Chapt er 8

Tr ansf or mer s

Tr ansf or mer Act i on
When t w o coi l s of w i r e ar e i nduct i vel y coupl ed, t he f l ux t hat passes t hr ough one of t hem al so
passes ent i r el y or i n par t t hr ough t he ot her . Thi s f act i mpl i es t hat t he coi l s have a magnet i c
ci r cui t t hat i s common t o bot h.
If t hi s f l ux cr eat ed by a var yi ng cur r ent t hr ough one coi l changes, t he mut ual f l ux w i l l change.
Under t hi s condi t i on t her e w i l l be i nduced vol t age cr eat ed i n t he second coi l .
Secondar y i nduced vol t age occur s because t he f l ux changes t hr ough t he coi l , al t hough t hi s f l ux
change i s occasi oned i n t he f i r st pl ace by t he cur r ent change i n t he f i r st , or pr i mar y coi l .
The i nduced vol t age of mut ual i nduct i on i n t he secondar y coi l i s cal l ed t r ansf or mer vol t age, and
t he act i on t hat cr eat es t he emf or vol t age i s cal l ed t r ansf or mer act i on.
A t r ansf or mer i s a devi ce t hat :
Tr ansf er s el ect r i cal ener gy f r om one el ect r i c ci r cui t t o anot her .
Tr ansf er s el ect r i cal ener gy wi t hout a change of f r equency.
Tr ansf er s el ect r i cal ener gy by t he pr i nci pl e of el ect r omagnet i c i nduct i on.
Have elect r i c ci r cui t s t hat ar e l i nked by a common magnet i c ci r cui t .




Tr ansf or mer Const r uct i on
Tw o gener al t ypes
Cor e t ype
Shel l t ype
Cor e t ype
Pr i mary and secondar y coi l s ar e pl aced ar ound
t he l ami nat ed st eel cor e.
The coi l s sur r ound a consi der abl e par t of t he
magnet i c ci r cui t .
In pr act i ce t he pr i mar y w i ndi ng i s di vi ded i nt o
an even number of separ at e coi l s, w i t h hal f of
t hem pl aced ar ound one l eg and t he ot her hal f
ar ound t he ot her l eg.
Shel l t ype
The magnet i c ci r cui t sur r ounds t he a
consi der abl e por t i on of t he w i ndi ngs.
Pr i mary and secondar y coi l s ar e assembl ed
t oget her .



Tr ansf or mer Vol t ages and Gener al Tr ansf or mer Equat i on
The i mpedance of t he pr i mar y w i ndi ng of a t r ansf or mer i s compar at i vel y high. If t he secondar y
w i ndi ng i s open ci r cui t ed, t he i mpr essed vol t age V
P
causes a ver y small cur r ent t o f l ow i n t he
pr i mar y wi ndi ng.
Thi s no-l oad cur r ent I
N
has t w o f unct i ons:
It must pr oduce t he mut ual f l ux t hat var i es bet w een zer o and
m

And, i t must have a component t hat t akes car e of t he hyst er esi s and eddy-cur r ent
pow er l osses t he i r on l osses i n t he i r on cor e.
E
av
= N x x 10
-8

Wher e

E
av
= aver age i nduced emf i n coi l
N = number of t ur ns i n coi l
t = t i me f or f l ux t o change by
m
maxw el l s
i t f ol l ow s t hat
E
av
= N x x 10
-8
= 4f N
m
x

10
-8

Wher e f = f r equency, cycl es per second
In t he pr evi ous equat i on, f i s subst i t ut ed f or t because t he f l ux changes f r om zer o t o
m
. Now
t hen, si nce f or a si ne w ave t he ef f ect i ve vol t age E i s equal t o 1.11 t i mes t he aver age vol t age E
av
,
E = 1.11 x E
av
= 4.44f N
m
x 10
-8
vol t s
Thi s i s t he gener al t r ansf or mer equat i on and appl i es equal l y t o t he pr i mar y and secondar y
i nduced vol t ages. Thus
E
p
= 4.44f N
p

m
x 10
-8
vol t s
E
s
= 4.44f N
s

m
x 10
-8
vol t s
w her e N
p
= number of pr i mar y t ur ns
N
s
= number of secondar y t ur ns
Vol t age and Cur r ent r at i os i n Tr ansf or mer s
It i s cl ear t hat t he vol t s per t ur n i s exact l y t he same f or bot h t he pr i mar y and secondar y w i ndi ngs
because each equal s 4.44 x f x
m
x 10
-8
. Thi s i ndi cat es t hat , i n any t r ansf or mer , t he pr i mar y and
secondar y i nduced vol t ages ar e r el at ed t o each ot her by t he t ur n r at i o of t he number of pr i mar y
and secondar y t ur ns.
t hus


t hi s equat i on can al so be der i ved by di vi di ng E
p
and E
s
i n t he pr evi ous equat i on.

Tr ansf or mer s ar e ext r emel y ef f i ci ent because t he onl y l osses ar e t hose t hat occur i n t he copper
w i ndi ngs (I
2
R l osses) and i n t he i r on (hyst er esi s and eddy-cur r ent l osses); t her e ar e no l osses
r esul t i ng f r om r ot at i on, such as pr esent i n r ot at i ng machi nes.
If t he i nput t o a t r ansf or mer i s assumed t o equal t he out put of a t r ansf or mer (ef f i ci ency = 100
%) and t he vol t age dr ops ar e consi der ed negl igi bl e, t hen i t i s gener all y t r ue t hat t he secondar y
l oad pow er f act or PF
s
i s pr act i cal l y equal t o t he pr i mar y i nput pow er f act or PF
p
. Ther ef or e
E
p
x I
p
= E
s
x I
s

t hi s show s t hat


and


That i s, t he vol t age r at i o E
p
: E
s
and t he t ur n r at i o N
p
: N
s
ar e bot h pr opor t i onal t o t he i nver ses
cur r ent r at i o I
s
: I
p
.

Rat i o of t r ansf or mat i on
The r at i o of t he pr i mar y and secondar y t ur ns Np : Ns w hi ch i s equal s t o t he r at i o of pr i mar y t o
secondar y i nduced vol t ages Ep : Es, i ndi cat es how much t he pr i mar y vol t age i s l ow ered or
r ai sed. The t ur n r at i o, or i nduced vol t age r at i o i s cal l ed t he r at i o of t r ansf or mat i on and i s
r epr esent ed by t he symbol .
t hus
=
Because t he pr i mar y i nput vol t age Vp and t he secondar y l oad vol t age Vs ar e ver y near l y equal t o
t he r espect i ve i nduced vol t ages, t he t er mi nal vol t age r at i o Vp : Vs i s f r equent l y cal l ed t he r at i o
of t r ansf or mat i on.



Vol t ages i n a t r ansf or mer
Ther e ar e 2 t ypes of t r ansf or mer s:

When t he pr i mar y i mpr essed vol t age Vp i s r educed t o l ow er secondar y vol t age Vs, i t i s sai d t o
be a st ep-dow n t r ansf or mer ; conver sel y, i f t he vol t age i s r ai sed, i t i s cal l ed a st ep-up
t r ansf or mer . In a st ep-dow n t r ansf or mer , t he r at i o of t r ansf or mat i on i s gr eat er t han uni t y, w hi l e
i n a st ep-up t r ansf or mer , is less than unity.
Thus, a 2,300 / 230 vol t st ep-dow n t r ansf or mer w oul d be sai d t o have a r at i o of t r ansf or mat i on
of 10:1, st ep-dow n; a 13,200 / 66,000 vol t st ep-up t r ansf or mer w oul d be sai d t o have a r at i o of
5:1 st ep-up.

Per cent Regul at i on
Si nce t he vol t age dr ops ar e al l di r ect l y pr opor t i onal t o t he l oad cur r ent , I
s
i n t he secondar y and I
p

i n t he pr i mar y, i t shoul d be cl ear t hat at no l oad t her e w i ll be no vol t age dr op i n ei t her w i ndi ngs.
Ther ef or e, i f a t r ansf or mer del i ver s r at e l oad at r at ed secondar y t er mi nal vol t age, t hat vol t age
w i ll change i f t he l oad i s r emoved. And by def i ni t i on t hi s vol t age change bet w een f ul l l oad and
no l oad di vi ded by t he f ul l l oad vol t age i s cal led t he r egul at i on.
as a per cent i t may be w r i t t en
Per cent r egul at i on =
vNL -vPL
vPL
x 100
w her e t he no-l oad and f ul l -l oad vol t ages V
NL
and V
FL
ar e t hose measur ed at t he secondar y
t er mi nal s.

Tappi ng of Tr ansf or mer
Di st r i but i on t r ansf or mer t r ansf or mer used f or di st r i but i on ser vi ces.
Connect ed t o t he cust omer l oad
Pow er t r ansf or mer s hi gh vol t age t r ansmi ssi on syst em
Lar ge amount s of pow er
Do not come i n cont act di r ect l y w i t h act ual cust omer l oad
Vol t age dr op i n t he l i ne w i r e i ncr eases w i t h t he di st ance f r om t he pr i mar y sour ce of vol t age.
The l oad vol t age may be t oo hi gh at t he begi nni ng of t he l i ne and t oo l ow at t he f ar end.

Tr ansf or mer s ar e t apped on t he pr i mar y si de, t he hi gh si de, i n such a w ay t hat t he r at i o of
t r ansf or mat i on maybe changed t o sui t t he act ual pr i mar y vol t age at t he poi nt w her e t he
t r ansf or mer i s i nst al l ed.


Loadi ng a t r ansf or mer
We sai d t hat t r ansf or mer s t r ansf er s el ect r i cal ener gy f r om one el ect r i cal ci r cui t t he pr i mar y
t o anot her ci r cui t t he secondar y w i t hout t he change of mut ual f l ux
m
under nor mal
condi t i ons.
So f or ever y val ue of pow er del i ver ed by t he secondar y V
s
I
s
x PF
s
must be mat ched by a
cor r espondi ng i nput t o t he pr i mar y V
p
I
p
x PF
p
assumi ng negl igi ble pow er l oss.
Ref er t o t he l at t er , a t r ansf or mer must per f or m under l oad, f ul f i l li ng t w o condi t i ons:
The mut ual f l ux
m
must r emai n pr act i cal l y const ant .
V
p
I
p
must equal V
s
I
s
assumi ng t hat t he pr i mar y and secondar y pow er f act or s ar e equal .

Leakage React ance
In a t r ansf or mer , w henever a vol t age i s i nduced i n t he coi l w i ndi ng by a changi ng f l ux t hr ough i t ,
t hat i nduced vol t age l ags behi nd t he f l ux by exact l y 90 el ect r i cal degr ees.
Fl ux and cur r ent ar e pr esumabl y i n phase w i t h each ot her .





The secondar y w i ndi ng, must devel op an i nduced emf t hat w i l l not onl y suppl y a t er mi nal
vol t age V
s
f or t he l oad, but al so t ake car e of t w o i nt er nal vol t age dr ops, namel y, t he vol t age
dr op due t o r esi st ance - I
S
R
S
dr op and, t he l eakage react ance dr op I
S
X
S
dr op t he r esul t s
f r om t he pr esence of l eakage f l ux.
The t hr ee component s of secondar y vol t age, V
S
, I
S
R
S
, and I
S
X
S
ar e added vect or i al l y t o yi el d t he
devel oped secondar y emf , al t hough, dependi ng upon t he magni t ude and char act er (l aggi ng or
l eadi ng) of t he l oad pow er f act or , t he l eakage r eact ance dr op may at t empt t o r educe or r ai se
t he t er mi nal vol t age.

Equi val ent Resi st ance, React ance, and Impedance
When r egul at i on cal cul at i ons ar e made f or t r ansf er s, i t i s conveni ent t o combi ne t he r esi st ance
and r eact ance dr ops t hat act ual l y occur on t he pr i mar y and secondar y si des i nt o a si ngl e val ue
of IR and a si ngl e val ue of IX.
One met hod of si mpl i f yi ng t he cal cul at i ons i s t o make use of t he i dea t hat a t r ansf or mer having
a r at i on of t r ansf or mat i on can be converted i nt o an equi valent t r ansf or mer havi ng a r at i o of
1:1.
Not t he f ol l ow i ng subst i t ut i ons based on t he pr evi ous di scussi ons:



The ohmi c val ues i n t he f i nal br acket s of t he f or egoi ng equat i ons ar e cal l ed t he equi valent
r esi st ance R
e
and equival ent r eact ance X
e
i n t er ms of t he secondar y si de. Thus

In t he same manner , i t i s possi bl e t o show t he equi val ent r esi st ance R
e
and equival ent r eact ance
X
e
i n t er ms of t he pr i mar y side as f ol l ow s:

Si nce r esi st ance and r eact ance have pr oper t i es t hat ar e r epr esent ed 90 apar t , t hei r vect or
summat i on bear s t he same r el at i on t o t he i ndi vi dual par t s t hat t he hypot enuse of a r i ght -angl e
t r i angl e bear s t o t he t w o r emai ni ng si des. The t er m gener al l y used f or t he vect or sum of R and X
i s i mpedacne Z.
For t he t r ansf or mer , t her ef or e,

Wher e Z
e
= equi val ent i mpedance of t r ansf or mer

Equi val ent Ci r cui t of a Tr ansf or mer
The di scussi on of t r ansf or mer per f or mance under l oad has negl ect ed t he component of no-l oad
cur r ent t hat f l ow s i n t he pr i mar y w i ndi ng onl y.
It i s al so possi bl e t o r epr esent a t r ansf or mer as an or di nar y ser i es el ect r i c ci r cui t t hat has t hr ee
el ement s:
The equi val ent r esi st ance
The equi val ent l eakage r eact ance
The l oad

The Shor t Ci r cui t Test
To det er mi ne exper i ment all y t he val ues of t he equi valent r esi st ance, i mpedance, and r eact ance,
t he so-cal l ed shor t -ci r cui t t est i s gener all y per f or med.
In exper i ment at i on dat a of w at t s, amper es, and vol t s obt ai ned, t he val ues of equi val ent
r esi st ance, equi val ent i mpedance, and equi val ent r eact ance can t hen be cal cul at ed, al l i n t er ms
of t he hi gh si de usi ng t he f ol l ow i ng equat i ons:
Re=
Psc
I sc
2

Ze=
Esc
I sc

Xe= Ze
2
-Re
2

w her e P
sc
, I
sc
, and E
sc
ar e shor t -ci r cui t w at t s, amper es, and vol t s, r espect i vel y.
The pr ocedur e f or cal cul at i ng t he per cent r egul at i on can t hen be car r i ed on i n t he manner
pr evi ously descr i bed.
Fr om t he pr evi ous di scussi ons, t he f ul l l oad copper l osses i n t he pr i mar y and secondar y w i ndi ngs
r esul t ed f r om t he ci r cul at i on of r at ed cur r ent i n t hese w i ndi ngs, and t he l osses i ndi cat ed ar e
obvi ousl y equal t o t he sum of I
p
2
R
p
and I
s
2
R
s
.
Not e par t i cul ar l y t hat t he copper l osses var y as t he squar e of t he cor r espondi ng pr i mar y and
secondar y cur r ent s, and t hi s means, t hat t hey dr op or r i se shar pl y bel ow or above t he f ul l -l oad
val ue w hen t he l oad i s hi gher or l ow er t han r at ed KVA.
I
2
= copper l oss = S
sc

The Open Ci r cui t Test
When one si de of a t r ansf or mer i s l ef t open-ci r cui t ed and t he ot her si de i s connect ed t o a
sour ce of al t er nat i ng cur r ent w hose vol t age i s t he r at ed val ue, t he cur r ent w i l l be ext r emel y l ow
about 2 t o 10 per cent of r at ed l oad cur r ent .
Tw o component s of t he pow er l oss ar e devel oped i n t he i r on:
Hyst er esi s l oss pur el y magnet i c
Eddy-cur r ent l oss el ect r omagnet i c i n char act er
But E = 4.44Nm 10
-8

Ther ef or e m = [m x A =
L x 10
8
4.44]N

and [m = (
10
8
4.44NA
)
L
]

w her e A = ar ea of cor e
For a gi ven t r ansf or mer , N and A ar e const ant ; t her ef or e t he t er ms i n t he br acket may be set
equal t o const ant k. t hus
[m = k
E

Subst i t ut i ng t hi s val ue of f l ux densi t y i n t he f or egoi ng cor e-l oss equat i ons gi ves
P
= kk(E
1.6
/
1.5
) = k
1
(E
1.6
/
0.6
)
and
Pc = kc
2
k(E
2
/
2
) = k
2
E
2

w her e k
1
and k
2
ar e si mpl y pr opor t i onal i t y const ant s.

Si nce t he t ot al cor e l oss Pc i s t he sum of t he hyst er esi s and eddy-cur r ent l osses, i t f ol l ow s t hat
Pc = k 1
E
1.6
f
0.6
+ k 2E
2

Not e t hat f or a gi ven i mpr essed emf E (E
p
,E
s
), t he eddy-cur r ent l oss i s i ndependent of t he
f r equency, and i s di r ect l y pr opor t i onal t o t he squar e of t he i mpr esses emf . The hyst er esi s l oss is
how ever depends upon bot h t he appl i ed vol t age and i t s f r equency.

Regul at i on Cal cul at i on usi ng Shor t -Ci r cui t dat a
E
sc
i s t he vol t age dr op of t he t r ansf or mer at f ul l l oad. As a per cent of t he r at ed t r ansf or mer
vol t age i n t er ms of t he si de on w hi ch t he t est i s per f or med, i t i s cal l ed t he %IZ dr op and
expr essed as


Al so, t he i nput t o t he shor t -ci r cui t ed t r ansf or mer i s used ent i r el y t o suppl y t he copper l osses, P
sc

= I
FL
2
R
e
. As a per cent of t he vol t -amper e r at i ng of t he t r ansf or mer , t hi s w oul d be

Then r ecal l t he hypot enuse of a r i ght t r i angl e t o t he t w o si des %IX t her ef or e f ol l ow s t hat ,

The val ues of %IR and t he %IX may be subst i t ut ed i n a equat i on t o det er mi ne t he per cent
r egul at i on of a t r ansf or mer . It i s


Ef f i ci ency Cal cul at i ons usi ng Shor t -ci r cui t and Open-ci r cui t dat a
When t he secondar y of a t r ansf or mer del i ver s pow er t o a l oad, an equi val ent amount of pow er
i s suppl i ed t o t he pr i mar y by t he a-c sour ce. The pow er out put i s l ess t han t he pow er i nput due
t o t he l osses. Thi s i mpl i es t hat t he ef f i ci ency of a t r ansf or mer i s al w ays l ess t han 100%
These l osses ar e measur ed by t he w at t met er -ci r cui t i n shor t -ci r cui t t est (copper l oss) and open-
ci r cui t t est (hyst er esi s and eddy cur r ent l oss). Wi t h t hese know n l osses i t i s possi bl e t o
det er mi ne t he t r ansf or mer ef f i ci ency.
pcrccnt cicicncy = _1
wott losscs
wott output + wott losscs
]x 100



M axi mum Ef f i ci ency
The ef f i ci ency of a t r ansf or mer i s at maxi mum w hen t he copper l osses ar e equal t o t he i r on
l osses. Wri t i ng t he equat i on
I s
2
Re= Pc
I s=
_
Pc
Re

Wher e I
s
= secondar y or l oad cur r ent
R
e
= equi val ent r esi st ance i n secondar y t er ms
Der i vi ng t he f or mul a of bot h si des bei ng equat ed t o E
s
/ 1000 and I
FL
/ I
FL

k vamax ef f = k var at ed
_
Pc
Psc



Aut ot r ansf or mer
Di f f er ence of an aut o t r ansf or mer f r om a convent i onal t r ansf or mer i s how t he pr i mar y and
secondar y w i ndi ngs ar e i nt er r el at ed.
The t w o w i ndi ngs ar e bot h el ect r i cal l y and magnet i cal ly i nt er connect ed, a par t of t he si ngl e
cont i nuous w i ndi ng i s common t o bot h pr i mar y and secondar y.

Pow er t r ansf or med i n an aut ot r ansf or mer :
Ptrons = powcr input _1
1