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Section 0. Trigonometric Formulas 0.0.0 Compound angle 1. sin( A B) = sin A cos B cos A sin B . 2. cos( A B) = cos A cos B m sin A sin B .
3. tan( A B) =
0.0.3 Product to Sum 1. 2 sin A cos B = sin( A + B) + sin( A B) . 2. 2 cos A cos B = cos( A + B) + cos( A B) . 3. 2 sin A sin B = cos( A B) cos( A + B) . 0.0.4 General solution 1. If sin = k , then = n + (1) n ;
Section 1. Complex Numbers Definition 0.1.0 A complex number z is defined to be a number of the form a + bi,
where a , b R and i 2 = 1.
a is called the real part of z and is denoted by Re(z), b is called the imaginary part of z and is denoted by Im(z).
Definition 0.1.1
Let z1 = a + bi , z 2 = c + di , where
a , b, c, d R , be two
complex numbers, then z1 is equal to z2 if and only if a = c and b = d, i.e. z1 = z2 iff Re( z1 ) = Re( z2 ) and Im( z1 ) = Im( z2 ) .
Definition 0.1.2
Let z1 = a + bi , z 2 = c + di where a , b, c, d R , be two complex numbers, then the rules of arithmetic operations are defined as i) z1 + z 2 = ( a + c) + (b + d )i ii) z1 z 2 = ( a c) + (b d )i iii) z1z 2 = ( ac bd ) + ( ad + bc)i iv)
z1 ac + bd bc ad = + i z2 c 2 + d 2 c 2 + d 2
if z2 0 .
ii)
2 + 3i . 7 6i
Section 2. Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions 0.2.0 Revision --Indices Notation and indices laws
For any real number a and any positive integer n, an is defined to be the product of a by itself n times. That is,
an : = a a ... a (n times).
For any non-negative real number a and any positive integer n, we define a1/n to be the unique non-negative real root of the equation xn = a. Sometimes, we write
a := a 2 and n a := a n for n 3.
1 1
For any non-zero rational number r, there is a unique pair of non-zero integers m and n such that n is positive, m and n are relative prime (that is, they have not common prime factor) and r =
m , we define n
m 1 n a = (a ) 0
r
It is not difficult to prove that the following Indice laws.: For any real numbers a, b > 0 and for any rational numbers x and y, we have (2.0) (2.2) (2.4) (2.6) a0 = 1, ax ay = ax + y, (ab)x = axbx, (ax)y = axy.
Table 0
a1 = a, ax = ax y, y a ax a ( )x = x b b If ax = ay then x = y.
Since the symbol 2x is not defined for all irrational numbers, the above graph is not a continuous curve. However, it is easily to see that there is one and only one continuous curve y = g(x) satisfying g(x) = 2x for all rational numbers x. Then we can define 2 x := g ( x) In general, we can prove that i) If f(x + y) = f (x) f (y) for all rational numbers x and y, then f (r) = f (1)r for all rational numbers r. for any irrational number x.
ii) For any real positive number a, there is one and only one continuous function fa defined on the real line such that fa(r) = ar for all rational numbers r.
We define
ax : = fa(x)
where fa is the unique continuous function satisfying fa(x) = ax for all rational number x.
Furthermore, we can show that all indices laws ( (2.0) - (2.7) ) in table 0 hold even
the powers are irrational. Definition 0.2.0 For any a > 0, the continuous function f(x) = ax defined on the real line is called an Exponential Function with Base a.
Since a0 = 1 for any positive real number a, the exponential curve y = ax must passes through the point (0, 1). When a = 1, the graph y = 1x is just a horizontal straight line. If a > 1 then ax < ay
However if 0< a < 1, then ax > ay whenever x < y; (i.e. strictly decreasing) In both cases a > 1 and 0 < a < 1, x-axis is a horizontal asymptote to the curve y = ax. 1 1 ) is the mirror image of that of the Besides the graph of the curve y = ( ) x (= a ax
y = ax , a > 1 a
1
1 a
y = 1x
1 y = ( )x a
x
1 2
4(3x); 4(3x) 1 ;
d) y = e) f)
y=
1 x (3 ); 2 1 (3x). 2
y = 2
a)
y = 0.2 x ;
b)
y = 5 x ; c)
y=
2(0.2x);
0 .2 x . 5
d)
y=
0 .2 x ; 5
e)
y = 32(0.2x) ;
f)
y = 3+
(i)
x + x
lim a x = + ,
(ii) lim a x = 0,
lim a x = 0,
(ii) lim a x = + .
x +
b)
x +
lim
2
x 1+ 32
c)
x +
lim
4(33 x ) 1 1 + 33 x
d)
lim
4(33 x ) 1 1 + 33 x
e)
x + 3 4(0.5 x )
lim
2(0.5 x )
f)
x 5 4(0.7) x
lim
2(0.7) x +1
g)
lim
1 3x + 1
b)
y=
3x + 1
c)
y=
1 3x 3x + 1
a)
x +
lim 0.4 x ;
x
b)
lim 1
3x . 2
c) d) e) f)
43 lim ; x + 5
x x +
lim 5 kx lim a bx
where k is a positive constant; where a and b are positive constants but a <1; 1
x
x 3 + 2(0.1
lim
g)
)
i)
x + 1 3(0.12 x )
lim
h)
x + 2 x
lim
2x 4
x + 2(3 x ) + 5
lim
4(3 x ) 1
j)
lim
2 ( 0 .3 x ) + 3 0 .3 x 1
k)
lim
2(5 x ) + 4 2 3(5 x )
l)
x + 3( 2 2 x 1 ) 1
lim
2 2 x +1 + 2 x
Let a (1) and x be two positive real numbers. If there is a real number y such that ay = x, we write logax = y and y is called the logarithm of x with base a.
loga 1 = 0, loga a = 1.
(2.11)
x y = (a log a x ) y
(2.15) loga(
x ) = logax logay, y
Table 1
Definition 0.2.2 The inverse function of the exponential function with base a is called the Logarithmic Function with Base a and is denoted by loga. That is, for x > 0,
logax = y if
ay = x.
If a > 1, then logax is strictly increasing. If 0 < a < 1, then logax is strictly decreasing. The graph of logarithmic function y = logax (a) passes through the point (1, 0). (b) has a vertical asymptote x = 0 (the y-axis) (c) is the mirror image of that of its inverse function y = ax about the line y = x y y = ax y y=x y = logax O 1 x O x y = logax y = ax y=x
a>1 e.g.0.2.5 Solve the following equations. a) c) log8(x 3) + log8(x 5) = 1; 32x+1 = 5x; b) d)
0<a<1
Definition 0.2.3 The base of Natural Logarithm is denoted by e. This number e be defined by
1 e = lim (1 + ) n 2.7182818284 n n
The exponential function with base e is simply called the Exponential function and denoted by exp. That is, exp(x) = ex for any real number x.
The Natural Logarithmic Function and denoted by ln or log is the logarithmic Function with base e. That is, ln x = log e x . The importance of e will be shown in next sections.
Section 3. Differentiation
i) ii) iii)
iv)
If y then
u is a differentiable function of x,
dy dy du = . dx du dx
If y is a differentiable function of x given by y=f(x), and if x = ( y ) is the inverse function of y=f(x), then '( y ) = 1 dy 1 , or = . dx dx f '( ( y )) dy
d 2 y d 2 y d 2u = . dx 2 du 2 dx 2
e.g.0.3.1 sin: ( . ) ( 1,1) is differentiable and bijective. 2 2 its inverse function, find dy . dx
Let y = sin 1 x be
Theorem 0.3.0
d x = x 1 , is a real constant; dx d sin x = cos x ; dx d cos x = sin x dx d tan x = sec2 x ; dx d cot x = csc2 x ; dx d sec x = sec x tan x ; dx d csc x = csc x cot x ; dx d x e = ex ; dx d 1 ln x = ; dx x
vii)
viii) 1) ix) 1) x)
2) 2)
d x a = a x ln a , a>0 is a constant; dx
d sin1 x = dx
1 1 x 1
2
; ;
d cos1 x = xi) dx
xii)
1 x 1
b) 4 e
x2
c) 4 e ;
d)
x 2e x ;
e)
1+ ex 1 ex
; f) e (tan
x)2
e.g.0.3.4 Find the derivatives of the following functions a) f(x) = 3lnx; b) g(x) = ln( x 2 + 1) ; c) h(x) = ln x ; x d)
y(x)= x 2 ln x .
e.g.0.3.5 a) Let y =
(4 + 5 x) 2 2 3x x2 +1
b)
b) y = 4e8x + 15 e 3 ; d) y = x3e2x ;
e x +1 ; e) y = 7 4x
2
f) y = log3 x;
h) y = ln ln x; j) y = 5lnx
3 k) y = 54 x 2 x ;
l) y = e e .
b) y =
( x 1)( x 3) ; ( x + 1)( x + 3)
d) y = (log2 x)x.
Section 4. Integration 0.4.0 Method of Substitution Definition 0.4.0 Let y = f ( x) be a function of x, and let x be a small increment of x. The product f ' ( x)x is defined to be the differential of y and denoted by dy.
Since dx =
If
d g ( u) = f ( u) and u = h( x ) , then du
1 dx by the substitution u = 2 x 7 ; ( 2 x 7) 2
sin(7 3x)dx x( x x
2 2
by the substitution u = 7 3 x ;
iii) iv) v)
ii) iii)
cos(ax + b) +C . a
sin( ax + b) +C. a
sin x 1 cos x
dx ;
ii)
csc
d ;
1 + 2007 tan x x dx ; v) ( x 1) 6
sec 2 x
dx ;
(x
x 1 dx . 2 x + 1) 2
e.g.0.4.4 (Trigonometric Substitution) Case 1. If the integrand contains (a 2 x 2 ) , make the substitution x = a sin . Case 2. If the integrand contains (a 2 + x 2 ) , make the substitution x = a tan . Case 3. If the integrand contains ( x 2 a 2 ) , make the substitution x = a sec . Evaluate i)
1 x 2 dx ;
ii)
4 x2 dx ; iii) x2
dx (5 + x )
2 3 2
; iv)
x3 x2 + 9
dx .
e.g.0.4.5 i) Find the derivative of ln x for x 0. ii) Find the indefinite integral
x dx .
1
Theorem 0.4.1
1. 2.
x ndx =
1 n +1 x + C for n 1 . n +1
1 dx = ln x + C . x
3. i)
ii)
sec
xdx = tan x + C ;
csc
xdx = cot x + C ;
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
x + C. 2 dx =
1 kx e + C , where k is a constant; k
e dx = e
x
+C;
ii)
kx
9.
10.
i) ii)
1 x
1
dx = 2
1 1+ x ln + C; 2 1 x
a2 x
1
dx = 2
11.
i) ii)
1 1 x2 1
a2 x2
12.
i) ii)
x 1 1
2 2
dx = ln x + x 2 1 + C ; dx = ln x + x 2 a 2 + C , where a is a constant.
x a
1 dx ; 2x + 1
ex
ii) v)
1 dx , x > 0; x ln x
esin 2 x sin 2 x e2 x dx .
iii)
x 2 e x dx ;
ex + 1 dx ;
ax 2 + bx + c dx ,
1 ii)
1
ax 2 + bx + c
dx )
x 2 + x + 1 dx ;
1
4 x 2 4 x dx ;
iv)
1 5 x2 4x
dx ;
x 2 + 6x + 1
dx .
ax 2 + bx + c
dx ,
ii)
x+5
ex + f
ex + f ax + bx + c
2
dx )
2t 2 + 2t + 1 dt ;
dx .
8t 3
x 2 + 2 x + 8 dx ;
2x + 1 3x + 8x 1
2
a)
(5 2 x) dx ;
2x 2 + 4x
b)
(2 x 3)( x 2 3x + 1) 2 dx ;
c)
x 3 + 3x 2 2
dx ;
d)
(2 x 1) (6 x + 5) dx ; e)
1 dx . x ln x
0.4.2
Definition 0.4.1
Definition 0.4.2
A rational function
p(x ) is called q (x )
i) a proper fraction if deg( p ( x )) < deg( q ( x )) , ii) an improper fraction if deg( p ( x )) deg( q ( x )) , where deg(p(x)) is the degree of the polynomial p(x).
For
instance,
1 2 x 2 + 3x 1 , 1 + x ( x + 1)( x + 2 )( x + 3)
are
proper
fractions
while
x 1 x 3 + 4x + 1 , are improper fractions. x + 1 x 2 + 2x 1 p(x ) If is an improper fraction, then by dividing p(x) by q(x), we get q (x ) p ( x ) q ( x ) Q( x ) + R ( x )
deg( R ( x )) < deg( q ( x )) . , where
Q(x),
R(x)
are
polynomials
and
It follows that
Definition 0.4.3 Partial fractions is the process which breaks a given fraction (proper or
improper) into an algebraic sum of several proper fractions and a polynomial. Process of resolving a rational fraction in partial fractions: 1. Express the given rational function as a sum of a polynomial (it may be a zero
polynomial if the given rational function is proper) and a PROPER fraction. 2. Factorize the denominator completely into product of linear and quadratic factors. 3. To a factor of the form ( ax + b ) n , n 1 , there corresponds a group of fractions
A1 A2 An + +L+ 2 ax + b ( ax + b ) ( ax + b ) n
where A1 , A2 ,L , An are constants. 4. To a factor of the form ( ax 2 + bx + c) n , n 1 , there corresponds a group of fractions
A1x + B1 ax + bx + c
2
A2 x + B2
( ax + bx + c)
2 2
+L+
An x + Bn
( ax 2 + bx + c) n
;
1
ii)
4 x + 4x
3
iii)
1 x +1
3
iv)
x5 x 4 + x 3 x 2 + x 1
v)
x 3 6x 2 + 4 x + 8
( x 3) 4
e.g.0.4.10 Evaluate i)
a 2 x 2 dx ;
1
ii)
x5 x 4 + x 3 x 2 + x 1dx ;
1
iii)
2 x 4 + x 3 + 3x 2 3x x3 1
dx ;
iv)
(x + 1)(x 4 1) dx .
2 x 2 + 6x + 8
9 e x 4 e x
4 ex + 6e x
dx ;
ii)
1 + ex dx .
e2 x
Class Practice 0.4.1 By the method of partial fractions, find the following indefinite integrals. 1 x +1 dx ; a) b) dx ; 2 x ( x + 1) x + 4x 5
c)
6(2xx++33)2 dx
d)
x x 4x + 4
2
dx .
Let u=f(x) and v=g(x) be two real-valued functions with continuous first derivatives. Then
udv = uv vdu , i.e. f (x)g ' (x)dx = f (x)g (x) g (x) f ' (x)dx .
Integration by parts is particularly useful when the integrand contains i) a product of two factors; ii) an inverse trigonometric functions; iii) a logarithmic functions.
e.g.0.4.12 Evaluate i)
ln xdx ;
ii)
sin
xdx .
In the integral
f ( x ) g ( x ) dx , if f ( x ) =
x tan
xdx ;
ii)
iii)
x(tan
x ) 2 dx .
In the integral
x n g ( x ) dx , if g ( x ) =
n n
xe
3x
dx ;
ii)
cos xdx .
If there are sin n x or cosn x in the integrand, we should reduce them to compound angle. e.g.0.4.15 Evaluate
x cos
xdx .
Sometimes, after integrating by parts, the new integral on the right hand side may be expressible as a sum of a multiple of the original integral and an integral which can be readily integrated. examples. This technique is illustrated in the following
e.g.0.4.16 Evaluate i)
sec xdx ;
3
ii)
sin xdx ;
iii)
cos(ln x)dx .
a) c)
x k ln xdx
where k 1;
b)
(1ln xx)2 dx
and
2.
a)
where a 0.
b)
Hence evaluate
x 3e2 x dx .