
C -

1.5

---

-C- 1800 RPM NUCLEAR

0.5

-, 1 1

1
I

, -

Figure 4.2

Expected inertia constants for liitiire large turbo generators.

In sy stern studies U here several machines ha\ing different ratings are wed, the H constant for each machine, given to a base of the machine rating. rriu\t be conberted to the coiiimon system base by multiplying H in Eq. (4.14) b j the ratio (niachine base MVA/system base MVA).

4.3

TRANSIENT A N D SUBTRANSIENT REACTANCES

In order to understand the concept of transient and \ubtran\ient reactance\ of a \ynchronous generator, let U \ consider the transient behavior during a balariced t'ault. The dependence of the talue of the short circuit current in the ele:tric p o ~ e s j \ t e m o n the in\tant i n the cycle at which the \hart circuit occur\ can r be verified using ;I simple model. The inodel is ;I generaror uith wrie\ re\istance R and inductance L \ h o w n in Fig. 4.4. The xroltage o f the gene -ator I \ a\\uriied to Lary a\:

5I

4 --

3 F
3

3.5

--

$
v)

3-2.5

z
c
0

I
c .

--A +B
450-514rpm

tj
0

2-1.5
1

.E

r t -

---. . . . . . . . . . .

2Ul-400rpm
133-180rpm

+C

+D

80-lXIrpm

0.5

0-

Figure 4.3

Inertia constants of large water wheel generator\.

r ( t )= E,,, sin(cot + 00

With a balanced fault placed on the generator terminals at t = 0. then we can show that a dc term will in general exist. Its magnitude at t = O may be equal to the magnitude of the steady-state current term. The transient current i(r) is given by

where

The worst possible case occurs for the value of a g i \ m by:

jwL

iniiiiii \

In thi\ case the ciirrent magnitude ill approach titice the \tcadq -\talc II a \ alue iinmcdiiitely after the \hart circuit. The tran\ient current I \ pi\ -

Thus:

E,,, i ( t ) = -1

is It is clear that the maximum of i(r) is twice that of E,,,/Z.This n~a\~efortii shown in Fig. 4%

For the case tana = o we have i ( t )= - sinot. This a.a\.eform is shourn i n r

E,,,

Fig. 3.Sb. It is clear from inspection of either the expression for the short circuit current or the response u'ajseform given in Fig. 4.6 that the reactance of the machine appears to be time varying. This is so if we assume a fixed Lfoltagesource E. For our power system purposes we let the reactance vary i n a step-wise. fashion X:, Xg;and X , , as shown in Fig. 3.6. The current history i ( t ) can be approximated in three time zones by three different expressions. In the first, denoted the subtransient inten-al. lasting up to 2 cycles. the current is I". This defines the direct axis subtransient reactancc

The second denoted the transient gives rise to

Figure 4.5

Short circuit current waLCeforms.

x;= E I '
kchere I' is the transient current and X:, is the direct axis tran\ient reactance. T i e transient intenfa1 last5 for about 30 cycles. The steady-state condition gi\ses t 76' di rec t ii x i \ synchronous re ;ict ance .

Note that the subtran\ient reactance can be as low a s 7% o f t h e \ynchronc U \ re ;ic t ;i n ce .

4.4

S Y N C H R O N O U S M A C H I N E M O D E L IN STAB1LlTY ANALYSIS

A brief outline of equations to account for flux changes in a synchronous machine is given to define various electrical quantities and to construct phasor diagrams. The following approximations are involved in the models discussed:

I.
2.

3.
4.

5. 6. 7.

The rotor speed is sufficiently near 1.0 pi( and may be considered a constant. All inductances are independent of current. The effects due to saturation of iron are not considered. Machine winding inductances can be represented as constants plus sinusoidal harmonics of the rotor angle. Distributed windings may be represented as concentrated windings. The machine may be represented by a voltage behind an impedance. There are no hysteresis losses in the iron, and eddy currents are only accounted for by equivalent windings on the rotor. Leakage reactance only exists in the stator.

Under these assumptions, classical theory allows constructing a model of the synchronous machine in the steady-state, transient, and subtransient states. The per unit system adopted is normalized, although the term proportional should be used instead of equal when comparing quantities. Note that one p i i field voltage produces 1 .O p i field current and 1 .O p i open-circuit terniinal voltage at rated speed.

4.4.1

Steady-State Equations

Figure 4.7 shows the flux and voltage phasor diagram for a cylindrical rotor synchronous machine ignoring all saturation effects. The following comments explain the construction:

I.
2.

3.
4.

5. 6.

The flux @, is proportional to the field current 1, and the applied field voltage and acts in the direct axis of the machine. The stator open-circuit terminal voltage E, is proportional to @, which is located on the quadrature axis. The voltage E, is proportional to the applied field voltage and may be referred to as E/. When the synchronous machine is loaded, a flux Q> proportional to and in phase with the stator current I and when added vectorially to the field flux @, gives an effective flux a,.. The effective internal stator voltage E, is due to @, and lags it by 90. The terminal voltage V is found from the voltage E, by considering the

cf,
Direct Axis

t
I I I

I!

--b
Quadrature Axis

\ oltage d r o p due to the Ieahage reiictance X and iiriiiatiirc rt" i+tatice K . 7 . B) +iniilaritj 01' triangle+. the dit'terencc betbeen E, and E i \ i n ph i\e U ith the / X \ oltage drop and i \ proportional to /. Theretim the \ o l ~ i g e difference n i a j bu treated ;i\ ;i koltage drop ;icro++ ;in iirniatiire rcictance .

x,

The 'riitii o f X,, X i is termed the synchronous reactance, a nd For the salient pole synchronous machine. the phasor diagram is more coinpies. Bec~iii'rethe rotor is syninietrical about both the d and c/ ;ixes i t is cot- \.unient to rusol\~e nianj' phasor quantities into coniponents i n these ;ises. 'The stator currunt niajc be trtxited i n this manner. Although a,, bc proportional ujill to I,:iind a,, be proportional to /,,, because the iron paths i n the two :,xes w ill ;ire diftcrent. the total iirniatiire reaction tlus 0 \+.ill not be proportional t o / iior necessarily be in phase \+rith i t . Retaining our earlier normalizing ;tsutiipti )ns.

x>.

it inay be assumed that the proportionality between !*, and @</, is i i n i t y but tlic proportionality between and @(, is less than unity and is a function of the saliency.

4.4.2

Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

Figure 4.8 shows the phasor diagram of the salient pole synchronous machine. The d and q axes armature reactance4 are developed a4 in the c) lindrical rotor c a w . Direct and quadrature 4ynchronous reactance4 X,, and X,, can be establi\hed. i.e..

From the phasor diagram we have:

where V+ and V,. are the axial components of the terminal voltage V. In steady-state conditions it is reasonable to use the field voltage E, or tht! voltage equivalent to field current E, behind the synchronous reactances as thc machine model. In this case the rotor position (quiidrature axis) with respect t o the synchronously rotating frame of reference is given by the angular position of E,. As the cylindrical rotor model may be regarded as ii special case ofn salient machine (X,, = X,,), we will consider only the salient pole machine.
4.4.3

Transient Equations

For faster changes in the conditions external to the synchronous machine. the steady-state model is no longer appropriate. Due to the inertia of the flux l i n l ages these changes cannot be introduced throughout the whole of the modcl inimedintely. I t is essential to establish new fictitious voltages E,; and E,;. reprcsenting thc tlux linkages of thc rotor windings. These transient voltages call t-e shown to exist hehind the transient reactances X,; and X,;,
E:, = v,,+ R,,I,,- la,x<;

E*;= V,, RJcl + l,,X; +

The voltage E, is now considered as the sum of two voltages. E,, and E,, aid is the voltage behind synchronous reactance. In steady-state. current flows only in the field winding and hence, in that case, E,,= 0 and E, = 0. Allowing for the rotor tlux linkages change with time requires using tie following ordinary differential equations:

SE,;=

-E

-,
r,:..

The phasor diagram of the machine operating in the transient state is s h o w in Fig. 4.9.

Direct Axis

El

E,

Figure 4.9 Phasor diagram of a salient pole synchronous machine in the transient
state.

4.5

SUBTRANSIENT EQUATIONS

Other circuits exist in the rotor, either intentionally, as in the case of damper windings, or unavoidably. These circuits are taken into account if a more exact model is required. The reactances and time constants involved are small and can often be practically disregarded. When required, the development of these equations is identical to that for transients and yields:

The equations are developed assuming that the transient time constants are large compared with the subtransient time constants. A phasor diagram of the synchronous machine operating in the subtransient state is shown in Fig. 4.10.

4.6

MACHINE MODELS

It is feasible to expand the model even further than the subtransient level but this is rarely done in multi-machine stability programs. Investigations using a

Direct Axis

generator inodel with up to seven rotor \+~indiiigs. a\,e shown that using the h \tandard niachine data. the I~IOI-e complex models do not necessu-ily j'ield acctiixte results. Ho~.t.\.er, improved results can be obtained if the data, cspeciall>. t tie t i nie constan t s. are appropriate 1y modified. The m o s t contwiient method of treating sq'nchronous machines o differir-g f coniplcxit>' is to allow e x h machine the I ~ I ; I S ~ I I ~ possible number o f ec1u.tLII~ tioritr a i d then let the actual model used be cleterniined autoinatically accordir g to rhe data presented. Thus, fibre models are possible tot ii four-\s~indingrotor
4.6.1 Model 1

4.6.2

Model 2

4.6.3

Model 3

cl- and q-axis transient effects requiring two differential equations (SE:.and The follou~ing equations are used. A block diagram is shown in Fig. 3.1 1.
E:, = v,,+ R,,I,,- l(/x:/

,SE).

E:, = \'(,

+ RJ,, + 1,,x,;

Figure 4.1 1

Block diagram representation for model 3.

4.6.4

Model 4
(

ti- and q-axis subtransient effects requiring three differential equation\ $E::, and \E:: ). The following equations are used.

4.6.5
t

Model 5
( .;E

.SE,:. and .SE:;. The follouing equations .SE:;, )

I- a i d (1- axi s s i i b t ra11s i e 11 e ffec t s req i i i ri n g f o u r cl i ffe re n t i a1 ey ii ;I t i o ri s t are used.

;.

The following mechanical equations need to be solFred for all these models

s6 = O - O H

4.7

GROUPS OF MACHINES A N D THE INFINITE BUS

Groups of synchronous machines or parts of the system may be represented by a single synchronous machine model. An infinite busbar, representing a large stiff system, may be similarly modeled as a single machine represented by model 1 , with the simplification that the mechanical equations are not required. This sixth model is thus defined as:
4.7.1

Model 0

Infinite machine-constant voltage (phase and magnitude) behind ci-axis transient reactance (X:,). Only the following equations are used.

4.8

STABILITY ASSESSMENT

In this section, we discuss the conventional approach to stability assessment applicable to a single machine against an infinite bus. The method leads to the equal area criterion. We concluded that a simple representation of the salient pole machine is offered by the model 0 given by:

U'e

\+

i I 1 make the to1lowi ng add i t i nal a \ s o

111 1pt ions : 1

A\

;I

result:
I:' = I' - I X'
0 = \'

+I

X'

The output po\ier of ttic niachine is g i \ w b j :

\ ' = I' c o d

I ' , = -\',

4iiii5

The phasor diagram is st1ou.n in Fig. 4.12. The electric P O M ' C ~output of the salient pole machine is thereti)re given b j :

The L ariation o f thc output for- salient pole rnachinc po\srer angle 6 is \ho\s,n in Fig. 4. 13.

L+

ith the torcliie o r

Network Imaginary Axis

Machine Quadrature Axis

Direct A xis

Real Axis

"d

Figure 4.1 2 Synchronous niachine and network frame\ o f rc!crence tor dcvclopiiig electric po\ver oii t pii t form u la .

= Pe

Figure 4.1 3

Power angle characteristics for a salient pole machint..

66

output Power, P

Angle,

(radians)
Figure 4.14
Power angle characteristics for
;I

round rotor machine.

I n the case o f

ii

round rotor machine, u'e have Xf: = X ( ; and hence

EV, . P , = -- sin6

x:,

The ~ariation the output power for a round rotor machine uith the angle of

6, (torquc or poww angle) is shown in Fig. 3.14.

Ewmple 1 A \ynchronou\ machine is connected to an infinite bus through a transformer ha\ ing ii reactance of 0 . I p i and a double-circuit transmission line uith 0.45 p' i reactance for each circuit. The \ystem is shown in Fig. 4. IS. All reactance\ are giken to a ba\e o f the machine rating. The direct-axi\ transient reactance of t ie rnachine i\ 0. 15 p i t . Determine the \sariation o f the electrical pomw uith :ink le 6. Assullle v = I .o p.
SoILitio17

An equitralent circuit o f the LtboLre system is shown in Fig. 3.16. From this ~ s ' e ha\-e the following: Xc(,= 0.475 p i .

Figure 4.1 5 System for example 1 ,

Changes in the network configuration between the t u o sides (sending and receiving) will alter the value of Xcyand hence the expression for the electric power transfer. The following example illustrates this point.
Example 2

Assume for the system of Example 1 that only one circuit of the transmission line is available. Obtain the relation between the transmitted electric powrer and the angle 6. Assume other variables to remain unchanged.
Solution

The network configuration presently offers an equivalent circuit as shoikw i n Fig. 4.17. For the present we have

Figure 4.16

Equiident circuit for example 1

EL6

Figure 4.17

Ecliii\ dcnt circuit tor cuainplc 2

Th c re to re.

0bserl.e that the ii1;ixiiiiiitii alue o f the corrc\ponding to the prec ious example.

i i m

clin e i \ l o ~ v than the r

OI

4.9

CONCEPTS IN TRANSIENT STABILITY

111 order to gain ;in under\t;iiicling of the concept\ in\ ol\cd iri transient \tahility prediction. u e k v i l l concentrate or1 the \implil'icd netuorh con\isting of' ;i \eri:\ reactance connecting the machine and the int'inite h i \ . LTiider thew condition\ oiit. pou er cxprtxion recliice\ to

For .\iniplicity of notation u ' e \\'ill ;issiiiiie stcadJr-state \.alues. An iiiiport;int assumption that we adopt is that the electric changes iii\.olc,ed ;ire much faster th;in the resulting mechanical changes produced b), the gencrator/tirrbine spc ed coiitrol. Thus \i'e ;Issiiiiie that the rnechanical p o u w is ii constant tor the purpose o f triinsieiit stabilitj, cdculations. The functions P,,, iiiid P, are plotted i n Fig.
-4.18.

The intersection o f the t L i ' o functions dcfincs t n ' o values for 6. The l o ~ r e r \~:ilueis denoted by 6,,.Consequently, the higher is n: - 6,,according to t h e \ >m iiietrj of the ciir\'e. At both points P,,,= P , , that is ti16/dt' = 0 and L\,C s a j ' that thc s)'stciii is in ecliiilibi.iitiii.

Power, P (P.u.)

(radians)
Figure 4.1 8 Pou er-angle cun'e.

Assume that a change in the operation of the system occurs such that 6 is increased by a small amount A& Now for operation near 6,,. P, > P,,, and c126/c/t' becomes negatiLre according to the swing equation. Thus 6 is decreased. and the system responds by returning to its stable operating or equilibrium point. We refer to this as a stable operating point. On the other hand, operating at n 6,, results in a system response that will increase 6 and mo\re further from n 6,).For this reason, we call x - 6,)an unstable equilibrium point. If the system is operating in an equilibrium state supplying an electric pourer P, ,, with the corresponding mechanical power input P,,,,,,then the corresponding rotor angle is 6(,.Suppose the mechanical power P,,,is changed to P,,,, at a fast rate, which the angle 6 cannot follow as shown in Fig. 3.19. I n this case P;,l> P, and acceleration occurs so that 6 increases. This goes on until [he point 6, where P,,,= P,, and the acceleration is zero. The speed, houtvw, is not zero at that point, and 6 continues to increase beyond 6,. I n this region P,,,< P, and rotor retardation takes place. The rotor will stop at 6 where the speed is zero and retardation uill bring 6 down. This process continues on as oscillations around the new equilibriiini point 6,. This serves to illustrate what happens when the system is sub-jected to a sudden change in the power balance of the right-hand side of the suting equa-

70
Power, P (P.u.)

(radians)
Figure 4.19
Po\scr angle curve.

tion. The \ituation described abo\fe will occur for 5udden change\ in P, ;i\ MI:II The \ j s t e m discussed in Examples 1 and 2 \er\re\ to illustrate thi\ point. nhich u e discii\\ further in the next example.
E\i,?niplc. 3

The \j'sterii of example 1 i \ deliirering iin apparent power of 1 . I p i ( at 0.85 PF lagging with two circuits of the line in ser\ ice. Obtain the \ource voltage (ewit a t i o n koltage) E and the angle 6 under these conditions. With the \econd cir(*uit open a\ i n Example 2. ;i new equilibrium 1 1 1 angle can be reached. Shetch the power mgle curves for the t w ' o conditions. Find the angle 6,, and the electric POMer that can be tran\terred immediately follow ing the circuit opening, ;I\ \L ell ii) 6 , . A\\ume that the excitation \ oltage remain\ unchanged.

S o ILIt ion The power delivered is P,,= S cos $, P,, = I . I x 0.85 = 0.94 p i
Using P = VI
COS
U

@, then the current i n the circuit is I =

1.1

-~

cos

' 0.85

Thus we can

rite

71

E=V+jXl

+ (1.1i - 31.79")(O.37SL90") = 1.28 + j0.44= I .3S i 19.20" p i r

1

Therefore, E = 1.35 P.u., 6,,= 19.20" The power angle curve for the line with two circuits according to Example
1 , is
P,,,= 2.1 053 x 1.3Ssin6 = 2.83sin6

With one circuit open, the new power angle curve is obtained as in Example 2, thus

P,, = I .43 x 1.3Ssin6= 1.93sin6

The two power angle curves are shown in Fig. 4.20. From inspection of the curves, we can deduce that the angle 6,. can be obtained from
P,,,= P,sinS, (curve B ) 0.93 = 1.93sin6,

6, = 29.15"

We can obtain the value of electric power corresponding to line open as

P,.,o= 1.93sin19.2"
= 0.63 pi4

with one

4.10 A METHOD FOR STABILITY ASSESSMENT

To predict whether a particular system is stable after a disturbance i t is necessary to solve the dynamic equation describing the behavior of the angle 6 immediately following an imbalance or a disturbance to the system. The system is said to be unstable if the angle between any two machines tends to increase without limit. On the other hand if under disturbance effects, the angles between e\.erq' possible pair reach maximum value and decrease thereafter, the system is deemed stable.

Angle. 13 (radians)

Assuming as we h w c :ilrcady done that the input is constant, ncglipi 3le doniping iuid coiist;itit source \dtagc behind the tnitnsient reactance. the angle hetwccn t w o machines either increase indefinitely or oscillates iif'tcr all disturh;iiicch h;i\.c occurred. Thcrcforc'. in the c;isc of tw:o machines, these \ \ i l l either f d l out of' step on the first swing or never. Here the obscrvution that the iiiachineh angular differetices stay constalt can be tiikt.tl ;IS ill1 indication 01' hystctii \tahility. A simple method lor determining htiibility knowii iis the c'cluiil-; re;i tiicthotl is nvnilable. We will discuss this here. The h\vitig ccluation for ;I machine connected to ;in infinite bus ci111 writhe
tell a s

We obtain an expression for the variation of the ringirlar speed o w i t h ? . by noting the alternative form
0 tlo, =

P (16 M
\T I

Integrating, assuming

cc) = 0

and integrating the abo\,e equation,

obtain

or

The above equation gi\ves the relative speed of the machine M i t h r-eclpcct to a reference frame nim ing at a constant speed (by definition of the angle 6). If the \ystem is stable, then the speed must be zero when the acceleration i \ either zero or i \ opposing the rotor motion. Thus for a rotor n4iich i \ accelerating. the condition for stability i\ that a value of 6, exists such that

This condition is applied graphically in Fig. 4.2 I where the net area under the P,, 6 cirr~~e reaches zero at the angle 6 as s h o w . Obsenve that at 6,,.P, is negative and conseqirently the system is stable. Observe that the area A equals A! as indicated. The accelerating power need not be plotted to assess stabilitj,. Instead. the same information can be obtained from a plot of electrical and mechanical pouters. The former is the power angle curve and the latter is assumed constant. 111 this case the integral iiiay be interpreted as the area between the P, c i r r \ ~ and the c~rr~re P,,,both plotted versus 6. The area to be equal to zero. must consist of of a p0sitii.e portion A I.for which an equal and opposite negatiLre portion of ,4 must exist, for which P,,,< f,,. his explains the term equal-area criterion for T stability. This situation is shown in Fig. 4.22. If the accelerating power reverses sign before the t ~ oreas A and .4? ;ire a equal. synchronism is lost. This situation is illustrated in Fig. 3.23. The areki A : is smaller than A , and as 6 increases beyond the value \!,here P(, re\erxes sign again, the area A j is added to A , .

71

Figure 4.21

S t ;hi I it J condition for accelerating rot or. I

Power, P

Pm

6,

Power Angle, 8 (radians)

Figure 4.22

Equal-area c*r.itcriori tor \tabilit!,.

75

Accelerating Power, P ,

Figure 4.23

Accelerating powrer as a function of the torque angle.

Example 4

Consider the system of the previous three examples. Determine whether the system is stable for the fault of an open circuit on the second line. If the system is stable, determine 6,, the maximum swing.
Solution

From the examples given above we have

6,,= 19.2" 6r = 29.50'

The geometry of the problem is shown in Fig. 4.24. We can calculate the area A immediately:
?U IS

A I = 0.94 [29.15 - 19.20In 1.93sin6 t / S 1 *0 I0 2 0

Observe that the angles 6 , and 6,) are substituted for in radians. The result is:
A I = 0.0262

The angle 6,. is

76

Power, P (P.u.

2.84

19 .3

0.94

6 , = 1x0 - 6 , = 15o.xf;

This clcurly gives

;init

the system is stable. The iingl~. ,. is obtained hq solving tor A I = A , . Here we get: 6

77

This gives some algebra

I .93 c o d , + 0.0 164 6, = 2.1376

The solution is obtained iteratively as 6, = 39.39" This example shows the application of the equal area criterion to the case of a generator supplying power to an infinite bus over tu'o parallel transmission lines. For the loading indicated above the system is stable. The opening of one of the lines may cause the generator to lose synchimism e\'en though the load could be supplied over a single line. The following example illustrates this point.
Example 5

Assume that the system in Example 3 is delivering an actiLre power of 1.8 p i 1 using the same source, voltage E, as before. Determine urhether the sqrstem u?ill remain stable after one circuit of the line is opened.
Solution

We have for the initial angle 6,,

I .8 = 2.84 sin&,

6,,= 39.33"
The angle 6,. is obtained from
I .8 = 1.93 sin6,

6 , = 68.85"

The area A , is thus:

OX

A , = I .8(68.85 - 39.33jn

I 8o

1 1.93sin6(16 = 0.13
73

xs

31)

The area A_.is obtained as:

ii

A, =

It j 3.86\inti (16 - 1.816,- 6,1-180 = o.o6

We note that A I > A:, and the system is therefore unstable.

I f ii three-phase \hart circuit took place at ;i point on the extreme end o . the line. there i \ some impedance bet\veen the generator bus and the load ( i n f i tiite) h i \ . Therefore, \ome p o ~ e r\ tran\mitted cvhile the fault i \ \ t i l l on. Tht. i \ituation I \ \iiiiiIiir to the one\ anal) l e d abo\ e and \ie ii\e the follou ing e'iamplt: to illu\trate the point.
Ewmple 6
.A generator is deli\,ering 25%- o f PI,,,,to an infinite bus through ;i transmission line. A f a u l t occurs such that the reactance b e t u w n the generator and the bii4 i \ incrcased to tuv times its prefuult value.

I. 2. 3.

Find the 6,, before the faiilt. Shoci, graphicallq, ci,hat happens when the f i i u l t is sustained. Find the niiisiriiiiin \raliie of 6 s\\ting in case of ;I sustained l'ault.

Solution
Figure 4.25 illustrates the situation for this example. The amplitude of the po\i t r anglc c i i r ~ e tttith the f;iiiIt su\tained is half o f the original \-alue. Before the t'itiilt \+e h a t e

At the

t'uiilt

instant, \4fe get

A \ before. the \tability condition yields

Hence
0.5
COb6,

+ --<6, = 0.5473 K
7'

Bq trial and error

6, = 46.3"

Power, P (P.u.)

0.50

0.25

0
Figure 4.25
Power angle curves for example 6.

Torque Angle, S (radians)

The following example illustrates the effects of short circuits on the network from a stability point of view.
Example 7

The system of the previous examples delivers a power of 1 .O p i when subjected to a three-phase short circuit in the middle of one of the transmission circuits. This fault is cleared by opening the breakers at both ends of the faulted circuit. If the fault is cleared for 6, =50, determine whether the system will be stable or not. Assume the same source voltage E is maintained as before. If the system is stable, find the maximum angle of swing.
Solution

The power angle curves have been determined for the prefault network i n Example I and for the postfault network in Example 2. In Example 3 we obtained
E = 1.35 plr

j0.225

Figure 4.26

NctLforh coni'iguration ciuring rhe faitlr.

There t'rm

During the fault the netnvrk offers ; different cont'i~uratioti.L+ hic.t- i \ I \ho\\ 11 i n Fig. 4.26. We \ + i l l need to reduce the netnorh in wch ii u ; i j ;I<, to obtain ;I clear path l'rotn the +oiirct' to the infinite h i \ . We do thi\ b j u\iiig ; 1' I - A tr~iii\t'ortnationii\ indicated in Fig. 4.27.

)(0.25) x = 0.45 + 0.25 + (0.45 = I ,2 0.235

and

friiilt

pourer angle curve is given by

f = 1, I3 sin6

The three power angle curl'es are shown in Fig. 1.28. The initial angle i h gilren by the equation
1 .O = 2.84 sit&

6,,= 20.62"
The clearing angle is 6, = SO"

Power

P (P.U.

2.a

I .93

/
y i
I

1.13

I .a

i i
I ,

I I

I I

6f

Torque ~ n g ~S . e (radians)
7

Figure 4.28

Pre-fault. during fault, and post-fault poww angle

CLII'VL'S t o r t.xii11113lc

S2

The area A I can thus be crilculated as:

The maximum area A ? is obtained using the angle 6,

I = 1.93 siii6:

6;'= 31.21" 6, = I80 - 6; = 148.79'

NOW

We note that A I > A ? , and the system is theretore stable. T o calculate the angle o f iiiiisiiiiurn swing we ha\fe

Hence

Bjr trial and error

6, = 66.3''

4.1 1

MATHEMATICAL MODELS A N D SOLUTION METHODS IN TRANSIENT STABILITY ASSESSMENT FOR GENERAL NETWORKS

I t is coiiinioii practice to model static equipment in the transmission sj.! ten1 by lumped equicralent pi parameters independent o f the changes arising i n the gene rat i ng and load eq U i p me n t , Th i s approach i s e nip1oy ed i n m U 1t i m iic hi ne stabilitj programs because the inclusion o f time Lrarying parameters ~voulclpro-

duce major computational difficulties. Moreover, frequency, the most obtrious variable in the network, usually varies by only a small amount and thus, the errors involved are insignificant. Additionally. the rates of change of network variables are assumed to avoid the introduction of differential equations into the network solution. The transmission network can thus be represented in the same manner as in the load-flow or short-circuit programs, that is, by a square complex admittance matrix. The behavior of the network is described by the matrix equation:
I,,, = YV

where I,,, is the vector of injected currents into the neturork due to generators and loads Y is the admittance matrix of the network, and V is the vector of nodal vol tages. Any loads represented by constant impedances inay be directly included in the network admittance matrix with the injected currents due to these loads set to zero. Their effect is thus accounted for directly by the network solution.
4.1 1.1 System Representation

Two alternative solution methods are possible. The preferred method uses the nodal matrix approach. while the alternative is the mesh matrix method. Matrix reduction techniques can be used if specific network information is not required. but this gives little advantage as the sparsity of the reduced matrix is usually very much less.
Nodal Matrix Method

In this method, all network loads are converted into Norton equi\-alents of injected currents in parallel with admittances. The admittances can be included i n the network admittance matrix to form a modified admittance matrix which is then inverted, or preferably factorized by some technique so that solution at each stage is straight forward. The following solution process applies:

I.

2.

For each network load, determine the injected currents into the modified admittance matrix by solving the relevant differential and algebraic equations. Determine network voltages from the injected currents using the Zmatrix or factors.

As the network voltages affect the loads, an iterative process is often required, although good approximations can be used to avoid this. With the Nodal Matrix method, bus voltages are available directly and branch currents can be calculated if necessary.

4.1 1.2 Synchronous Machine Representation in the Network

The equations representing ;I )syiichroiioiis miichine ;ire gi\ren in the form of The\,cnin voltages behind its impedances. This must be modified to ii currint source in parullel urith ;in admittmce using Norton's theorem. The x h i i t t m c e o f the machine thus formed may be added to the shunt admittance o f the 11i;ichine bus and treated as a netuwk parameter-. The \ ector /,!/ thus contains the Norton equi ktalen t c iirrcii t s of the sj'iichroiio us iiiach i nes , The sj'iichronous 11I achine equations are kvritten i n a frame OF reference rotating ivith its o\vn rotor. Thc real anci imaginary coniponenth o f the iietwork equations, iis giLrt.11 in Fig. 4.2 9. art' obrai 11ed !I-( t h t' fo1I o c i ' i iig t ran sto r nia t i on ) III

The in\,erse relation is

Machine direct axis

Network imaginary axis

Machine

The transformation also applies to currents. When saliency is accounted for, the subtransient and transient reactances i n direct and quadrature axes frames are different, and the Norton shunt admittance will have a different \ d u e in each axis, and when transformed into the netLivrh frame of reference. will be time varying. To circum\rent this difficult). a constant impedance is used while modifying the injected current. 4.1 1.3
Load Representation in the Network

To be suitable for representation in the overall solution method, loads niust be transformed into injected currents into the transmission netM-ork from kvhich the terminal voltages can be calculated. A Norton equivalent model of each load niust therefore be introduced. In a similar way to that adopted for synchronous machines. the Norton admittance may be included directly in the net1iu-k admittance matrix. A constant impedance load is therefore included in the network admittance matrix and its injected current is zero. This representation is extremely simple to implement. causes no computational problems, and impro\.es the accurricy of the netufork solution by strengthening the diagonal elements in the :idmittatice matrix. Nonimpedance loads may be treated similarly. I n this case the stead>,state values of voltage and complex power obtained from the load tlow are uscd to obtain a steady-state equivalent admittance (7,)) is included i n the netwhich urork admittance matrix [ Y ] . During the stability run, each load is s o l k ~ dsequentially along with the generators, etc., to obtain a new admittance i.e.:

(r).

The current injected into the network thus represents the de\siation of the load characteristic from an impedance characteristic.

By converting the load characteristic to that of a constant impedance, M hen the \toitage drops below some predetermined value ( I/,,,,,,),the irijected current i\ kept relatikrely small. An example of a load characteristic and its corresponding injected current is shown in Fig. 4.30. In an alternative model the low-voltage impedance is added to the net\sorh and the injected current compensates for the decriation from the actual characteristic. In this case, there is a nonzero injected current i n the initial steady-state operational condition.

86

I I)
power

Figure 4.30 Load and injecled currents for a con4tant type load adju\tiiient. ( a ) Load current. ( h ) Injected current.

U ith

l o ~ iolta;e '

4.1 1.4 System Faults and Switching

I n general most power system disturbances to be studied will be caused h y changes in the network, normally caused by faults and subsequent switchi ig action. Occasionally the effect of branch or machine switching will be considered. Although faults can occur anywhere in the system, it is much easier comrutationally to apply a fault to a bus. In this case, only the shunt admittance at the bus need be changed, that is. a modification to the relevant self-admittance o f the Y matrix. Faults on branches require the construction of ;i dummy bus at the fault location and suitable modification of the branch data unless the distar ce between the f w l t position and the nearest bus is small enough to be ignored

Philosophy of Secirr-ity Assessriierir

87

The worst case is a three-phase zero-impedance fault and this involves placing an infinite admittance in parallel with the existing shunt admittance. In practice, a nonzero but sufficiently low-fault impedance is used so that the bus voltage is effectively brought to zero. This is necessary to meet the requirements of the numerical solution method. The application or removal of a fault at an existing bus does not affect the topology of the network and where the solution method is based on sparsity exploiting ordered elimination, the ordering remains unchanged and only the factors required for the forward and backward substitution need be modified. Alternatively the factors can remain constant and diakoptical techniques can be used to account for the network change.
4.1 1.5

Branch Switching

Branch switching can easily be carried out by either modifying the relevant mutual- and self-admittances of the Y matrix or by using diakoptical techniques. In either case, the topology of the network can remain unchanged, as an open branch is merely one with zero admittance. While this does not fully exploit sparsity, the gain in computation time by not reordering exceeds the loss by retaining zero elements, in almost all cases. The only exception is the case of a branch switched into a network where no interconnections existed prior to that event. In this case, either diakoptical or reordering techniques become necessary. To avoid this problem, a dummy branch may be included with the steady-state data of sufficiently high impedance that the power flow is negligible under all conditions, or alternatively, the branch resistance may be set negative to represent an initial open circuit. A negative branch reactance should not be used as this is a valid parameter where a branch contains series capacitors. Where a fault occurs on a branch but very close to a bus, non-unit protection at that bus will normally operate before that at the remote end. Therefore, there will be a period when the fault is still being supplied from the remote end. There are two methods of accounting for this type of fault. The simplest method only requires data manipulation. The fault is initially assumed to exist at the local bus rather than on the branch. When the specified time for the protection and local circuit breaker to operate has elapsed, the fault is removed and the branch on which the fault is assumed to exist is opened. Simultaneously, the fault is applied at the remote bus, but in this case, with the fault impedance increased by the faulted branch impedance, similarly the fault is maintained until the time specified for the protection and remote circuit breaker to operate has elapsed. The second method is generally more involved but it is better when protection schemes are modeled. I n this case, a dummy bus is located at the fault

position. (even though it is close to the local bus) and a branch with a \U-:,! small impedance is inserted between the dummy bus and the local bus. Th: faulted branch then connects the dummy bus to the remote bus and the branc i shunt susceptance originally associated with the local bus is transferred to the dummy bus. This may all be done computationally at the time when the fault i s being specified. The two branches can now be controlled independently by sui ,able protection systems. An advantage of this scheme is that the fault durativn need not be specified iis part of the input data. Opening both branches et'!'el:ticely isolates the fault, \+rhich can remain permanently attached to the dunin bus. o r if auto-reclosing is required. it can be reiiiowd automatically after ;I su i tabIe de i on i ~at i on period . I f the network is not being solired by ii direct method, the second method will probably fail. During the iterati1.e solution of the network, slight volta,;e errors nrill ciiuse large currents to flow through ii branch with ;I 1w-y smill impedance. This will slow convergence and in extreme cases uill c~iuse diwrgence. With ii direct method, based on ordered elimination, ;in exact solution o f the bus Lwltages is obtained for the iiijected currents specified at that particuhr iteration. Thus, pro\.ided that the impedance is not s o small that numerical problems occur L+,hencalculating the admittance, and the subsequent fwtors for 1 he forward m c l backward substitution, then convergence of the ow-all solut i oii betu.een machines m c l netL+x)rkwill be unaffected. The k-aluc.o f the lo\+!-impcdance branch between the cluriiriiy and local bus may be set at II fraction of the total branch impedance, sub-ject to a minimum value. I t this fraction is u n k r 0.001. the change i n branch impedance is \ w y small compared to the iiccur ic>r of the netuwk data input and it is unnecessary to niodify the iiiipedance of' the branch from the remote to the dummy bus.

4.1 1.6

Machine Switching

Machine su,itching may be considered, either as a network o r machine operation. It is ~i netu.ork operation if a duiiiiiiy bus is created to which the machine is connected. The dummy bus is then connected to the original machine hub b, ! ;I IOU*- i mpedance branch. Alternati\rely. it may be treated as a machine operation by retaining the original n s t N v r k topology. When a machine is sw.itched out, it is necessai y to reniove its iri-jected currcnt froni the network solution. Also a n y shunt admittance included i n the network Y matrix, which is due to the machine mu!,t be re n10 v ed . Although a disconnected machine can play no direct part i n system stability, its response should still be calculated as before, nrith the machine stator current set to zero. Thus machine speeds, terminal \.oltages. etc.. can be obser\xd ci'eii

when disconnected from the system and in the ek'ent of reconnection, sensible results are obtained. When an industrial system is being studied many machines may be disconnected and reconnected at different times as the ~ ~ ~ l t a g e changes. This le\rel process will require many recalculations of the factors in\-ol\,ed i n the forumd and backward substitution solution method of the netmwk. However, these can be avoided by using the method adopted earlier to account for synchronous machine saliency. That is, an appropriate current is iiijected at the relt'\mt buses, which cancels out the effect of the shunt admittance.

4.12

INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES
\ta-

Many integration methods have been applied to the power \ysteni tran\ient bility problem, and the principal methods are discus\ed nou.
4.1 2.1

Predictor Corrector Methods

These methods for the solution of the differential equation

.sY = F ( Y . X ) with Y ( 0 )= Y,,
and X ( 0 ) = X , ,

hakre all been detreloped from the general k-step finite difference equation:

(PI,= 0) to give a prediction of the solution at t(rl + I ) and the other bein, 1111. plicit (PI,f 0) which corrects the predicted value. There are a great Larietj of
0

Basically the methods consist of a pair of equations, one being explicit

method\ aLrailable, wch as hybrid methods, the choice of which being made bq the requirements of the solution. It is usual for simplicity to maintain a constant step length with these method\ if X > 2. Each application of a corrector method inipro\e\ the accurac~of the method by one order, up to a maximum given by the order of acc~iracyof the corrector. Therefore, if the corrector is not to be iterated. it i\ common to use a predictor with an order of accuracy one less than that of the corrector. The predictor is thus not essential as the value at the preLrious step may be u\ed as a first crude estimate, but the number of iterations of the corrector may be 1arge. While for accuracy, there is a fixed number of rele\mt iteration\, i t is

desirable for stability purposes to iterate to some predetermined level of convergence. The characteristic root ( z , )of a predictor or corrector when applied to thc single variable problem

may be found from

Applying a corrector to the problem defined and rearranging gives:

the solution to the problem becomes direct. The predictor is now not necessaiy as the solution only requires information of 1' at the previous steps. i.e.. .it \v(ii = i + 1 ), for i = 1 , 2,. . . . . k . Where the problem contains two variables, one nonintegrable, such that:

then

where

Although tive.

and

~ i , , , ~ are

constant at a particular step, the solution is itera-

Strictly in this simple case, x ( i i + 1 ) could be eliminated but in the general multivariable case this is not so. The convergence of the method is now a fu ICtion of the nonlinearity of the system. Provided that the step length is sufficiently small. a simple Jacobian form of iteration gives convergence in only a few iterations. It is also possible to form a Jacobian matrix and obtain a solution by a Newton iterative process, although the storage necessary is much larger and the step length must be sufficiently small to ensure convergence.

For a multivariable system, the following two equations are coupled

.sY = F( Y , X ) with Y ( 0 )= Y,) and X ( 0 ) = XII

and the solution of the integrable variables is given by the matrix equation. The elements of the vector L ' , , + ~are given by the vector form of

and the elements of the sparse

matrix are given by

The iterative solution may be started at any point in the loop, if Jacobian iterations are used.
4.12.2

The Euler Method

Consider the following ordinary differential equation:

Let x(t) be the state vector of this nonlinear differential equation, which is to be solved by an appropriate integration technique. The Euler method utilizes a predictor function based on the Taylor series expansion of .r(t + A[), uthere At is the step size. As such, by neglecting the higher order terms in the series expansion, we obtain the generalized Euler's formula:
s ( t + A t ) = x ( t ) + x(t).Ar where

d.r(t i ( r ) = __)
at

The method is not often used for real-time applications in power systems, as it is computationally burdensome. Also, the accuracy of this model for integration is sacrificed by the truncation of O[At)'] and higher order terms done in the Taylor series expansion. Figure 4.3 I outlines an example of Euler's integration technique to power system dynamic stability assessment.
4.12.3

The Modified Euler Method

Reconsider the following problem to be solved:

i ( t )= f I ( s ) , t ]

Set Loop C n r l time: T,, & & oto Set Integration Step size: At

Flow Calculations and obtain P,(t), the machine injection in p.u. MW

Solve the system of differential equations for all machines:

w ( t ) = --(&

?f

- 4"
'

Set Fault Time: tf = t

s=o-w

R'

=2nf

Perform 'during fault'Power Flow Calculations

Figure 4.31 The transient stability algorithm

Q
Using EulerS Method, Solve the machine angles: 6 ( t )= u(t)-2 q 6(t + Ar) = &r)+ 8(f)Ar

Yes

I
SaveDisplay Final Results:
~ ~ ~

I
~~

Set Fault Clearing Time: & = t

Obtainnewstate of the machine andor the network perturbations

i

Torque Angle, Machine Speed, Generated Power, Times (t, tf. tmarretc.) and so on.

Figure 4.31 Continued.

where x ( f ) and.f'(x, t ) are scalar or vector quantities. Expanding . d f ) to the riglit and left using the Taylor expansion yields:

If the O[(At)'Jand higher order terms are truncated for a small step size, it c;in
be shown that the modified Euler formula is obtained as follows:

Alternatively, we may bfrite:

Note that the modified Euler inethod is not self*-starting and thus requires an initial prediction on the state variables in the \rector solution.
4.1 2.4 Trapezoidal Method

The trapezoidal rule is a nonself-starting integration technique that is somewhat related to the modified Euler method and is based on the geometric interpretation of the problem. The order of truncation in the Taylor series expansion of .v(t k Ar) is O[(A?)']. The trapezoidal formula is:

The merits of the trapezoidal method is evident in the accuracy brought forward iis a result of the truncation of the O[(At)'] and higher order terms.
4.1 2.5 Runge-Kutta Methods

Runge-Kutta methods are able to achieve high accuracy while remaining sir gle step methods. This is obtained by making further evaluation of the functions within the step. Here we present a class of self-starting prediction formulae, which are applicable in the assessment of transient analysis of rotating nachines, in which case we are solving the swing equation of the generators. The numerical integration of the ordinary differential equation given b).:

by a predictor generally involves calculation of xn + 1 as ii function of x,,, Y,, I, x,,-:, . . . fll. f,,-l, . . . , and tl,. If the predictor is self-starting, it must be free

fl,-.,

of terms in xn-l,x,,-?, . . . , f,, fll-l, and so forth. That is, the next state solution fIl-? sould be of the form: x,,+~ F(x,,, fl,, t"). Now, the equation below summarizes = this requirement and is called the Runge-Kutta predictor formula.

where k ( i ) = h f r ( n ) + c,h, ! ( / I )

111

+
/=I

and the sum of all the weights equal to unity, i.e.,

I=

w, = 1
I

The coefficients are uniquely determined, giving rise to various orders and associated approximate or accurate models of the Runge-Kutta predictor formula. Table 4.1 summarizes the 2"d, 3rd, nd 4Ih order Runge-Kutta formulae. a Being single-step these methods are self starting and the step length need not be constant. If j is restricted so that j < i then the method is explicit and c I must be zero. W h e n j is permitted to exceed i, then the method is implicit and an iterative solution is necessary.

Table 4.1

Summary of the RK-2. RK-3, and RK-4 Predictor Forniulae Coefficients

Runge-Kutta Predictor Formulae

RK-2
.Vil+]

= .Vll

+ h (k"' + k'?']
-

RK-3
.Vfl+l

= .Vfl

It + - [k"' +

+ k'?']

RK-3
= .vil

k' ' = F(.vl,,t1,)

It

(k"' + 2k'!' + 2k'"

+ kf4']

k'?' = F!.Vlt

h +- k " h +

Explicit Runge-Kutta methods have been used extensibdy in transient stability studies. They have the adkmtage that a packaged integration method is iisually available or quite readily constructed and the differential equations at-: incorporated with the method explicitly. It has only been with the introduction of no re detailed system component models with very small tiiiie constants, th:,t the problems of stability has caused interest i n other methods. Again. the advantage o f the Runge-Kutta techniques is that they are all seli'starting. The propagated error from one iteration to the next does not increa>e rapidly, thus the inethod is said to be stable. The exception is the solution 10 "stiff' prohleins, &(herethe solution may diverge unless a small step size is used. (The stiffness of the ordinary differential equations ot' the system can be iiie;isiirL d iis ii functiuon o f the ration between the smallest to the largest eigeindues of the linearized system or eigenvector analysis of the Jacobian matrix.) Ne\wtheless. they are not ~ e r attractive to pourer system engineers iis k poww flow calculatioris y must be done at every iteration. where k is the order o f the Runge-Kutta forinula. The tollou,ing esnmple demonstrates the RK-4 application.

Exc? le nip

Application o f the 1"' order Runge-Kutta integration techniqiie to p o er \ J \tc in ~ dynamic \tability asws\iiient. The algorithm is giL en belou.
I. 2. Start the RK-4 Subroutine. Initialize all R K - 3 dependencies.

COllIlt, d = 0: Step Size. At Time. t = 0 : M iix i mum Time, t Maximum iteration = itniax

,11,1,

3. Sol\e the initial pouer flow and the machine equation\, and obt.iin the generator torcllie angle (6(0). terminal voltage\. bu\ in.jection\ ) P;"'(o).etc. 4. InitialiLe the RK-4 Coefficients: k , = I, = 0 for all i E { l , 4 } 5. Set the e\tirritrfc iirc/c.\ to: i = d + I . 6. Perform R K - 4 calculations (obtaining the estimate\).

97

7. Increment count: d = d + I . 8. Increment the estinicitr i1ii1e.v to: i = i + I .

9. Update the torque angle delta to: 6 ( t )= & ( I )

flow for I v , l,Py"(t), etc. 10. Compute the new coefficients.

I + 5 k, and

sol\^ the pom'er

k, = ( ~ ( 0 )-I,-) + 2I

2Ff)At

I, = w ( f i l i
2H

- f:"'(t))At

I I . If d < 3. then go to step 7, otherwise continue. 12. Compute the final value of the power angle and the machine speed at
t=t+At

6(t + At) = 6(t ) + -(ki 6

CO(t

+ 2k: + 2 k , + k,)

I + At) = CO( t ) + -( 1, + 21, + 21, + 1 4 ) 6

13. Reset the count: d = 0 14. Compute the final power flow for this time interkal to get 1 V, 1. P?( t 1.

IS. Increment the timer ( t = t + At) and make the following comparisons:
If

etc.

( t < t,,,,,,) and ( N 2 itrncix)

Elseif Else

then flag the user: "Maximum Number of iteration reached!" and go to step 16. ( t < t,,,,,,)and ( N < itmax) then increment the iteration count to: N = N + 1 and go to step 4. Flag the user: "Run time value of tmax reached!" and cont i n Lie,

16. Display all results, power angle, machine speed. generator p o ~ ~ egenr. erator terminal voltage, etc. 17. End of subroutine.
4.12.6

The Sampling Method (JamesJ. Ray; James A. Momoh, et al.)

Another promising development in this area is the sampling method. I t u'as developed at Howard University with collaboration from the Energy Systems

Network Laboratory (ESNL) in 1989. The sampling method, also known as the "theta" method. takes advantage of the expanded Taylor Series in its formulatior and approximations. It was incorporated in a stand-alone program capable oi' performing stability studies and fault analysis on a wide variety of electric, power systems. The sampling method has been tested against the classical integration methods. A 4: 1 speed advantage was observed, without sacrificing thr: accuracy brought forward in the results. Extended application of this method i r i power system stability studies is being developed for commercial purposes, both as a design tool and as a computational support system.

4.1 3

THE TRANSIENT STABILITY ALGORITHM

An overt'iew of the structure of a transient stability program is given in Fik. 4.32. Only the main parts of the program have been included, and as can be seen, the same system may have several case studies performed on it by repearedly specifying switching data when no further switching data is available. Cor trol returns to the start to see if another system is to be studied. With care, the program can be divided into packages of subroutines each concerned with only one aspect of the system. This permits the removal of component models when not required and the easy addition of new models whenever necessary. Thus for example, the subroutines associated with the synchronous machine, the AVRs, speed governors, etc., can be segregated from the network. Figure 4.32 shows ii more detailed block diagram of the overall structure where this segregation is indicated. The diagram is subdivided into the five sections indicated in Fi;. 4.33. While the block diagrams are intended to be self-evident several logic codes need to be explained. These are as follows:
KASE

This is the case study number for a particular system. It is initially set to zero and increniented by I at the end of the initialization and at the end of each case study.
KBlFA 7

The sparse vectored inverse of the nodal network matrix is obtained using three bifactorization subroutines. The first and second subroutines are integer routires which determine bus ordering and nonzero element location. The code KBIFA 1 is set to unity if it is necessary to enter these two subroutines, otherwise it is set to zero.

Section 1

r+=?

Read in steady-state system data

Section 2

Section 3

Either Solve for machines and network or recalculate nonintegrable variables (initially and when switching has occurred) Section 41. Print out results (if necessary) 2. Make power balance check of initial conditions (if necessary)

NO
1

YES
Section 5,

NO

Store initial

conditions

Reset initial conditions

Figure 4.32 The transient stability algorithm.

I00

KASE = 0
KBlFA I = 0 KBIFA3 = 0

input

YES

NO
V

Figure 4.33a

Section I

KBIfA3

The elements o f the spar\e-vectored inverse are evaluated in the third bifactor-ization subroutine. The code KBIFA3 is set to unity if it i\ necessary to en er thi\ wbroutine, otherwise it i \ set to Lero. When KBIFA3 i \ unity, it indica e\ that a netiborh discontinuity ha\ occurred and hence it i\ a l w u\ed for t b i \ purpcx.

Time

The integration time.

H The integration step length. Like KBIFA3, it is also used t o indicate a discontinuity when it is set to zero.

f ,

Network calculations

,~ ,~ calcuyns
Synchronou s machine

AVR calculations

wed

governor calculjy~ns

4
Switching Determine bus order and nonzero element location for bifurcation
KBIFA3=1
TIME=O

Is KASE2I and is thae no

switching a t T I M E = O ?

NO

K B I F G P sync achine *AVR initial m Syncmachine t, conditions. initial conditions YES + Speedgov. 1 I T initial conditions

* KBIFm
YES

numerical part of bifurcation

Print out initial conditions when U S E > 1)

Figure 4.33b Section 2.

I 02

-7-T

Determine

I
ES -

switching ops. if branch change set KBIFA3 = 1 if new branch set KBIFAI = 1

1
KBIFA3 = 0
part of

Determine bus order and non zero element location for bifactorization

KBIFA3 = 1

Figure 4 . 3 3 ~ Section 3.

Philosophy of Secirrity Axsessnierit

<>Solve for network

KBIFA3 = 1

E -

TIME = PRINT TIME

YES
Print out busbar and branch results if required
Print out sync. machine results

Print out AVR results

4
a

speed gov.

results if required

Set flag for step doubling

KBIFA3 = 0

I
Figure 4.33d Section 4.

I04

A
YES

v
YES

r
NO

Perform power balance check to confirm

NO

'End of case '

1
KASE = 1 ?

TIME = 0 KASE = KASE

r-?

Store initial steady - state)

(steady -state)

conditions

Figure 4.33e Section 5 .

PKlNTTlME

The integration time

MAXTIME

:it

which the next printout ot' result\ is required.

The predet'ined mixiniiiiii integration time for the case study

Lr'
Start solution Calculate constants

nonintegrable variables

,,,,,----- ,-'

+I
a-

I not usually required ----- -- - - -- - - -

s e d gov. calc pe

-1

Evaluate integrable varaible using algebraic form of mpezoidal method 4

Same for cach A

b

I
[HALF= 0

Same for each speed gov.

Figure 4.34a

Section I

ITMAX

Maxiinuin number ot' iterations per step since last printout of results. Note that iiiany data error checks are required in a program of this they ha1.e been omitted from the block diagram for clarity.

tjp

but

106

Figure 4.34b

Section 2

A
NO
Re -evaluate conditions at beginning of step H = H/2 IHALF = IHALF + I

v
YES

107

NO

'Not converging '

TIME = MAXTIME
I

Figure 4 . 3 4 ~ Section 3.

I ox

Strcictiire ot Machine '2nd Netivork Iterative SoI~iti017

The ~ - u c t u r of this part of the program requires further description. T u o forris e o f \olution are possible depending on whether an integration step is being etraluated or if the nonintegrable Lariables are being recalculated after ii discontinuitq, A bloch diagram is gi\en in Fig. 4.33. The ridditional logic codes uwd in this part of the program are:
ERROR

The niiiXiniuin di t'ference betu een an) integrable 1 ariable from one iteration to ;in() t her.
I TK

N u in ber of iterations reqii i red for solution.

IHALF

Number ol' inimediate step halving required for the solution.

TCILERANCE

Specified niiiYifnuni \ alue of ERROR for conc ergence. I f coil\ erpence ha\ not been achieved after a \pecified number of iterati on\ the ca\e study is tei-ininated. Thi\ is done by \etting the integration time cc ual to the iiia\iiiiuiii integration time. The latest rewlts are thu\ printed out ;iild ;i neu c;i\e \tudj i \ atternpted.

CONCLUSION
This chapter dealt urith the philosophy of securit), assess~nentbased on frequency domain models arid equal area criterion concepts. In particular. we define the conventional ingredients for power systeni stability including app ications of the swing equation and its alternate forms. Frequency domain models of synchronous rnachines introduced the idca of subtransient. transient, and steady state reactances. Models for a salient pole and round wound synchronous machines were discussed. The equal area criteria and its applications were discussed. The chapter concludes with the treatnieiit of transient stability for the general network case, including ;I floMxhart of ii trans i e ri t st ii bi 1 i t 4' assess men t pro gra ni . Again, the reader is reminded that additional information inay be obti.ined from the list o f references and the annotated glossary of terms.

5
Assessing Angle Stability via Transient Energy Function

INTRODUCTION
In the actual operation of an electric power system, the parameters and loading conditions are quite different from those assumed at the planning stage. As a result. to ensure power system security against possible abnorinal conditions due to contingencies (disturbances), the system operator needs to simulate contingencies i n advance, assess the results, and then take preventiLre control action if required. This whole process is called dynamic security assessment ( D S A ) and preventive control. Simulation studies (called transient stability studies) can take up to an hour for a typical system with detailed modeling for a 500-bus. 100-machine system. Since it takes a long time to conduct a transient simulation even for a single contingency, direct methods of stability assessment such as those based on Lyapunov or energy functions offer attractive alternatives. It should be noted that a transient stability study is often more than an investigation of whether the synchronous generators, following the ~ccurr-ence of disturbance, will remain in synchronism. It can be a general-purpose transient analysis. in which the "quality" of the dynamic system behavior is in\,estigated. The transient period of primary interest is the electromechanical transient. LISLIally lasting up to a few seconds in duration. If growing oscillations are of con-

cern, or if the behavior of special controls is of interest. a longer transient period may be covered in the study. For transient stability analysis, a nonlinear system model is used. The system is described by a set of differential equations and a set of algebraic eq 11 i o n s. Genera 11y , the differentia 1 equations are m ilch i ne equations , con t ro at system equations. etc. The algebraic equations are system \,ohage equation:* involLting the network admittance matrix. The time simulation method and direc method are often used for transient stability analysis. The former method deter. mines transient stability by solving the system differential equation step by step. while the direct method determines the system transient stabiliry without explic. i t l y solving the system differential equations. This approach is appealing and has receiLved considerable attention. Energy-based methods are a special case o f the more general Lyapunokrs second or direct method. the energy function being the possible Lyapiinov function. This chapter deals with transient stability by a specific direct method rnainl;,, the transient energy function (TEF) method. We begin by co\wing some basic concepts from the theory of nonlinear system stability.

5.1

STABILITY CONCEPTS

Consider an autonomous system described by the ordinary differential equatior .

where i =.t(t), and F ( A ) are n-vector\. F(.t) is generally a nonlinear function ( ~ f t . Stability in the sense of Lyapunob i \ referred to an equilibrium state of Eq. ( 5 . I ). The equilibrium \tate is defined as the stage i r at which t ( t ) remaii \ unchanged for all f . That is,

The solution for -tr from Eq. (5.2) is a fixed state since F(.t) is not an explicit tunction of t. For convenience, any nonzero i r is to be translated to the origin ( t = 0). That is. to replace t by .I + i t in Eq. ( 5 .I ) to have

which gives
15.3)

*fit
/--

.. .................
I . .

........................ ...*........... .

....................... +

6 .

I
Figure 5.1

It0
Illustration of local stability.

Note that the current s differs from the old one by 4. As can be seen later, from the definitions, this translation does not affect the stability of the system. Thus, the origin of Eq. (5.3) is always an equilibrium state. It should be noted that t in Eq. ( 5 . 3 ) may be any independent variable, including time.
5.1.1

Definitions and a Lemma

Stability (Local) The origin of the system described by Eq. (5.3) is said to be stable if for any given E > 0, there exists a 6 5 E such that ll.r,~ll< 6 implies ll.r(t)ll < E for all t where so is an initial state. The origin is called unstable if it is not stable. The concept is illustrated in Fig. 5.1 where the initial state x,) has a magnitude less than 6. and the trajectory of s remains within the cylinder of radius E . Asymptotic Stability (Local) The origin of the system described by Eq. (5.3) is said to be asymptotically stable if it is stable and also if given ~ ~ . < 6 ~ ~ ~ s -+ 0, (IS t -+ The x l implies 00. arrow is used to mean approach, Figure 5.2 demonstrates the idea of asymptotic stability where the trajectory tends to 0 as time tends to infinity.

Figure 5.2

Illustration of asymptotic stability.

Glolm11~~ Asjmptotic- Stnbilit)/

The origin o f the \ystem described by Eq. ( 5 . 3 ) is said to be globally asymptoticall> stable if i t is \table and also implie\ -+0 cis I + 00, for any .v,, in th? \v ho I e space .
Positive Deti'nite Function

A uniquely defined. scalar and continuous function V(.v) is said to be positi\,c definite i n ii region K if V(.v) > 0 for .v # 0 and V ( 0 )= 0 . A space surt'ace formed by all .v satisfying W . v ) = 0 is called a contour. Ob\.iousl>r.contours with different \.alues cannot intersect one another. It' the> do. \'(.v) has tM'o \~al~ies the intersection. We need the follou.ing lenimii at qiiirecl for the proof o f ii Ljrapunov theorem.
r t b -

L cYl117lC?
There exists a sphere defined by l[.vll = N i n which V(.v) increases iiionotoiiical'4, along radical Lwtors emanating from the origin. That is, V( PI,) increases nionotonicully L b i t h p in 0 5 p I for any unit \rector I I started from the origin. N This ciin be shown using the assumption of positi\.e definiteness. First, coiltinuity. V(.Y)> 0 and V ( 0 )= 0, assiiiiie that V( pI1)increases monotonically \bri .h p i n an interval 0 I I pII and begins to decrease after p = pII. GiLfen ii I I .there p i h ;in associated pIl Lbrhich may be unbounded pll(= 00). Let \ t - among all the U ' S that has the sniallest pi,. then IIp\, n*II= pill\t.11 = PI, 5 pII. Since \'( PI,) increas$:\ 1 monotonically nith p in the inter\,al 0 5 P I pi, 5 p,,. \+'eare able to identify the positi\,e number to be N = pi,.

L i'cipi~~iov Theoreni
There are three important theorems on 5tability de\ eloped by Lyapunov. V/e include thew here to form the theorem gi\ten below. In the theorem, V( i)\ t i e i total d u i \ atikc of \'( t ) on the trajectory \pecified by Eq. (5.3). That i\,
\'(
\ )

= tll' = \'\( --

\ )\

= 1' ( 1 I / ( t

tlt

U here \',( i)

i \ the row \ ector formed by the partial deri\ ati\res of V(.v).

Regi017~ RI, R, R,
A11 the regioris ;ire assuincd to contain the origin ;is an interior point. R: i < , \Libregion ot' K , \+,hicti is ;I siibi-egion of R : K: I K ,I K.
;I

Theorem

Let V ( x )be a positiise definite function with continuous partial deri\rriti\vesi n a region R, then The origin of the system described by Ey. (5.3) is stable if i'(.v) I 0 i n a subregion R , I R. The system is asymptotically stable in the region if it is stable and i'(.v) = 0 (identically zero) takes place only at the region in a subregion R.

I RI.
The origin is globally asymptotically stable if the sqstem is asymptotically stable. R2 is the whole space and V(.v) + 00 as 11.v11 -+ 0.

Let be the srnaller one between a given E and N specified i n the lemma. That is. I - = Mill [ E . N I . Continuity of V(.\-)assures that there is a m i n i m u m of 1T.v) on the sphere ll.vll = t*. Let j*be among all the 11's that yield the minimum. V ( I - ,= I U . then V(I*,,) 111 must hold for any 1 1 . Monotonicity tells that ) 2 V( PI,) = 111 for a p i n the interval 0 I P I I - , and hence \'(.v = PI,)= i i i is enclosed by the sphere ~ ~= I",r ~ also it is a closed contour since I I . and ~ is any unit vector. Let 6 be the minimum norm of the points on the closed contour \/(.I-) = 1 1 1 , then since ~ I x <~6~ is enclosed by the contour, V(.v,,) < 111 ~ O I I O M ~ S , ~ by monotonocity. Thus, any trajectory initiated from .v,) cannot possibly cross the sphere II.vll = t - 5 E due to the fact that \'(.v) is non-increasing and V(.v) 2 111 on the sphere II.YII = I - .
I*

This completes the proof of part I of the theorem. Part 2 can be shown by observing V(.\-)can be identically zero only at the origin. Hence, V(.v) keeps on decreasing except at a countable number of points at which it stops decreasing momentarily. This implies that .v + 0 'L' I - + since V ( 0 )= 0 only when .v = 0 in R2. It seems ob\.ious t o have part 3 verified by the same reasoning used i n part 2. This is true except for the case when V ( x ) approaches a finite value as ll.v]l + 00 when .v,) is allowed to be any point in the whole space. The assumption that V(.v) 4 00 a s \l.vll + excludes this possibility which completes the proof of the theore ni . Except for relying on experience, there is no systematic method to find the Lyapunov function as required by the theorem. It has been shown that any stable and constant linear system has ii V ( x )but no one has yet shonm its existence i n ge ne ra 1 for non I i near sy stem s.
L \

I14

Chciptrr 5

It can be hhown that instability and asymptotic stability of the system dt:scribed by Eq. (5.3) are the same as its linearized system at the origin, which is

where A =J;(O) is a constant and n-square matrix. That is, the system describd by Eq. (5.3) is unstable if at least one eigenvalue of A has ii positive real p x t and is asymptotically stable if all eigenvalues have negative real parts. Asymptotic stability as judged from the linearized system is simple but 01 less practical use. It is valid only in a sufficiently small region which is not easily known. The Lyapunov function contains more information on stability i n the regions R , and R2. For instance. global asymptotic stability tells us that the trajectory initiated from anywhere in the whole space, converges to the origiii.
5.1.2

Application of Lyapunov's Method to the Simple Pendulum

We consider the dynamics of a pendulum as a prototype for exploring stability of an electric power system. The motion of a pendulum with friction is described by

where -n: < n: < rl is the angle, CI is the damping constant and dh is the undamped angular velocity. We regard the problem as a mathematical one without rest-iction on 8. To convert the system to the standard form of Eq. (5.3). we detine that .vI = 8 and .i, .Y? to get: =

First, we want to check if it is possible to find a L Y ~ ~ U Ifunction for the WV problem. The matrix A for the linearized system is:

Both eigenvalues of A have negative and real parts when N > 0. This sugge;ts a possibility of finding a Lyapunov function. The Lyapunov function is sometimes referred to as a generalized energy function. The name comes from the fact that it has an initial positive kralue and does not increase as time goes on. This is the case of physical systems that iiiok'e without interference from the outside such as the pendulum system. To see this,

let M . J , p and I be the mass. inertia, damping constant and the length of the pendulum, then one dynamic equation becomes
J

6 + pi 6 + M

~ sine = o I

Multiply by v and then integrate with respect to t : i

The total energy of the pendulum (sum of kinetic and potential energjr) is

The time derivative is

Therefore, the proposed Lyapunov function is given by

with
V ( x )= - r ai

Thus, the Lyapunov function is actually the total energy per unit inertia of the pendulum system. Now. we have
V(.r) = h( 1 - cosx,) + - .rj 2
1 7

in the region
R = { -271: < x < 271:;free .r2)

The derivative of

11 is

The origin is stable since the condition of part 1 is satisfied by choosiiig R I = R. This is also true for the choice ( I = 0. which is the case o f ii frictionless pendulum. i : = 2. V(.v) = -(i.vi = 0 implies that .v2 0 and hence . = 0. This makes .i-, -u.v2 - h sinv, = 0 which yields sinvl = 0 o r .vl = /in.Therefore. \f(.v) = 0 only at the origin by choosing R, = { - n < .vl < n: ,ftw. v 2 ) . Thus, t ie origin is asymptotically stable since the condition o f part 2 of the thcorein is satisfied in R2. 3. Part 3 is not applicable for the follcnving t M ' o reasons: ( i ) \/(.I-) = 0 at .vl = 2 1 m i n the whole space, ( i i ) .vl + 00 Mfith.v2 = 0 makes V(.v) = h( I - cos.^,) 5 2 b which does i r o t approach infinity iis required.
1.
iis

For demonstration purposes, M'L' employ the proposed \'(.v) to find ;I 6 5 E required by the definition of stabilit}!. To this end. let I ( = [ l r , , I ( : ] ' be any u n i t i w t o r started from the origin, then

o r \l.vll = I - clV/t/.v, = h siiul - .I I < 0 for h I I and .vl > 0. Since \/(.I) is a decreasing function, it ha\ a niinuinum at . t l = +r- and .I = 0. Therefore, ui = h( I - CO\/-).The expression for the minimuin becomes coirplicated for h > 1 .
on the circle .I

+ .v> = 1.7

on the contour \'(.v) = 111. c//A/.vI = 2(.vl

- h sin.\l)> 0 for .vl > 0 and h I I . Since the minimuin occ~trs .vl = 0 and .v2 = &U, lit w e h a i e the rninitwrn norm

The inequality holds for the reason that

117

For the case b > I , we may choose an independent \variable a = w f Thus. the original dynamic equation becomes

\ ith CO' i

= 17.

where 0 = &/da and CI' = cdw. Hence, the results of ( b ) and ( c ) are \Valid because h = I . Probably. there exists a better V(.t-) to yield the same results of ( b ) and (c) without considering h 5 1 and h > 1 separately. Although different Lyapunov functions may serve the same purpose on stability. they may be different from other points of view such as estimating 6 and other control applications.
3. The condition of part 2 guarantees that the closed contour

keeps on decreasing in R,, as time goes on until C = 0 as a l i m i t . Being nonnegatiLte. each term of V(.r) must be zero siniultaneouslj \idien C = 0. This suggests that xI 4 and x2+ 0 as C = 0 and hence asjiniptotic 0 stability for the origin is established.

5.2.
5.2.1

SYSTEM MODEL DESCRIPTION

Real Power Supplied by a Generator

For a power network consisting of 12-generators connected together by mutual admittances as shown in Fig. 5.3, we may write in matrix form:

Figure 5.3 A general rt-Generator system.

I 18

where [ I ] is the injected current vector, [ E ]is generator internal voltage vector, and [ V ] is the system admittance matrix in which the generator impedances art: included.

for all i, j = 1.2. . . n. The matrix element and complex voltage are specified by
,

Y,, = G,, + jR,, and E, = E, 6,

(5.f 1

The real power supplied by generator i to the network is

(5.7,

where
PI,= C,,sin(6, - 6,) + D,, cos(6,- 6 , ) with C,,= E, E, H , , and Ill, E, G,, = E,

The power P,, is the real power delivered by generator i to j ; it may 3e positive or negative. P,,= E ; G,, is the power delivered to the local load at gencrator I . From Eq. (5.8) it is clear that f,,depends on difference\ between phiw angles rather than individual phase angles. This result suggests that one may choose an arbitrary reference for the angles without affecting the resulting q , . Indeed, we will first choose a reference rotating at synchronous speed to cle\tribe rotor dynamic\ and then a center of inertia to minimize the kralue of rotor hinetic energy.

5.3 STABILITY OF A SINGLE-MACHINE SYSTEM

Consider ii generator connected to an infinite bus with voltage V L 0" throirgh a pure reactance X as shown in Fig. 5.4. If the internal reactaxe and EMF of

Assessitig Aiigle Stcihility \in Transiertt Eiiergy Fiirictiori

I I9

v L0
Infinite Bus

Figure 5.4

Single generator and infinite bus system.

the generator are given by X , and E L 6 respectively, we have from Eq. (4.7) that
P,. = A ( s ) sin6

with
A(x)= -

x, x +

EV

Multiply on both sides (4-7) by w6t = d6 gives

M O = (P,,,- PJd6
(5.9)

Let S,,= (6,,,0), S, = (&, a,) S,,, = (S,,,, 0) be the start. fault clearing and and maximum states of the fault respectively as shown in Fig. 5.5. Let S = (6, w) be any state on the P-6 curve generated by X , then integration of Eq. (5.9)from S to S, yields
-M

d - - MO$= P,,,(6- 6,) - A(X)(COSG, ~0.46) 2

(5.10)

(a) During the hult: X = X , For S = S,,,we obtain from the above equation
- Mw,! = PJ

6,)- 6,) - A(X,)(COSG,- COS^,,) A I

(5.1 1 )

(b) After the clearance: X = X , For S = S,,,,we have from Eq. (5.1 I ) that

I30

Power P (P.U.:
A - Prefault

B- Post-fault

C - During fault

p , !i Ii

--Lx
I I I I I

+ Torque
Angle,

(radims)

Thus, ~ . ' conclude froin ( a ) and ( b ) that e

Therefore. 6,,,can be found by \olving the nonlinex algebraic Eq. ( 5 .I2 1 o r graphically from Fig. 5.5 to judge stability. Thi\ i \ hno\\n ;is the eyual-.iic.a criterion for \tability \ t i d y of power system\. I t i\ important to note that the excessive energy A , created during fault to con\eer-teci to rolor kinetic energy a l clearance. Thi\ re\ult in\pire\ the ii\e o the transient t.~it.rg~f function (TEF)after clearing. That i\. to obtain f r o m Eq. (f . 1 2 ) U ith X = X ,
'

I'I
where
E = - MO2 + P J 6 1 2
- 6,)

(5.13)

and
V = A ( X , COS^,
- COS^)

5.3.1

Transient Swing

Let II = do/clt denote the acceleration of the system, then Eq. (5.13) together with Fig. 5.5 show that CI < 0 above the P,,, line and that ( I > 0 belour i t after friult clearance. There are two angles: 6, = sin-' P,,,/A(X, and 6,,= TI: - 6, that corre) spond t o II = 0 . Figure ( 5 . 5 ) reveals that 6 increases from 6,,with O) = 0 due t o II > 0 until reaching 6,,, 6,, at which o = 0. Since ( I < 0 at 6,,,,6 begins to de< crease until o = 0 at an angle less than 6, and then comes back because ( I > 0. As such. the poclrer angle swings back and forth around 6,. This is the case for E - 1' < 0 at 6,, because 6,, is unreachable (0is imaginary). Ho\be\,er. delayed fault clearance may result in large A , which makes 6 cross 6,, uith 03 2 0. Then. 6 increases further without return due to CI > 0. This is thc case for ( E - V ) 2 0. We will consider the transient to be stable if the p o u w angle s\\Iings around 6, and is otherwise unstable. This definition makes it possible to ;isscss the stability by means of the (TEF) as follows: ( a ) The transient is stable if ( E - V) < 0 at 6,,; large magnitude yields better stability. ( b ) The transient is unstable if ( E - V) 2 0 at 6,,.

5.4 STABILITY ASSESSMENT FOR IFGENERATOR SYSTEM BY THE TEF M E T H O D

Consider a power system consisting of ri-generators. The dynamics of each is described by Eq. (5.1 1). We have

de, =
(It

for i = I , 2, . . . , 1 1 . The dynamics are second order and nonlinear differential equations coupled together through the phase angles contained i n the expression

I22

Chcipter .i

of Although the numerical solution can be determined, a closed form of solution is impossible to obtain. We need not discuss the solution of the system of equations as stability that does not require the exact solution. Another reference with velocity CO,,s to be chosen to minimize the integrali square error

e,.

for any t , and t:. The necessary and sufficient condition for this purpose is
M,
=
1-

M,o,,
I

with M , =

c
1-

M,

which indicates that the reference is the center of inertia (COI).The CO1 has a phase angle 6,,satisfying

With respect to 6,,, all generators have phase angles

0, = 6, - 6,)

In terms of 8,, Eq. (5.14) is now expressed by

M , (10 + M! !,! ( ~- U!
tlt
= U,,,, -

tlt

c ,= p, - P:,

(5.15)

with

and

where j f i signifies summation o f j from 1 to in P,, may be replaced by 8,,= 8, - 8, because

ti

except i. All the angles 6, - 6,

Multiply Eq. (5.1 1 ) by 8, and then sum i from 1 to

U:

I23
(5.17)

The second term of Eq. (5.17) is zero because

The states at clearance angle 6, and unstable equilibrium 6,, are to be specified by 11 pairs of (angle, velocity), that is.

Integration of Eq. (5.15) with clt from S, to S,, gives

(5.18)

where

and

v = j P:, e, dt
,=I

c
I1

1'

(5.30)

c' and 14 denoting S, and &. We know from Eq. (5.19) that E is the total energy input plus kinetic energy of rotors. The electrical energy stored and dissipated in the system is V given by Eq. (5.20). The energy here is referred to power integration with respect to phase angle (not time). The stored energy in V is path independent but the dissipated energy i n V is path dependent. To show this, we multiply Eq. (5.17) by 6, and then sum from i = 1 to 11 to obtain:

with

(5.2 I )

The preceding equation can be verified by carrying out the summation. Substitutions of 6, from Eq. (5.8) gives

c,e, ~ , , 6 ,C , sine,, e,,+ D,, cos(8,+ 8,) + =

(5.22)

Therefore, the integration of Eq. (5.2

results in
8 , )- c o \ ( 8 - 8/11+ I
(5.33)

We can see from Eq. (5.23) that the first part is the stored energy and I \ independent of the path of integration. But, the second part denoted by I dcpenci\ OII the path of 8,. Sonie kind of approximation has to be used to evaluatc sincc O , ( t ) cannot be found analytically. Lct 0, be qqxoximated for all i = I . 2,. . . . 1 2 , by

behere C, and K, are constants but may change with i andf7t) is the only one f ) r all I . For con\mience, we use a parameter I / to make

where t, and

I,,

are the times at the clearance and unstable equilibrium. Then

0, = C = c'

+K +K

f ( t )=

C '

+ K, f l t + ( I , - t ) ' I

g(")

for t, II and 0 5 I I I I . The two constants are required to meet the bound:q r t,, c ond i t ion s

Solving the twro constants gives

Based on this approximation, we haw

and hence it follows that

with

This result makes i t possible to integrate I as

It is interesting to note thatfit) or g(rr) need not be known and that anj J t ) yields the same approximation for I as indicated by Eq. (5.28).Thus. one may perceive.f(r) to be the Col:

which naturally minimizes the integral-square error /M,(O,- f' fdt This is probaI,

bly the best choice of theJs. For example, if g ( u ) is chosen as the combination:

then g ( 0 ) = g , g( 1 ) = a + p and

In concept, one may regard a system as stable if the kinetic energy accuniulated at the instant of clearance can be absorbed by the electrical components of the system. Thus. i t is the kinetic energy that determines the stabilitjr. It is usually during the fault that some generators are affected and tend to separate from the rest that are coherent with the system Col. So far as the kinetic energqr is concerned. the gross motion of the separating generators (say the first k ) may

be considered as a single generator with inertia and velocity the same as that o f their COI. That is,
M, =

C M , and MR =
I I I-

M , 6,
I

To be coherent with the system's COI, the rest of the generators must ha1 e zero velocity; 8, = 0 for all i = k + I , k + 2, . . . 1 1 . Coherence suggests that the rest of the generators rnay be regarded as an infinite bus. As such, the whole system beha\res like a single generator and an infinite bus and hence the restilt obtained before may be applied t o the multiple generator system. We modify Eqs. (5.18) and (5.19)according to the conclusion and updi te of Eq. (5.19) below.
E
-V

= - M,n:,

where

and

(I,,), and (I,,),, denote the velocities and angles at the clearance Note that R,, a,,, and unstable state. Comparing Eq. (5.26) with Eq. (5.1 I ) enables u s to draw the same con( lu+ion as being made for single generator systems. That is. the system is stab12 if E < V and unstable if E > V. It is inconclusive to talk about E = V \ince n e have made approxiniations in evaluating E and V.

5.5

APPLICATION T O A PRACTICAL POWER SYSTEM

The application of the direct method to actual power systems is quite difficult. A number of simplifying assumptions are necessary. To date, the analysis has been mostly limited to power system representation with generators represented

by classical models and loads modeled as constant impedances. Recently. there have been several attempts to extend the method to include more detailed load models. In a multi-machine power system, the energy function V describing the total system transient energy for the postdisturbance system is given by:

(5.30)

where
= angle of bus i at the postdisturbance SEP J, = 2 H , o , ,= per unit moment of inertia of the itgenerator
(3:

The transient energy function consists of the following four terms:

1/2 Z 1,~:: change in rotor kinetic energy of all generators in the CO1 reference frame 2. C P,:,(e, (3:): change in rotor potential energy of all generators relatiLre to CO1 3. CC C,/(cos@,- cos0,;): change in stored magnetic energy of all branches 4. ZZ D,, cos0,,d(O,+ (3,): change in dissipated energy of all branches
1.

The first term is called the kinetic energy (En,,)and is a function of only generator speeds. The sum of terms 2, 3, and 4 is called the potential energy (E,,,,) nd is a function of only generation angles. a The transient stability assessment procedure involves the following steps:

Step 1 Calculation of Step 2 Calculation of ing Vd Step 3 Calculation of stability index

the critical energy V,,. the total system energy at the instant of fitult-clearstability index: V,,- V,,.The system is stable if the is positive.

Time-domain simulation is run up to the instant of fault clearing to obtain the angles and speeds of all the generators. These are used to calculate the total system energy (V,,)at fault clearing. The flowchart of TEF for transient stability analysis is shown in Fig. (5.6).

5.6

B O U N D A R Y OF THE R E G I O N OF STABILITY

The calculation of the boundary of the region of stability, V ( ?is the most diffi, cult step in applying the TEF method. Three different approaches are briefly described here,

b I
Input system data
~ ~~~~~~~

P o w e r n o w calculation

C on ting en cy ap ecifica tion

Form during fault Y matrix and reduced Y matrix Form post-fault Y matrix and reduced Y matrix
C alcglate post fault SEP C alcolate critical energy V

.I

Calculate .yatem total energy V, at clearing time

H es

1.

The Closest Unstc?ble Equilibrium Point (UEPI Approxh

Early papers on the application of the TEF method for transient stability analysis used the following approach to determine the smallest V , ,

Step 1

Step 2

Determine all the UEPs. This is a c h i e i d by solving the postdist u rbance system steady -st at e equations w i t h di ffe re n t i n i t i a1 va 1lie s of bus angles. Calculate system potential energy at each of the UEPs obtained i n step 1 . The critical energy V ( ris gi\fen by the system at the UEP. which results in the minimum potential energy.
\I

This approach computes the critical energy by implicitly assuming the fault location. hence, the results are very conservative.
2.

or\t

The Controlling UEP Approach

The degree of conservatism introduced by the closest UEP approach is such that the results are usually of little practical value. The controlling UEP approach removes much of this conservatism by computing the critical energy depending on the friult location. This approach is based on the obser\ation that the system trajectories for all critically stable cases get close to those UEPs that are closelj, related to the boundary of system separation. The UEPs are called the controlling or relevant UEPs. The essence of the controlling UEP method is to use the constant energy surfrice through the controlling UEP to approximate the rele\mt part of the stability boundary (stable manifold of the controlling UEP) to which the fiiulton trajectory is heading. For any fault-on trajectory q ( t ) starting from a point p ~ A ( . v ,with V ( p )< ) V(.i-), if the exit point of the fault-on trajectory lies in the stable manifold of .i-, the fault-on trajectory must pass through the connected constant energy surfiice AV((.?) before it passes through the stable manifold of .t(W(.i-)) (thus exits the stability boundary AA(-t,J). Therefore, the connected constant energy surfuce A\, (.P) can be used to approximate the part of the stability bondary AA(,?,)for the fault-on trajectory .v,( I). The computation process in this approach consists of the following steps:

Step 1 Determine the controlling UEP, A-,,, for the fault-on trajectory .v,(I). Step 2 The critical energy V, is the value of the energy function V ( * ) t a the controlling UEP, that is, V, = V(x,,,). Step 3 Calculate the value of the energy function \I(.) at the time of fiiult clearance (say, I,,) using the fault-on trajectory I{, = V(.v,(I(,)). Step 4 If V, < V , , then the postfault system is stable. Otheritrise, it is unstable.

The key element of the controlling UEP method is how to find the controllinp UEP for a fault-on trajectory. Much of the recent work in the controlling UEP method is based on heuristics and simulations. A theory-based algorithm to find the controlling UEP for the classical power system model with transfer conductance G, is presented now. The energy function is of the form:

J I

where M , = eration.

M,, .Y' = (6',0) is the stable equilibrium point (SEP) under consij'=I

Algorithm to Find the Controlling UEP The reduced system is

The algorithm for finding the controlling UEP consists of the following steps: From the fault-on trajectory ( 6 ( f ) , w ( r )detect the point 6* at which ), the projected trajectory 6(r) reaches the first local maximum :)t E,,(*). lso, compute the point 6- that is one step ahead of 6" along A 6(r).and the point 6 that is one step after 6*. ' Step 2 Use the point 6" as initial condition and integrate the postfault

Step 1

I1

reduced system Eq. (5.31) to find the first local minimum of I say at 6:. Step 3 Use 6- and 6' as initial conditions and repeat Step 2 to find the corresponding points, say 6, and 6; respectively. Step 4 Compare the values of If(6)i at 6,, 6:, and 6;. The one with the smallest lralue is used a s the initial guess to solve Eq. (5.3 I ),.f; (6) = 0, say the solution is 6,,,. Step 5 The controlling UEP with respect to the fault-on trajectory is (6,(#. 0).

I.f;(s>),

I:

The proposed algorithm finds the controlling UEP Lria the controlling UEP of the reduced system Eq. (5.31) with respect to the projected frlult-on trajectory 6(r).Steps 1-4 find the controlling UEP of the reduced system and step 5 relates the controlling UEP of the reduced system to the controlling UEP of the original system. Theoretical justification of the proposed algorithm can be found in work done by Chiang.
3. The Boundary of Stability-Region-Based Controlling UEP (BCU) Method

Earlier UEP methods faced serious convergence problems when solving for the controlling UEP, especially when the system is highly stressed or highly unstressed, or when the mode of system instability is complex. These problem\ usually arise if the starting point for the UEP solution is not sufficiently close to the exact UEP. Some of the convergence problems can be otm-come by the BCU method which has the capability of producing a much better \tarting point for the UEP solution.

CONCLUSION
One of the major innovations in stability assessment is based on the energy function concept. which is an offshoot of Lyapunov stability criteria. This chapter introduced the fundamental Lyapunov stability thought and the procedure of constructing Lyapunov stability function. The main thrust of this chapter is to utilize concepts of system modeling to evaluate system stability using the energy function method. The reader is referred to the list of references and the annotated glossary of terms for further information on the subject matter.

Voltage Stability Assessment

INTRODUCTION
Voltage stability studies evaluate the ability of a power system to maintain acceptable voltages at all nodes under normal conditions and after being subject :cl to contingency conditions. A power system is said to have entered ii state of voltage instability when a disturbance causes a progressive and uncontrollable decline in voltage values. Inadequate reactive power support from generators. reactive sources, and transmission lines ciiri lead to k d t a g e instability o r e ~ w i \.oltage collapse, which have resulted i n several major system fiiilures (b1ac.kouts) such as:

I. 2. 3. 3. 5.

September I9 10, New York Power pool. Northern Belgium System and Florida System disturbances of I982 Swedish system disturbance in December 1983. French and Japanese system disturbance5 in 1987. Recently, i n the late nineties, i n the U.S. and other parts of the wor d.

The literature and background studies reLriewed indicate that \roltage i n <tability or collapse are characterized by a progressike fall of idtage which can take several forms. The main factor is the inability of the network to meet the demand of reactive power. The process of instability may be triggered by seine forni o f di\turbance, resulting i n changes in the reactikre poucr requirement. '-he

disturbance may either be small or large changes in essential load. The consequence of voltage instability may, however. have uidespread impact on the system. Power system voltage stability involves generation. transmission, and distribution. Voltage stability is closely associated with other aspects of poM-er system steady-state and dynamic performance. Voltage control, reacti1.e power compensation and management, rotor-angle stability, protective relaying. and control center operations all influence voltage stability. Voltage stability studies involve a wide range of phenomena. Because of this, voltage stability means different things to different people. It is a fast phenomenon for engineers involved with the operation of induction motors. air conditioning loads, or HVDC links. It is a slow phenomenon (iri\.ol\.ing, for example. mechanical tap changing) for others. (Appropriate analysis methods have been discussed with the debate centering on \%!hetherthe phenomena of' voltage stability are static or dynamic). Voltage instabilitjr or collapse is a dqrnamic process. The term "stability" implies that a dynamic system is being discussed. A power system is a dynamic system. In contrast to rotor angle ( s j w chronous) stability, the dynamics involve mainly the loads and the means for voltage control. Voltage stability has alternatively been called load stability. The loss of lines or generators can sometimes cause \.ohage quality degradation. This phenomenon has equally been attributed to the lack of sufficient reactikre reserve when the power system experiences a he;\\,} load or a se\.ere contingency. Thus, voltage instability is characterized in such ;i I J that \dtage ~ magnitude of the power system decreases gradually and then rapidly near the collapsing point. Voltage stability is classified as either static voltage stability or dynamic voltage stability. The latter is further classified into small signal stability and large disturbance stability problems. A unified frame\%.ork related to voltage stability problems will be shown in a proceeding section. In dynamic voltage stability analysis, exact models of transformers. Static Voltage Compensating devices (SVCs), induction motors and other types ot' loads are usually included in problem formulations in addition to models 01' generators, exciters. and other controllers. Small signal voltage stabiliti, problems are formulated as a combination of differential and algebraic equations that are linearized about an equilibrium point. Eigen analysis methods are used to analyze system dynamic behavior. Small signal analysis can provide uset'ul information on modes of voltage instability and is instructik'e in locating V A R compensations and in the design of controllers. Large disturbance \wltage stability is approached mainly by using numerical simulation techniques. Since s ~ r s tem dynamics are described by nonlinear differential and algebraic equations that cannot be linearized in nature. Voltage collapse is analyzed based on ii center manifold voltage collapse model.

I24

6.1

WORKING DEFINITION OF VOLTAGE COLLAPSE STUDY TERMS

Voltage stability has been viewed as a steady-state viability problem suitable for static analysis techniques. The ability to transfer reactive power from production sources to consumption sinks during steady operating conditions is a major aspect of voltage stability. The following definitions are often used i n voltage stability studies. Voltage collapse incidents in the U.S., Europe, and Japan ha\x led to different explanations. interpretations. and concerns. To achieve a unifying franrework, a working definition for detection and prevention of Ldtage collapse I-iis been constructed (EPRI RP 2473-36).

6.1.1

Classification of Voltage Collapse Detection

Detection of VC is based on determination of imminence of power system voltage violating its limits which value may lead to system instability and consequently voltage collapse. The phenomenon in many instances is due to a def cit in reactikte power generation, loss of critical lines or degradation of control on key buses.

6.1.2 Classification of Voltage Collapse Prevention

Voltage collapse prevention is any action taken to reduce the likelihood of power system degradation due to the violation of operating limits. Prevention scheme includes the use of optimal power tlow strategy and other measure:* to minimize voltage deviations. Other definitions of voltage collapse or stability are documented in the li terature. For example, according to the IEEE working group in voltage stability. voltage collapse/stability is defined as follows: Voltage stability is the cihility of a system to maintain kroltage so that when load admittances are increased, load power will increase, so that t o t h power and voltage are controllable. Voltage collapse is the pr.oc.t..s.s by which voltage instability leads to 10s.; of voltage in a significant part of the system. Voltage degradation may also lead to angle stability as well, especially if the preventive measures are not enforced quickly enough. Sometimes only careful post incident analysis can discover the primary cause of voltage collapse.

Voltcige Stcrhility A.s.ses.sment

1-35

6.2 TYPICAL SCENARIO OF VOLTAGE COLLAPSE

Assume that a power system undergoes a sudden increase of reactive power demand following a system contingency, the additional demand is met by the reactive power reserves carried by the generators and compensators. It is possible, because of a combination of events and system conditions. that the additional reactive power demand may lead to voltage collapse, causing a major breakdown of part or all of the system. A typical sequence of events leading to a voltage collapse can be as follows: 1. The power system is experiencing abnormal operating conditions with large generating units near the load centers being out of service. Some EHV lines are heavily loaded and reactive power resources are low. 2. A heavily loaded line is lost which causes additional loading on the remaining adjacent lines. This increases the reactive power losses in the lines causing a heavy reactive power demand on the system. (Reactive power absorbed by a line increases rapidly for loads above surge impedance loading). 3. Immediately following the loss of the line, a considerable reduction of voltage takes place at adjacent load centers due to extra reactive power demand. This causes a load reduction, and the resulting reduction in power flow through the lines would have a stabilizing effect. The generator AVRs would, however, quickly resolve terminal voltages by increasing excitation. The resulting additional reactive power flow through the inductances associated with generator transformers and lines would cause increased voltage drop across each of these elements. At this stage, generators are likely to be within the limits of P-(2 output capabilities, i.e., within the armature and field current heating limits. The speed governors would regulate frequency by reducing MW output. 4. The EHV level voltage reduction at load centers would be reflected into the distribution system. The ULTCs of substation transformers would restore distribution voltages and loads to prefault levels in about 2 to 4 minutes. With each tap change operation, the resulting increment in load on EHV lines would increase the line XI and RI losses, which in turn would cause a greater drop in EHV lines. If the EHV line is loaded considerably above the SIL, each MVA increase in line flow would cause several MVAs of line losses. 5. As a result, with each tap-changing operation, the reactive output of generators throughout the system would increase. Gradually. the generators would exceed their reactive power capability limits (imposed by maximum allowable continuous field current) one by one. When the first generator reached its field current limit, its terminal voltage would drop. At the reduced terminal voltage for a fixed MW output, the armature current would increase. This may further limit reactive output to keep the armature current within allowable limits. Its share of reactive loading would be transferred to other generators, leading to overloading of more and more generators. With fewer generators on automatic

excitation control, the system would be much more prone to voltage instability. This \.+wildlikely be conipounded by the r:duced effectiLmess of shunt conipensators at low voltages. The process will eventually lead to voltage collap ;e o r avalanche, possibly leading to loss of synchronism of generating. Sometimes. the term 'voltage security' is used. This means the ability of ;I system not only to operate i n a stable inode but also to remain stable follohiiig credible contingencies o r load increases. It often means the existence o f a considerable margin from an operating point to the voltage instability point fc)llo\\,ing credible contingencies.

6.3

TIME-FRAME VOLTAGE STABILITY

Voltage instability incidents in \.arious places around the world has been c.cscribed iis ii function o f time. The time ranges from seconds to tenths of minutcs. Three time frames and sconarios described by Carson Taylor are sumniari;red ;is follo\+fs: I . Transient cultage stability: This occurs bet\+.een 0 to 10 seconds. 2. Classical Voltage Stability: This occurs betureen I to 5 minutes. This i s t he c 1iiss i c scc nar i o i n 1'0 I 1,i ng aii t 0111 at ic on-I oad tap change r , d i st r i bu t ion \,( 1I t age re gi i 1at ion . xicl gene r;i t o r c U rre 11t I i m i t i n g . T h i s sce n ar io i n \'oI \re s high 1o;i J s . high p o ~ v e r imports from ii remote generator, and a large distribution. Tap changcr action is also significant, i t it can be beneficial o r detritnental depend,ng on load characteristics and location of the tap changer. Collapse in one area c-an at'tect ;I much larger area, thus, leading to a mtijor black-out. This occurrenct' i \ tj.pical on the East Coast. the pacific West, and in Japan. 3. Long-term Voltage Stability: This in\rol\res se\feriil minutes. Se\.t ral VC incidents (the Tokyo I977 blackout. the Shieden blackout) are cxperien:cs o f VC. The factors may include overload time, limit of transmission, loss load di\,ersitJ,due to low Lroltage (theoretically controlled loads), timeliness of appI>'ing reuc*ti\.epower. and other operating interventions such iis load shedding. Reported idtage i ns tabi I i t y i tic iden t s \v i t h and L+ii t hoii t vo I tage are su 111I narixd in Figure 6. I . For classical \,()Itage instability. the phenomenon \+rill occur at the onset o f the \,oltagc collapse. For long-term stabilitjr, the shorter-t. me frame phenoniena w i l l occur once \ d t a g e begins to sag leading to \ultage c:ollapse.

6.4

MODELING FOR VOLTAGE STABILITY STUDIES

Voltage stability studies involve the solution to algebraic and differential equations that map the system behavior under steady-state and transient state\. Belo\v are tjpical \ ector\ encountered and the notation used.

1 1

i ;-yGeneratorExc. Dynamics
0

(Large Disturbance)

Classical (Large Disturbance)

Long-Term (Load Buildup)

---

LTCs
0

Rime Mover Control

Load DiversityJrhermostat
0

Max. Exciter Limiter

Mechanically Switched Capacitors

Linnransformer Overload

Gen. ChangdAGC

Inertia Dynamics

Boiler Dynamics

F1 I

DC Converter LTCs

I min
1 1
I

Operation Intervention Gas Turbines

10 min
I I
1 I1
I

Ihr
I

I1

I I

I 1

Time in seconds

Figure 6.1 Time-iramc of voltage stability (courtesy of C a r ~ n a)rlor). T

1.

Dynamic state \rector. ~ ( t )

\+!here 8 ( t ) = Rotor angle E(t ) = Voltage components of synchronous machine S ( r ) = Dynamics in load bus p ( t ) = Other dynamic states (exciter, governor) 2. Algebraic state vector,
y(t)

where
~ ( t )6 .( t )= Bus voltage niagnitude and angle

Chtrprrr 6

Q(t)

q(r)
3.

= Nonscheduled reactive power = Other algebraic variables

Parameter vector, p ( t )

where = Turbine shaft power P,(r 1 P , ( t 1, Q r ( t ) Scheduled load power = = Controlled voltage or set points 6 d (t ) = Other similar parameters CT(t 1

6.5

VOLTAGE COLLAPSE PREDICTION METHODS

The framework for voltage stability studies can be simplified to fit the time span of the analysis. The categories of interest are as follows:
6.5.1

Static Stability

Assume all time derivatives equal zero at some operating point H ( . v , j - . p )= 0

6.5.2

Dynamic Stability

At some operating point, small perturbations (local)

6.5.3

Extended Stability

Simulation through time (up to hours)

6.6 CLASSIFICATION O F VOLTAGE STABILITY PROBLEMS

Voltage problems are distinguished in three categories:
1.

Primary phenomena related to system structure. These retlect the autonoinous response of the system to reactive supply/demand imbalanccs.

Voltuge Stcrhility Assessrtierit

139

Secondary phenomena related to control actions. These reflect the counterproductive nature of some manual or automatic control actions. 3. Tertiary phenomena resulting from interaction of the above. 2. This classification of voltage quality problems implies that the problems involve both static and dynamic aspects of system components. Voltage collapse dynamics span a range in time from a fraction of a second to tens of minutes. Time frame charts are used to describe dynamic phenomena which show time responses from equipment that may affect voltage stability. The time frame chart is shown in Table 6. I , where .q is a state vector representing transient dynamics. I,is a state vector representing long-term dynamics. Y is a state vector representing very fast transient dynamics related to network components and P is a system parameter vector. Then the time frames to be considered become very fast transient, transient, and long term. The main characteristics of the three time frames are as follows: 1. A very fast transient voltage collapse involLres network RLC components having very fast response. The time range is from microseconds to milliseconds. 2. A transient voltage collapse involves a large disturbance and loads ha\.ing a rapid response. Motor dynamics following a fault are often the main concern. The time frame is one to several seconds. 3. A long-term voltage collapse usually involves a load increase or a power transfer increase. Within this time frame, a voltage collapse shows load restoration by tap-changer and generator current limiting. Manual actions by system operators may be important. The time frame is usually 0.5 to 30 minutes. Since voltage stability is affected by various system components in a wide time range, in order to tackle this problem, one must consider proper modeling and analysis methods. Currently, voltage stability approaches mainly include static and dynamic, i.e., transient voltage collapse and long-term voltage collapse.

Table 6.1 Time Frame and Relevant Models in Voltage Stability Assessment
Voltage stability models and time scale Micro to milli seconds
A few seconds

Minutes

I40

6.7

VOLTAGE STABILITY ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES

The loss o f lines o r generators can sometimes cause degradation in voltage. This phenomenon hiis equally been attributed to the lack of sufficient reacti\,e reset ve when the pouer system experiences a heavy load o r severe contingency. Thus. \-oltage stability is characterized in such a way that voltage magnitude o f the p o ~ w system decreases gradiially and then rapidly in the neighborhood o f I he collapsing point. Voltage stability is classified as static voltage stability and dq'naiiiic \.oltage stability. The latter is further di\ridt.d into srnall signal stabilitJr ancl large disturbance stability problems. I n d y n a i n ic v o 1t age st 11bi I it y ana 1y si s, e x ac t t node I i ng of t ran s fo r mc rs , SVCs. induction motors, and other types of loads are usually included in problem formulations i n addition to models of generators, exciters. and other controllers. Small signal voltage stability problems are fimiiulated as a combination o t differential rind algebraic equations that are linearized about an equilibri .in1 point. Eigen analysis methods are used to analyze system dynamic beha\rior. Small signal rinalysis can provide useful information on modes of \voltage in:,tability and is instructikre i n locating VAR compensations and in the design o f controllers. On the other hand, large disturbance voltage stability is mainly dorilt \+,ith bj. numericul simulation techniques. since system dynamics are descrilxx! by nonlinear differential and algebraic equations that caniiot be linearized i n nature. The mechanism o f \,()Itage collapse has been explained as saddle node bifurcation i n some literature. Voltage collapse is anrilyzed based on ii ceriter manifold \ d t a g e collapse model. Static Lroltage stability analysis is based on po\+w system load tlow e q u tions. Indices characterizing the proximity of ;in operating state to the collapse point are cie\~eloped. he degeneracy of the load tlo\ss Jacobian matrix has bcen T used ;is ;in iritlex of p o \ + w system steady-state stabilitjr. I:nder certain coiiditions, ;I change i n the sign o f the determinant o f the Jacobian niatris diiiing c*ontinuoiis \rariations o f pnrameters means that ;I real eigeiivalue o f the liii1:ari d sb+ring equations crosses the imaginary axis into the right half o f the coinples plane and stability is lost. Various researchers ha\.e considered th;it ;I change i n the sign o f the Jacobian matrix may probubljf not indicate the losj of steady-state stabilitj, urhen e\wi niirnber eigen\Aues \+!hose real part cross the imaginury axis. Voltage stability is also related to iiiiiltiple load flow soluti~ms. A proximity indicator t o r Lroltage collapse (VCPI) was defined for ; bus, ;in I area. o r the complete system ;is ii Lector of ratios o f the incremental gener.ited reactive powcr at a generator to a given reactive load d e n i d increase. A dil'terent indicator ( L index) is calculated from normal load tlow results with reaxm; b I e coin p u t ii t ions. The 1 1 i n i in u 111 si n g u 1ar va 1u e of the J iicob i an was p r o p ) sed I 1 ;is ii \coltage security index. since the magnitude o f the rninimiim singular \ d u e coincides Lsrith the degree of Jacobian ill-conditioning and the proximity to col-

lapse point. Based on a similar concept, the condition number of the Jacobian is also applied as an alternative voltage instability indicator by pioneers in the field. Bifurcation theory is used to analyze static stability and voltage collapse. Static bifurcation of power flow equations were associated Lvith either di\wgenttype instability or loss of casualty. Researchers ha\.e described necessary and sufficient conditions for steady-state stability based on the concept of feasibility regions of power flow maps and feasibility margins but with high computational efforts. A security measure is derived to indicate system \~ulnerability Lwltage to collapse using an energy function for system models that include idtage \,ariation and reactiire loads. It is concluded that the key to applications of the energy method is finding the appropriate T\pe-l low voltage solutions. In addition to the above methods for direct coinputation of stability index. some indirect approaches, based on either the continuation method or optimization methods haire been developed to compute the exact point of collapse. I n app I y i n g the con t i n u at ion methods , assumptions about 1oad c h a n g i 11 pat t e 1-17s g are needed. In summary, the methods for static voltage instability analysis are based on multiple load flow solutions (voltage instability proximity indicator [ VIPI], energy method), load flow results ( L index, VCPI), or eigen\Aues of the Jacobian matrix (iiiinimum singular value and condition number). While studies on djrnamic voltage collapse shed light on control strategy design (off-line applications), static \.oltage stability analysis can provide operators with guideline information on the proximity of the current operating state to the collapse point (on-line applications ). In this case, an index, which can @\re ad\wice utarning about the proximity to the collapse point, is useful. The next discussion will be that of the formulation of selected \x)lta,ce sta bility indices. Of the wide range of techniques available. we shall discuss the VIPI method. a method based on singular value decomposition. condition nuinber of the Jacobian, and the method based on the Energy Margin.

6.7.1

Voltage Instability Proximity Indicator Method

The \.oltage instability proximity indicator (VIPI) was developed by Y. Tamura et al. based on the concept of multiple load flow solutions. A pair of load f l o ~ solutions .vl and .v2 are represented by two vectors ci and 17 as followfs:

which are equivalent to:

where .vl is the normal (high) power tlow solution and .v2 its corresponding IOYA. voltage power tlow solution; LI is a singular vector in the space of node voltages and h is a margin vector in the same space. We now define two other vectors Y , and Y(ci). called singular vectors in t k space of node specifications. The relationship between these \rectors is shou n in Figure 6.2. VIPI is defined by the following equation:

where vector Y,, consists of bus injections computed with respect to .vl but the injection kAues corresponding to reactive powers of PV buses are replaced by the squared values of voltage magnitudes. Y(cc)consists of bus injections with respect to vector ( I : I( .v ( 1 is the /,-norm of vector, .v. The computation of VIPI is easy once the relevant low voltage power tlow solutions are obtained. Generallj, speaking. finding all the relevant low voltage solutions are time-consuming tor practical size systems.
6.7.2
Minimum Singular Value (U,,,,,,) Method

When an operating state approaches the collapse point, the Jacobian matrix of the power tlon equations ( J ) , approaches singularity. The minimum singu ;ir

Figure 6.2 Concept o f VIP1 in the node specification space.

value of the Jacobian matrix expresses the closeness of Jacobian singularity. The singular value decomposition method is used to solve the minimum singular value for static voltage stability analysis. According to the theory of singular value decomposition. power flow Jacobian can be decomposed as:

J = LEV'

(6.11 )

where: J E R'J1*'J1 the power flow Jacobian matrix; C = diag(o,, (J?, is , oJJ) with (J,,,,, = (J, 2 o22 2 (J,~ (J,,,,,, 0. If matrix J has rank ) - ( I " 5211).its singu= 2 lar values are the square roots of the I" positive eigenvalues of A7A (or A A ' ) . U and V are orthonormal matrices of order 211, and their columns contain the eigenvectors of AA' and ATA respectively. From Eq. (6.9). i t can be obtained that
A V, = CJ,~(,

(6.13)
A ' U , = (3,V,

(6.13)

We define
E, = u,V:
(6.14)

Then Eq. (6.I 1 ) can be written as:

(6.16)

then, as far as the /?-norm of the J matrix is concerned, J' is a matrix of rank - 1 nearest to the J matrix of rank n . This means that the smallest singular value of a matrix is a measure of the distance between matrices J and J'. As for the power flow equations, its minimum singular value expresses the proximity of the Jacobian to singularity. It can be used as an index for static voltage stability.
11

6.7.3 Condition Number of the JacobianMethod

The condition number is used in numerical analysis to analyze the propagation of errors in matrix A or vector 6 in solving variable vector x for the linear equation Ax = h. If matrix A is ill-conditioned, even very small \xiations i n vector 17 (or A ) may result in significant changes in solution \rector .v.

For the Iinearized load flow equations, the condition number of the Jacobi.in matrix can be iised to measure its conditioning and whether any small variations in i'ector 11 ( o r A ) inay result in significant changes in solution vector .r. For the Iinearized load tlow equations, the condition number of the Jacobi,in matrix can be used to measure its conditioning and whether any small variations in loads niay lead to large changes i n bus voltages. If the condition number is greater than a specified threshold, this will Iiieiin that the current operating state is close to the collapsing point. A precise measure of the sensitivity of a linear sq'stem solution with resptxt to matrix A o r vector h ciiii be defined as:

For pobrer tlocb Jacobian iiiatrix J . the \ alue of Cond, ( J ) can gile an indication of the condition o f J "with respect to inversion." A small ~ ~ a l u e of' Cond2( J ) ( 1 10) refer\ to a bell-conditioned Jacobian matrix (relatitrely large voltage stability margin): a large value of Cond2( ) ( >100) mean\ that the opi*raJ ting 5tute is \cry close to the point of Jacobian \ingiilarity and has a ION colt ige \tiibilitj iiiargin. The extreme condition is that J is singular and Cond,(Jr is infinite. Hence. the condition nuniber Cond?(J ) ciin be used to iiieii\ure the proxiiiiitj of the operating \tates to voltage collap\e.

6.7.4

Energy Margin-Based Method

The energy method uses an energy function, dericed from a clo\ed form \o:tor integration of the real iiiid reactive mismatch equations betu een the oper;ihle pou er flou \olution and ;i I w oltage power tlou \olution, to prokide ii yuiintitatice tiieasiire ol' I ~ O M clo\e the \y\tem i \ to toltage instability. The point of t oltage in\tability correspond\ to the \addle node bifurcation point definec hq ;i \iiigiiliir potver tlou Jacobian N i t h ~ e r onergj margin. c The encrgq function t'or boltage \tabilit> analysi\ i \ defined as:

1-45

(6.19)

with real and reactive mismatches defined as:

i where: .I-' = ( a ' , V ' )s the normal operable power tlow solution ( o r the stable equilibrium point, SEP): xf' = (a",V")s the relevant low Yoltage po\\.er ilow i solution with respect to x ' (or unstable equilibrium point, UEP). A large energy value indicates a high degree o f \rollage stabilitjr ndiilc ;i small \yalue indicates a low degree of voltage stability. I n applj'ing the c n e r g ~ ~ method. the key is finding the relevant UEPs. Since the number o f rele\rant l o ~ i p \.o~tage power tlow solutions is very large ( Y '- I for a practical syteni. the exhausti\ve approach is not feasible. There is an i m p r o \ 4 technique to compute all the Type- I UEPs based on the results that sho\i' for tjpical po\i'er sj'stems. the system always loses steady-state stability by a saddle node bifurcation bctureen the operable solution and a Type- 1 low-voltage solution. That condition restricts the computation of relevant UEPs only corresponding to sj'sterii PQ buses, or practically PQ load buses. After finding all thc rele\mt UEPs. the buses corresponding to which the energy function has the lowest \ d u e s arc buses \sulnerable to voltage instability. Similar to the VIP1 method. the energy methods depend on the low-voltage power flow solutions. urhere the Ne\s,tonRaphson method with the optimal multiplier can be used.

6.8
6.8.1

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES FOR STEADY-STATE VOLTAGE STABILITY STUDIES

Introduction to the Continuation Method

I n its early stages, \dtage collapse studies were mainly concerned \\!it11 stead>.state voltage behavior. The voltage collapse is often described ;is a problcm that results when a transfer limit is exceeded. The transfer l i m i t of an elcctrical pom'er network is the tnaximal real or reactive power that the system c;in deli\w from the generation sources t o the load area. Specit'icallqr. the transfer l i m i t i h

136

Clttipter 6

the maximal amount of power that corresponds to at least one power-tlow sol J tion. From the well-known P-V or Q-V curves, one can observe that the volta;;e gradually decreases as the power transfer amount is increased. Beyond the maximum power transfer limit, the power-tlow solution does not exist, which implies that the system has lost its steady-state equilibrium point. From an analytical point of view, the criteria for detecting the point of voltage collapse is the point where Jacobian of power-flow equations become singular. The steady-state operation of the power system network is represented ~ y power-tlow equations given in equation (6.20).

where 8 represents the vector of bus voltage angles and V represents the vec or of bus voltage magnitudes. h is a parameter of interest we wish t o b a y . In general the dimension of F will be 211,,, + t i / ) u , where ups and / I / \ are the number of PQ and PV buses, respectively. From equation (6.20) one obtains the fundamental equation of sensitii i t ) an a I y s i s

Let .v = [e,V].From Eq. (6.2 1 ), one can obtain an ODE system

( 62 2 )

For a specific variation of the parameter h, the corresponding variatioIi t o the solution x is calculated by evaluating the Jacobian (dF/d.4-].It should be emphasized that the singularity of the power flow Jacobian dF/d.v is necesaary but not a sufficient condition to indicate voltage instability. The method proposed to observe the voltage instability phenomenon is closely related to tn111tiple power flow solutions. which are caused by the nonlinearity of power flow solutions. The drawback of the method is that it relies on the Newton-Raphson method of power flow analysis, which is unreliable in the vicinity of the vollage stability limit. As such, researchers have developed a technique knourn as the con t i n u ati on met hod.

Voltcige Stcthility Assessriierlt

137

6.8.2

Continuation Method and Its Application to Voltages Stability Assessment

Consider the power flow equation defined in Eq. (6.20). The vector function F consists of \I scaler equations defining a curve in the I I + 1 diniensional (.v,h) space. Continuation means tracing this curve. For a convenient graphical representation of the solution (.v.h)of Eq. (6.20) we need a one-dimensional measure of x. The frequently used measures are:
(i) (ii)

(iii)

1 .v 1 = E','=,xf (square of the Euclidean j s I = max 1 .I-, (maximum norm), 1 I=I 1 s 1 =xi for some index k , 1 I k I n .
If

norm),

In power systems generally we use the measure of (iii). As can be seen from Fig. 6.3 we have a type of critical solution for h = k*, where for h > h* there are no solutions. For h < h* we have two solutions (one is the high voltage

state variable

parameter

Figure 6.3 The fold type curve including predictor-corrector step.

solution and the other is the low voltage solution). When h approaches h ' ~ 0 . < h+).both solutions merge. At this point the Jacobian of the power f l o ~solution , is singular. In the mathematical literature these points are called turning points. fold points. or bifiircation points. An algebraic featiire of the turning point is given by F , below

F , ( . V ' ~ ' .is singular for rank < 11. ~'~) F ( p:,A:!:)/F.\(v* .A:]: h iis ;I full rank ,. ) conditions.
1 c: l

II

and satisfies some nondegenericitj,

Several techniques ha\ e been proposed to calculate these point\. Thew methods based their iinaIy\is on t\vo approache\ referred to a\ direct and indii cct inet hods .
6.8.3
Detection of Voltage Collapse Points Using the Continuation Method

Direct Methods This approach tries to find the maximum allowdAe wriation of h: that is. an operating point (.P,A';:) of the equation:

such that the Jiicobian at this point is singulur. I t solves the tolluct~ing\>stem o f eq 11at i on s

This procedure basically augments the original set of pobrer tlow eqiiat ions F(.v,h)= 0 by F,(.v,)L)/I0 where h is ;in u-\fector n,ith / I , = 1 , The disadewmges = of this approach are: The dimension of the nonlinear set of equations to be solcved is tnice that for the concmtional power flow. The approach requires good estimate of the vector h. The advantage is that. convergence of the direct method is \,ery fast i the initial operating point is close to the turning point. The enlarged system is sol\wl in such ii way that it requires the solution of four I I x / I ( 1 1 is the dimensicln o f the Jacobian F,(.v,h))linear systems, each w i t h the same matrix. requiring only one LU decomposition.
'

indirect Method (Continuation Methods)

Assuming that the first solution (.q,,&,)of F(.u.h)= 0, is available. the continuation problem is to calculate further solutions, ( . ~ , . h , ) , (.v2.h>). one reaches a until target point. say at h = A*. The ith continuation step starts from an approsimation of (x,,h,)nd attempts to calculate the next solution. However, there is an a intermediate step in between. With predictor, corrector type continuation, the step i 3 i + I is split into two parts. The first part tries to predict a solution. and the second part tries to make this predicted part to coni'erge to the required solution:

Continuation method\ differ among other thing\, i n the follo\J ing: ( 1 ) choice of predictor, (2) type of the parameterization \trategy. ( 3 ) type of corrector method. ( 3 ) step length control. All four aspects uill be explained through the formulation of the power flow equations. I n order to apply the continuation method to the poner tlou problem, the power flow equation\ must be reformulated to include a load parameter (A). This can be done by expressing the load and the generation at a bus as ;I function of the load parameter ( h ) .The general form of the ne\+ equation\ a\sociated with each bus i is:

where the subscripts L,, G,, and T, denote bus load, generation, and power out of a bus respectively. The voltage at bus i is V, 8, and Y,/ a,/ is the (i,j)th element of the system admittance matrix [ Yut,5).P,l(h) Q,,(h ) terms depend and on the type of load model. For example for the constant power load:

(6.26)

For the nonlinear model

I so

In addition, for any type of load model. the active power generation term can be modified to obtain

where the following definitions are made PIr < , Ql,,, Original load at bus i, active and reactive respectively =
= Multiplier to designate the rate of load change at bus

i as h changes

= Power factor angle of load change at bus i

= Apparent power which is chosen to provide appropriate scaling of = Active generation at bus i in the base case = Constant to specify the rate of change in generation as = Initial voltage at the bus

h varies

= Frequency dependent fraction of active power load = Voltage exponent for frequency-dependent active power load = Voltage exponent for nonfrequency-dependent active power load = Ratio of uncompensated reactive power load to active power load = Voltage exponent for uncompensated reactive power load = Voltage exponent for reactive power compensation

Now if F is used to denote the whole set of equations, then the problem can be expressed as il set of nonlinear algebraic equations given by Eq. (6.20). The predictor, corrector continuation process can then be applied to those equations. The fir\( task in the predictor \tep is to calculate the tangent vector. Tlii\ tector can be obtained from factorizing Eq. (6.21).i.e.,

(6.18)

On the left side of the equation is a matrix of partial derivatives multipl ed by vector of differentials. The former s the conventional power flow Jacobian

Voltage Stcihility Assrsstnerit

151

augmented by one column ( F j , ) ,while the latter t = [de,dV,dh]' is the tangent vector being sought. A normalization has to be imposed in order to give t a nonzero length. One can use for example
e:t = tL = I

(6.29)

where ek is an appropriately dimensioned row vector with all elements equal to zero except the kfh one, which equals one. If the index k is chosen properly. letting tk = + I .O imposes a nonzero norm on the tangent vector which guarantees that the augmented Jacobian will be nonsingular at the point of maximum possible system load. Thus the tangent vector is determined as the solution of the 1i near sy s tem

Once the tangent vector has been found by solving Eq. (6.30), the prediction can be made as follows:

[E][;] [i]
=
+U

(6.31 )

where "*" denotes the predicted solution and step size.

(3

is a scalar that designates the

6.9

PARAMETERIZATION

The branch consisting of solutions of Eq. (6.20) forming a curve in the (.LA) space has to be parameterized. A parameterization is a mathematical way of identifying each solution on a branch. A parameterization is a kind of measure along the branch. There are many different kinds of parameterization. For instance, by looking at a PV curve, one sees that the voltage is continually decreasing as the load nears maximum. Thus, the voltage magnitude at some particular bus could be changed by small amounts and the solution is found for each given value of the voltage. Here the load parameter would be free to take on any value it needed to satisfy the equations. This is called local parameterization. I n local parameterization the original set of equations is augmented by one equation that specifies the value of one of the state variables. In equation form this can be expressed as follows:

1-52

=o,

\%=[q

(6.31 I

where q is an appropriate \~aluefor the kth element of J*. N o w once ii suitablc index k and the value o f 1 itre chosen. a slightly modified Ne~\'ton-Rapliioii 1 (N-R) power flow method (altered only in that one additional equation and oiic iiddirional state sariable are involved) can be iised to sol\.e the set of equatior-s. This pro\.ides the corrector needed to modify the predicted solution found i n tlic prc \,iou s sect ion. The algorithm tor static assessnient is shourn i n Figure 6.4. We ciin u s e ;I simple example to explain the static ~inulysisproccdure.

6.9.1

Static Assessment: A Worked Example

;i

Consider

\j'steiii is represented by

here h is ;I irariation parameter from h,,= 0 to h, = A,,, To begin, s,ol\.e the s j stem equations at h = 0 , ~e ha\re

Input System Data

1
1

f
Select Contingencies Select Continuation Parameter
&

*
.

Solve base load flow

Choose stepsize

*
Calculate Stability index
A p
OT

*Q

Figure 6.4 The algorithm for static assessment.

2-r - 1 0 2 I -11 0 1 0

d.r

[&
clh

=0

Since s,, 1. substituting into the above equation we have: =

[
and

2 -I 0 c1.r 2 1 4 [ =O ] " 0 1 0 dh

[ ."];[
t1.r

0.5
1.0

dh

2.0

Therefore,

Choosing

0 = 0. I ,

one gets
.?, = .c*= 1 .o + 0.05 = 1 .OS

+ 0.1 = -I .9 h, = h* = 0 + 0.2 = 0.2

f, = j " = -2 '

where .t,y, and are the approximated solutions. In order to find the solution of F(.u,~.,h) we need to solve the equation = 0.

where r\ is an appropriate value of y. Choose r\ = y* = - 1.9. we have the solution of

Voltcige Stcihility Assessriieiit

XI
'1

= 1 .OS =-1.9 h, = 0.2

Based on the solution of (x,y,L), we can get the solution of (.I-~.~!~,X~), we have

Choose

CJ = 0. I ,

one gets

0.2 + 9 21

Choose q = -1.8, we have the solution of

XI

fl

h, = 2

= -1.8 0 - 1.8

Using the same procedure until the target system is reached. The modal analysis procedure is given in the following. System linearization equation is given by

where p represents the variation parameter. At .Y,~= I , y,, = -2, pi,= 0, the above equation can be reduced to

, ,[

; I:i: 11

I56

6.10 THE TECHNIQUE OF MODAL ANALYSIS

The inodal o r eigen\ralue analy\is method i\ a kind ot' sensitivity analy\is but the modal \eparation provides additional insight. The \ystem partitional niatri-, equations of the Newton-Raphson method can be reu ritten as

(6.33)

M here the partitioned Jacobian retlects ;I solb~edpower tlow condition and include\ enhanced de\.ice modeling. By letting AP = 0. we can write

here J K , is a reduced Jacobian matrix of the system. J K directly relates the h i \ voltage magnitude and bus reactive power injection. Let h, be the ith eigenwlue of J , with and q, being the corresponding col urn n right eiget ntor and row left e i gen\.ect or, re spec t i \re1y . ~ ~ The ith modal reactise power Lwiation is
U

cl

where A ' :

cci,

= I with

c,l the j t h element o f 5,. corresponding ith mocal The

~ v l \wiit t ion is tage

The magnitude of each eigenvalue h, determines the weakness o f the coriesponding modal voltage. The smaller the magnitude of h, the uteaker the c o r ~e sponding modal voltage. If h, = 0. the ith modal voltage will collapse because any change in that modal power will cause infinite modal voltage irariation. If all eigenkralues are positive, the system is considered voltage stable. This is a dift'erent dynamic system where eigenvalues with negative real parts i re stable. The relationship between system bdtage stability and eigen\ralues of the J , matrix is best understood by relating the eigen\dues with Q-\' sensiti\.ity o f each bus. J , can be taken as ;t syminetric matrix and therefore the eigenvuli es

of J , are close to being purely real. If all the eigenc~aluesare positiLe J K is positi\re definite and the V-Q sensitivities are also positiLre. indicating that the system is voltage stable. The system is considered voltage unstable if at least one of the eigenvalues is positive. A zero eigenvalue of J , means that the system is on the \yerge of voltage instability. Furthermore, small eigenvalues of J , determine the proximity of the system to be voltage unstable. The participation factor of bus k to mode i is defined as

For all the small eigenvalues, bus participation factors determine the areas close to cdtage instability. In addition to the bus participations, modal analysis also calculates branch and generator participations. Branch participations indicate which branches are important in the stability of a g i \ m mode. This proLides insight into possible remedial actions as well as contingencies. which inay result in loss of voltage stability. Generator participations depict which machines niust retain reactit,e reserves to ensure stability of a given mode. Figure 6.5 depicts the technique static voltage stability assessment using modal analysis. For a practical system with several thousand buses it is impractical and unnecessary to calculate all the eigenvalues. Calculating only the minimum eigenvalue of J K is not sufficient because there are usually more than one \ \ ~ a k modes associated with different parts of the system. and the mode associated with the minimum eigenvalue may not be the most troublesome mode as the system is stressed. The I I I smallest eigenvalues of J , are the I I I least stable modes of the system. If the biggest of the vz eigen\dues, say mode I I I . is a strong enough mode, the modes that are not computed can be neglected because they are known to be stronger than mode ni. An implicit inixrse lopsided simultaneOLIS iteration technique is used to compute the I I I smallest eigenvalues of J , and the associated right and left eigenvectors. Similar to sensitivity analysis, modal analysis (see the worked example at the end of this chapter) is only valid for the linearized model. Modal analj~sis can, for example. be applied at points along P-V cur\.es or at points i n lime of a dynamic si mU I at i on.

6.1 1 ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES FOR DYNAMIC VOLTAGE STABILITY STUDIES

I t is only recently that the effects of system and load dynamics are being in\.estigated in the context of voltage collapse. The dynamics that are being considered are:

1.58

O t i s s e architecture and ban y t m

network data

t
I . Solve Base Case power flow 2. Do Contingency Analysis 3. Select a desired set

I . Fonn Full Jacobian Matrix. J

Determine weaker voltage areas based on eigenvalues

+Detailed Analysis?

I
Compute

Perform participation factor analysis

I I

A V = g/\-'qAQ

L--l_--l
Figure 6.5
Static voltage stability assessment using modal analysis.

Plot P-V and P-QCurves

Machine and excitation system dynamics including power system stabilizer (PSS). 2. Load dynamics. 3 . Dynamics of SVC controls and FACTS devices. 4. Tap-changer dynamics. 5. Dynamics due to load frequency control. AGC, etc. While 1, 2, and 3 involve fast dynamics, 4 and 5 represent slow dynarrics. A classification process of dynamic voltage stability vis-a-vis static stability is shown in Figure 6.6. Here "load" implies demand and "U" represents set pcints of LFC, AGC, and voltage/VAr controls at substations. .Y, represents the slow

1.

Volfuge SfcJhi1if.Y Assessriierif

Subsystems: x&(x *x , u * I - d ) k $ ( x *XF"U*Load)

Subsystem F k f + x $xFut Load)

(Voltage Collapse) Type. 11 Instability

Both Subsystems S and F are Stable

Figure 6.6 Classification of voltage instabilities.

variables such as the state variables belonging to tap-changing transformers, AGC loop and center of angle variables in the case of a multi-area representation. .rf. represents the fast variables belonging to the generating unit including PSS and governor, induction motor load dynamics, SVC dynamics, and so forth. The overall mathematical model is of the form:
(6.38) (6.39)
(6.40)

(6.411

Ignoring the more slower AGC dynamics and the faster network transients (60 Hz) we can categorize the variables appearing in Eq. (6.38)-(6.41).
x\ = [ n , ]

i = 1, . . . ,I?

where

11,

= transfortner tap ratio

rectangular \ ariables o f ith

bii4 \

oltage o r [ O f ]

\:j

/, =

niachinc terminal currents in machine rcference franie i = I , . . . . 111 de\ired real power of ith generator cle\ired \wltage at ith gcneratoi bu\ de~tredI oltagc at the bu\ controlled b j tap-changer

i = 1, 2. . . . . 111
i = 1, 2.

. . . . III

pr = c'ector of load parameters to be defined.

The state \w-iables of the static VAr system ( S V C ) control and induct ,011 motor \ + r i l l appear in .v, if included i n the o\rerall model. As an example \%re giife belour the equations for ;I I I I machine 11 bus s q w m halting p tap-changing t ra n sforme rs . On Iy the sy tic h ronoii s mac h i ne 11nd t a p-c hanger d y nani i c s arc i n c 1U ded .

6.1 1.1

Equations of Slow and Fast Subsystems

For an ur-rnachine, 11-bus system ha\ing I - tap-changing transformerh. the follou~ing equations are applicable Slo \. v Subsystem

f a s t Subsystem

~,,,c'%

tit

= -E;, - (

x(/, x;,) + E,,,, -

I ....

T\,'& = -vRl+ K rlt

\J,, I

Tl

E,,,, + K ,,( v,,.,,I

v,)

i = I . . . . . 111
(6.43)

T / , S = - RI, + ~ E , , , , KI tlt TI
I

i = I , . . . . 111

The algebraic equations for the stator and network can be used to andjrze the system

6.1 1.2

load Flow and Equilibrium Point

The equilibrium point is calculated for a given set of reference points, \',',, ,.Tl,,,,l',, and a given demand P I ,and QL,and then solving the follonfing equations for the \w-iables 8?, .8,,. V,,,+], ,V,,.

I62

Cticipter- ri

We may alternatively combine Eq. (6.44) in a compact way as

,I

P:"' = ~ v , v , Y , , c o s- 8, ,- a,k)= o (~
iI

i = I , . . . , II

Q:"' =

CV,V,Y,,~~a,h)= o - e, - ~(O,
i-I

(1

i=

I ,

. . . , 11

(6.3: )

and

The parameter vector p l can be defined in terms of PI,,,,Q,l,l,tt,,,, IZ,,,, etc. The equilibrium point is calculated for a given set of reference points V , , , ,.T,,,. V,,,, and a given demand P I , and Ql,.The load flow equations are extracted from Eqs. (6.45) and (6.46)as follows
1 . Specify bus voltage 2. Specify bus voltage 3. Specify net injected bered 111 + 1 to 1 1 . Solve the following

magnitudes numbered 1 to m. angle number 1 (slack bus). real power P'",'=P I , and Q'"/'=Q l , at all buses numequations for the variables

e?,. . . ,elf. v,,,, .. . . . v,,. ,

The standard load-flow Jacobian matrix involves the linearization of E q. (6.47) with respect to 6:. . . . . 611rVlll+lr. , V,,. After the solution using Newtcm's .. method. compute

(6.48)

In the above load flow problem one can include inequalities on Q generation at P-V buses, switching Var sources, etc. From the load flow solution, the initial conditions of state variables in Eq. (6.48) can be computed systematically. The initial value of V, is V,,,.
L inearization Define 9' = [ 9:0;] corresponding to generator and load buses. Also define
.v' = [s: 1

.4= [.v;,.Y;, . . . J,!]

[HI,

where
s= :

. . . , ll,,]
111

and
.I-;

= [G,,o,,E;,.E,,,E = I . . . . I,,,, VR,*R,,]i

and the algebraic variables as I,, Vq, V,. Also let

s,:= (Pi,,( V,l.Qi,( V , ) )

The linearized equations corresponding to Eqs. (6.32)-(6.43) can be expressed as

A,,

0 0 0

In Eq. (6.48) the variations corresponding AVl in the nonlinear load characteristic is contained in ASLeand ASL,.

6.1 1.3 Static Stability (Type I Instability)

In Eq. (6.46), suppose that both Ais= AtI.= 0. Then we have a static situation with all equations being algebraic. Let all the voltage deviations in AO? and At!,

be denoted by AP. then the rest of the algebraic variables can be eliminated (assuming con\tant power load) to express A P = J I HAp,. If det (1,) 0 ;I\ -+ load is increased it is referred to a s Type I static in\tability. i.e., the \y\tem i \ not able to handle the increased load.

6.1 1.4

Dynamic Stability (Type II Instability)

Ail E

Eliminating the algebraic ~ariables n Eq. (6.39)atid assuming i expressed a s

0 . it can bt.

6.1 1.5

Slow Instability

Theoretically i t shoiild be possible to eliminate AY,in Eq. (6.50)using the singiilar perturbation theory and obtain the linearized slow system as At, = A,A.\.,. The time scale o f the phenomena is so large that linearized results may ii8.)t retlect the true picture. For such a time intensi\re phenomena. nonlinear siii1ul.ition is recolnmended.
6.11.6

Fast Instability

Fint u e rearrange the Lrar.iable\ [Al,.Av,,A$',] a r [AZ,.&.AV,, . . . .AV,,l 1 A02.AOj. . . . .AO,,,AV,,,+,,. . . = [A:.Avl. Next b e a\\ume I , a\ con\tant and load par:inieter\ a\ con\tant which implie\ Ap, = 0 . We get

For the constant power case, both AS, and AS2 are = 0. Otherwise. AS, = AS,,(V,) and AS2, AS,,(V ,). For a given voltagedependent load, AS,, and = can be computed. Only the appropriate diagonal elements of B:, C,, and C; M i l l be modified and we obtain the system

Now

cqis the load flow Jacobian J L I and

B2

c. c,

8'

is obtained as

= J , / . The system matrix. A

Atl = A,,,Avl + E h

Using drastic assumptions about voltage control and load characteristic\ that the steady-state stability associated with the system matrix, A,,, can be determined by examining the load flow Jacobian, J , / .
6.1 1.7 Voltage Stability Assessment

The algorithm for Lwltage collapseholtage stability assessment includes static and dynamic assessment. The algorithm for dynamic stabilitl- assessnient is shown in Fig. 6.7.
6.1 1.8 VSTAB-Voltage Stability Assessment (EPRI)

A more promising method with the trade name VSTAB. uses po~7eltlow and modal analysis techniques. It provides assessment of the proximity to Lvltage instability and determines the mechanism of voltage instability. I n this method. the proximity to \voltage instability is evaluated by conducting a series of p o ~ ' e r tlow solutions with load increase until load tlow diLwgsiice is encountered. When load flow divergence is encountered, the step size for load increase ix reduced and the power flows are continued. The voltage stability limit is considered to have been reached when the step size reaches the cutoff due specified by the user. The load level at this point is the maximum loadabilitjf.This procedure is carried out simultaneously for the intact system as well as for contingencies. Load increase can be carried out with or without generation scaling. The slack bus generation is not scaled. Loading can be by area or by zonc. The mechanism of voltage instability is studied in VSTAB by using modal analysis. Modal analysis employing V-Q sensitivities can identifqr areas that have potential problems and provide information regarding the mechanism of Lroltage collapse. The method is briefly discussed as follows. The usual power tlow equations can be expressed in the linearized form.

A \I

Ael

(6.53)

where AP = incremental change in bus real power

I66

*
Select Contingencies

Select Continuation Parameter P(Q)

Sdve base load flow rk Increase P(Q)

+
I

Run the power flow

<
I

Converge? Yes

I
Compute initial conditions of state variable

Calculate eigenvalue

Figure 6.7 Summary of the dynamic voltage stability assessment technique.

AQ = incremental change in bus reactive power injection A 0 = incremental change in bus voltage angle A V = incremental change in bus voltage magnitude The system dynamic behavior can be expressed by the first order diffei-ential equation,

Voltage Stability As.se.ssineiit

167

where X = state vector of the system V = bus voltage vector For the steady-state condition X = 0, using the enhanced device models used in Eq. (6.54). Equation (6.53) can be rewritten as:
(6.55)

where

Af,, incremental change in device real power output =

AQ,, = incremental change in device reactive power output AV,, = incremental change in device voltage magnitude A0(,= incremental change in device voltage angle and AZ2represent a modified form of J,w. J\>,, JVH. The terms A l l , AI?, J,-, in the terms associated with each device. We can study the Q-V sensititrity while keeping f constant. For this analysis we can substitute Af = O in Eq. (6.53) to give us upon simplification,
AV = Jk

A0

(6.56)

where

By analyzing the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the reduced Jacobian J R . we arrive at

1) =

A- x q

(6.58)

or
v, = -9,
1

A,

(6.59)

where

h is the iIh modal voltage.

I hS

U\ing modal analy\is. these relative bu\ participation and branch particip.1(ion factor\ c m be computed for the i"' mode. The complete procedure for \tatic \ oltage \tabilit> a\se\snient L ia rnodal analy\i\ is outlined in Fig. 6.8.
6.1 1.9
Preventive Control of Voltage Stability

There are t ~ let els of lroltage stability enhancement, the fir\t le\rel uith del ic:e o ba\eci control. the \econd level i \ i n the form of operation-based control. The

Obtain base case

Set for pre-contingency

solution Solve the load flow

0 :
cont ingenc

Generate QV curves

1 ,+ b

New load level o change r

Figure 6.8 Thc VSTAB algorithm ( lEPRI). C

voltage stability is improved by optimal system operation conditions. The static analy\is method is used for the determination of prcbmitive control scheme. System operation conditions are determined by F ( 8 . 1 h ) = 0. The design of a . broltage stability preventive control scheme includes the \teps outlined i n Fig. 6.9.

CONCLUSION
Pourer sy st e 11 i.01tag e st abi I i t y i n vol ves genera t i on, t ran s ni i ssion and d i st ri h i 1 tion. So to maintain the voltage stabilitr is crucial tor thc normal operatioti

Input System Data

4
Select Critical Contingencies

1
Use Optimal Power Flow to do Contingency

4
Identify and Rank contingencies with low stability limit using VSTAB

Select the first contingency

Any other contingencies ?

Select the next contingency from the list

4
Incorporate the selected contingencies in the Contingency Constrained OPF for expanding the lowest stability limit

Output results

c
Adjust control parameters to reflect optimized values
a

I
5t

Figure 6.9 V o I t ag e

abi 1 it y pre \.ent i v e cont ro I \c he iii e .

I 70

Chccprer 6

of a power system. In adequate reactive power support from generators arid transmission lines lead to voltage instability or voltage collapse which halie resulted in several major system failures (blackouts) such as the massive Tokyo blackout in July 1987. In order to prevent the stability limit being reached or exceeded during a given contingency, remedial actions need to be recommended. It is well knov,Tn that in all cases, voltage instability is caused by inadequate transmission capacity at a given operating condition due to a contingency, which the system cannot withstand. Based on contingencies that occur, the distribution of plant gene1 ators, transmission tlows and load to meet given stability criteria is usually done by using effective/economical control actions. Future work in the determination of adequate remedial measures for stability enhancement have been proposed in past publications, where the correctiLre control action is handled as an optimization problem. The two-stage formulati .In to achieve the desired stability enhancement utilizes the concepts of Chapta S and this chapter. The first stage handles voltage stability enhancement while [he second-stage optimization scheme deals with angle stability enhancement. The process will lead to a unified index. Hence, when carrying out stability enhancement based on a selected list of contingencies, only enhancement of the app-opriate problem (either voltage or angle) needs to be carried out, thus saving labor and computational time. Future work in unifying the indices while inc,.>rporating the irarious available controls is still a challenge. The reader is intrir ed to research further literature in selected references located at the end of .he book. Also. the annotated glossary of terms supports the chapter.

M O D A L ANALYSIS: WORKED EXAMPLE

Consider the SO0 kV. 322 km (200 miles) lines transmission system shown in Fig. I O(a) below supplying power to a radial load from a 'strong' power system represented by an infinite bus. The line parameters, as shown in Fig. 10(b). are expressed in their respective per unit values on a common system base of 00 M V A and 500 kV. 1 . 1 Compute the full admittance matrix of the two-bus system and write the power flow equations from the sending end to the receiving end in the form:

I .2 Hence or otherwise, write down the expressions for the four (4) sub-matrices of the Jacobian in the linearized load tlow equations as defined by:

Voltage Stcihility Assswiierit

(a) Infinite Bus

I7i Load Bus Bus 2

pZ-JQz,

Bus I

Transmissicm Line

Shunt
Qsh
7

(3c1
j
Load Bus Bus 2

Load Load

(b)

Infinite Bus Bus I

v,= 1 .OLOO

Y = 2.142 -J24.973 ,

" 2

=I

v, I

Figure 6.10 The SS0 kV, 370 km (230 miles) line tranwii\\ion \ystem \uppl>4ng a radial load: (a) schematic diagram of the transmission system and (b) the equi\alt.nt WYE circuit repmentation of the transmission line.

1.3 When P2 = 1500 MW, calculate the eigenvalues of the reduced Q-V Jacobian matrix and the V-Q sensitivities with the following different reactive power injections for each of the corresponding two voltages on the Q-V curve.
a. Q, = 500 MVAR. b. Q,=400 MVAR. c. Values of Q, close to the bottom of the V-Q curve 1.4 Determine the voltage stability of the system by computing the eigenvalues of the reduced V-Q Jacobian matrix for the following cases:

a.

b.

P = 1500 MW, Q, = 450 MVAR. P = 1300 MW. Ql = 950 MVAR.

ii

(Aswnie that the reactiLne pouw Qi i \ wpplied by

Solution

\hunt capacitor).

From the figure. the admittance matrix of the 2-bus system is

2.142 - j22.897 -2.142 -2.142 + i24.973 2.142

+
-

j24.973 j23.897

The expression tor P and (2 at any bus k are gibfen by:

where

Hence.

are interested in only P1 and Q2 b v i t h V, = 0 p i i .

Hence the expressions tor the Jacobian terms are give by:

J,ll =

a P+= -2.132cose + 24.973sine + 4.284\> a v,

(a) The linearized power flow equations are

with

The expression for J,,. J,,, Jpo. and Jl,, were given before. For this simple system, JK is a I x 1 matrix. The eigenvalue lambda of the matrix is the same as the matrix itself. The Q-V sensitivity is equal to the inlverse of the eigenkdue. For each of the Q,s, there are two solutions for the recei\,ing end \*oltage. Table 6.2 summarizes the V, 8, h, and dV/dQ with P = 1500 MW and Q = 500. 400, 306, and 305.9 MVAr. For each case the eigenvalue and W Q sensiti\,ity are both negatikre at the low voltage solutions, and are both p0sitii.e at high jroltage solutions. With Q = 305.9 MVAr close to the bottom of the Q-\ c~11-k~ tlVIdQ is large and h is very small.

Table 6.2

Results for Modal Analysis Worked Example

High Voltage Solution

Lou Voltage Solution

500.0 400.0 306.0 305.5

1.024 0.956 0.820 0.184

-37.3
-40.1

-48.2 -48.7

17.03 12.4 I 0.52 0.02

0.059 0.08 1 1.923 50.10

0.67 1 0.706 0.812 0.815

-66.7 -60.3 -48.8 -48.6

-39.87 -20.96
-0.9SO

-0.02S

-0.700

-0.048 -I .OS3 -1.134

( b ) With the shunt capacitor connected at the receiving end of the line, the self admittance is:
Y,, = 2.142 - j(22.897
-

H,)

with P = IS00 MW and A 450 MVAr reactive shunt capacitor. V, = 0.98I , 8 = -39.1 degrees. Since B, = 4.5 pu., then Y2:= 2.132 j(22.897 - 4.5) = 2.132 -j18.397. With this new value of Y2:, the r t s duced Q-V Jacobian matrix is J , = 5.348, and J , is positive indicating that the system is voltage stable. with P = I900 MW and a 950 MVAr reactive shunt capacitor, V, = 0.995, 8 = -52.97 degrees. Since B, = 9.5 p ' . then YJ2= 2.142 i. j(22.897 - 9 . 5 )= 2.142 -jl.397. With t h i h new value of Y?:. the reduced Q-V Jacobian matrix is J , = - 13.683, and J , is negative indicating that the system is voltage iinstable.