Mitosis

Interphase takes place before mitosis actually occurs. G1 phase: cells grow, biosynthesis, protein synthesis, organelles replicate. S phase: DNA synthesis occurs chromosomes replicate G2 phase: cells grows and prepares for mitosis Mitosis Prophase: the chromosomes become visible as it coils and super coils (shorten and thicken) you can now begin to see that they consist of a pair of sister chromatids. Spindles start to form. The nuclear envelope starts to disappear and the centrioles start to move to opposite of the poles while starting to form the microtubules. Metaphase: the nuclear envelope completely disappears, the microtubules attach to the centromeres of the chromatid pulling them to the equator of the cell. Anaphase: the replicated chromatids are separated from each other as the microtubules begin to shorten pulling the chromatids to two different piles at opposite poles of the cell. Telophase: the spindle fibres break down. The nuclear envelope reappears around the two separate piles of chromosomes. The chromosomes slowly uncoil therefore they are no longer visible using a light microscope. The cell starts to pinch Cytokinesis: the whole cell pinches at the cytoplasm forming two daughter cells which are genetically identical to the mother cell.

The Lungs
Inhaling Diagram contracts to become flatter and pushes digestive organs down External intercostal muscles contract to raise ribs Volume of chest cavity increases Air moves into lungs Pressure in chest cavity drops below atmospheric pressure Exhaling Diagram relaxes and is pushed up by displaces organs underneath External intercostal muscles relax and ribs fall Volume in chest cavity decreases Pressure in lungs increases and rises above atmospheric pressure. Air moves out of the lings

Breathing ventilation of the lungs happens due to pressure changes Brought by the contractions (chest rises)/ relax (chest falls) of external intercostal muscle changes in volume of Thoracic Cavity (chest cavity) no muscles attached to the outside of the lungs

The Lungs

Sigh

At rest Volume Dm^3

Yawn

Time(s)

Mitosis: Animal Vs Plant

Unlike animal cells, plant cells dont have centrioles therefore the tubulin protein threads from in the cytoplasm of the cells. In animal cells when Cytokinesis is ready to occurs the cell starts to pinch at the cytoplasm however this is not possible in plant cells so instead a cell plate forms in the equator of the cell then around that the cell wall and cell surface membrane starts to form. In animal, mitosis an occur in all most all cells however in plant cells mitosis can only occur in specialised Meristem cells such as the root tip, the shoot tip (Apical Meristem) and cambium (phloem).

The Lungs
The lungs are protected by the ribs. Movement of the ribs together with the action of the diaphragm (layer of muscle found beneath the lungs) help to produce breathing movement/ventilation. Gases pass both in and out of thin membrane of the alveoli: oxygen passes in the alveoli to the blood in the capillaries. Carbon dioxide passes from the blood to the air in the alveoli. How the Lungs are adapted for change: Large surface area: provides more space for molecules to pass through. Alveoli are very small (100-300micrometres) but they are found in large amounts on our lungs. Air Nose trachea bronchi A barrier partially permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide. Bronchioles terminal bronchioles Thin barrier to reduce diffusion distance: the alveoli and capillary (ends of tubes) Alveoli walls are one cell thick (are in close contact) both consist of Squamous cells. Capillaries are narrow so the red blood cells are Gaseous Exchange: movement of gases closer to the air in alveoli therefore reducing the diffusion distance. by diffusion between an organism and Maintenance of steep diffusion gradient: fresh supply of molecules on its environment across a barrier e.g. one side of e.g. capillaries to keep concentration gradient difference high. alveoli Moist: needed for gases to dissolve.

The Lungs
Nose: - Nasal hairs trap large dust particles. - Nasal membrane moisturise the air. Trachea: - C-Shaped rinds or cartilage. - Ciliated epithelium tissue and goblet cells - Smooth muscle Bronchi: - Irregular shaped protons of cartilage - Ciliated epithelium tissue and goblet cells - Plentiful supply of muscle Bronchioles: - similar to bronchi - Lumen is star shaped Alveoli: - No cilia/ goblet cells/ muscle - Very thin membrane - contains macrographs which is a type of white blood cell that digests microbes and dust

Ventilation breathing in and out to supply fresh air to the alveoli. Ventilation is assisted by muscles and elastic tissue (allows stretching of the tubes).

Roles of Tissue
Ciliated Epithelium Tissue: the cilia on parts of the outer membrane of the tissue move in a synchronised pattern to waft mucus back up to the throat to be swallowed. Squamous Epithelium Tissue: is made up of cells that are flattened, so they are very thin. The cells together form a thin, smooth, flat surface making it ideal to line the inside of tubes e.g. blood vessels, where fluid can easily pass over them. Can also form thin walls e.g. the alveolus as is provides a short diffusion pathway for the exchange of gases. Smooth Muscle: can contract so it will constrict the airway making the Lumen of the airway narrower. Found in the bronchioles so it can constrict the air in and from the alveolus. Elastic Fibres: when the smooth muscle contracts it cannot reverse this affect so when the airway constricts, it deforms the elastic fibres in the loose tissue. As the smooth muscle relaxes, the elastic fibres recoil to their original shape and size. Helps widen the airway. Cartilage: plays a structural role. It supports the trachea and bronchi, holding them open. This prevent collapse when the air pressure inside is low during inhalation. Cartilage does not form a complete ring so there can be some flexibility. Goblet Cells and Glandular tissue: secrets mucus. The role of mucus is to trap tiny microbes and dust particles from the air (e.g. pollen and bacteria) to reduce the risk of infection

Transport Tissue in Plants

Plant need to move water and minerals from the soil, through their roots and stems, up into the leaves. They also need to move products from photosynthesis from the leaves to other parts of the plant to use for growth or to store for later use. Xylem and Phloem come from dividing meristem cells such as cambium. Meristem cells produce small cells that elongate. Xylem tissue: consists of xylem vessel with parenchyma cells and fibres. Their walls become reinforced and waterproofed by deposits of lignin. This kills the cells content. The ends of the cell break down so that they become continues, long tubes with a wide lumen. Xylem tissues are well suited to for transporting water and minerals up and down the plants sieve tubes. Phloem tissue: consists of sieve tubes (allow the movement of materials up and down the tubes) and companion cells (are very metabolically active). Play an important role in moving products of photosynthesis up and down the plant in the sieve tubes.

The Lungs and circulatory system

Circulatory system
No gas exchange takes place in the trachea, bronchi and upper bronchiole. Gas exchange only takes place in the alveoli.

Open Blood exposed to tissue E.g. insects

Closed Blood never leaves the vessels E.g. mammals and fish

Myogenic Self breathing (actuating).

Transport system and Circulatory system

Features of a good transport system: A fluid or medium to carry nutrients and oxygen around the body this is the blood A pump to create pressure that will push the fluid around the body this is the heart Exchange surfaces that enable oxygen and nutrients to enter the blood and to leave it again where they are needed. Tubes and blood vessels to carry the blood Two circuits on to pick up oxygen and another to deliver oxygen to the tissue. Single circulatory system: A circulation in which blood flows through the heart once during each circulation of the body. Double circulatory system: A transport system in which Blood travels twice through the heart for each complete circuit of the body. Heart Gills Single Circulation: Fish Tissue

Double Circulation: Mammal

The Heart
Blood in from the head and body (deoxygenated blood)
Right Atrium Tricuspid Valve

To the lungs
Pulmonary Artery

To the head and body Aorta

Blood in from lungs (Oxygenated blood)

Left Atrium Bicuspid Valve

Thin Muscle

Thick Muscle

Artery: goes away from the heart Vein: goes to the heart

Right Ventricle

Left Ventricle Left

Right

The Heart
Blood Pressure The muscle of each chamber contracts to create increased pressure in the blood. The higher the pressure created in the heart, the further it will be able to push the blood. Atria The muscle of the atria is very thin as its chamber is not needed to create much pressure. There function is to push blood into the ventricle. Right Ventricle The walls of the right Ventricle is much thicker than the walls of the atria enabling it to pump blood out of the heart. However the walls of the right ventricle are much thinner than the walls of the left ventricle. The right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The lungs are in the chest cavity besides the heart therefore the blood doesnt need to travel far. The lungs also contain a lot of very fine capillaries that are in close contact with the walls of the alveoli. The alveoli walls are very thin and there is very little tissue fluid therefore the capillaries are not supported and could easily burst. The pressure of the blood must be kept down to prevent the capillaries on the lungs from bursting. Left Ventricle The walls of the left ventricle can be two/three times bigger than those of the right ventricle. The blood from the left ventricle is pumped out through the aorta and needs sufficient pressure to overcome the resistance of the circulation.

Eukaryotic Cells (Animal Cells)

Ribosomes - Are the site where protein synthesis in the cell takes place. The Nucleus - Houses nearly all the cells genetic material. - It has instructions to make proteins. Mitochondrion - The nucleolus makes RNA and - Produced ATP energy during ribosomes. the process of aerobic Endoplasmic Reticulum respiration. Rough ER: transports proteins that were made on the attached Golgi body - Receives proteins from the ribosomes. Some of these proteins may be secreted from ER and modifies them. They the cell or others may be placed then package the modified proteins into vesicles that can on the cell surface membrane. Smooth ER: is involved in making be transported. Some the lipids that the cells need. modified proteins may go to the surface of the cell so that they may be secreted. Centrioles - Take part in cell division. They from the spindle which moves Lysosome - Contains powerful digestive the chromosomes during mitosis. enzymes that role is to break Cytoplasm down materials that the cell - Contains enzymes for glycolysis doesnt recognise. and other metabolic reactions

Cell Surface Membrane - Cell stability - Keeps organelles in place and within the cell. -Cell shape and structure.

Cytoskeleton - Gives the cell shape as well as hold organelles in place - Responsible for chromosomes moving in mitosis, movement of cilia and flagella, cytoplasm cleavage in cell division etc.

Prokaryotes
Organelles that Plants Cells have that animal cell dont: Chloroplast - Where photosynthesis takes place in plant cells. Cell Wall -gives extra strength to the cell but are freely permeable to solutes. Plasmodesmata - Are holes in the cell wall of plant cells. They connect to cytoplasm of other cells for communication and transport of materials. Vacuole -membrane bound sacs containing water of dilute solutions of salts and other solutes. -gives rigidity and shape to the cell - Usually freely permeable to molecules ions especially gas and water. Organelles that animal Cells have that plant cells dont: Microville -they increase the surface area for absorption of materials

- Drives the cell forward - used for propulsion

- Used for sticking cells together. - Protection against chemicals and phagocytises

- Produces ATP energy in prokaryotic via aerobic respiration

Contains DNA Contains all the enzymes needed for metabolic reactions

The Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane - Separates cell from the outside world. - gives the cell its shape. - keeps organelles in place. - allows simple diffusion of small molecules e.g. carbon dioxide, oxygen, water etc. - separating components from the cytoplasm -cell recognition and signalling.

Passive Process
Diffusion: refers to the tendency of molecules or ions to be distributed evenly out down its concentration gradient so from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration. Diffusion is a passive process so it only uses kinetic energy. Factors that affect the rate of diffusion: Temperature higher the temperature the more kinetic energy available for faster diffusion. Concentration gradient having more molecules on one side than the other increases the concentration gradient. Stirring/moving of substance increases the movement of molecules therefore it increases its diffusion rate. Surface area larger the surface area the faster the rate of diffusion. Distance/thickness of membranes. Thinker the membrane the slower the diffusion rate. Size of molecules smaller the ions or molecules the quicker they can diffuse. Diffusion is a relatively slow process compared to active transport. Equilibrium: No overall movement of molecules in one direction. So these no net movement. In living organism, many activities or features ensures that equilibrium is not reach. Cells use up carbon dioxide in photosynthesis so the levels within the cell remain much lower than that outside the cell. This maintains the concentration gradient for carbon dioxide. Simple Diffusion Passively diffuses through the Bilayer down a concentration gradient. Molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and steroid hormones can simply diffuse across the Bilayer. Facilitated Diffusion Small charged molecules such as sodium ions or larger molecules such as glucose cannot pass through the lipid Bilayer so they have to use the channel protein (open and close to control what enter and exits the cell) and carrier protein (shaped so specific molecules can fit in them) to simply diffuse down a concentration gradient.

Active Transport
Active transport requires the usage of ATP energy as ions go up a concentration gradient as big ions travel from a region on low concentration to a region of high concentration; they carry specific molecules one way across the membrane to ensure this occurs ATP energy changes the shape of the carrier protein so that only specific ions can enter and exit the carrier protein. Active transport is a much faster process than simply diffusion. Big ions cannot diffuse simply through the lipid Bilayer or even use the channel protein like in facilitated diffusion instead they require the help carrier proteins that changes shape in a way that fits the molecules they carry, they act as pumps as the carrier protein flips over or carries the ions across the phospholipids Bilayer. Examples of ions that travel using active transport is K+, Na+, Ca^2+ etc. Bulk transport: Is another example of active transport. Some cells need to move large quantities of materials either in or outside the cell. The process is described as endocytosis when it involves bringing molecules into the cell, and exocytosis involves moving materials out of the cell. Bulk transport is possible because membranes can easily fuse and separate by pinching off. Bulk transport also requires the usage of ATP energy. Endo inwards Pino liquid material Exo outwards Phango solid material.

Osmosis and Water Potential ()

Water Potential () -The ability of a solution to donate water molecules to another solution. Osmosis - Movement (diffusion) of water molecules only, across a partially-permeable membrane from a region of high to a region of low . - Movement of water molecules from a region of less negative to a more negative . Osmosis is a passive process therefore only requires kinetic energy. Highest is 0 Solute: substance that can dissolve. Solvent: the liquid that solutes dissolve in. The two together form a solution.

Osmosis in plant cells.

Osmosis in animal cells.

Factors That Affect the rate of Osmosis

Temperature: the higher the temperature the more kinetic energy available for a faster diffusion rate. 0C there is no kinetic energy therefore no movement. 10 -30C more heat so more kinetic energy so much faster diffusion rate. Size of Molecule: doesnt apply to osmosis as H2O molecules are all the same size. Surface area: the bigger the surface area, the more pores available for diffusion of water molecules so the rate of diffusion increases.

Concentration Gradient: the bigger the concentration gradient between two solutions, the faster the rate of diffusion.

Factors That Affect the rate of Osmosis

Thickness of Membrane: the thinner the membrane, the shorter the diffusion distance therefore it takes the molecules less time to travel so the rate of diffusion is faster. Membrane 1 Circulation of molecules: by circulating the molecules there is more kinetic energy available therefore the rate of diffusion increases.
Solution 2

Solution 1

Membrane 2

The Lung
Tidal Volume: volume of air moves into the lungs during each breath when you at rest. Inspiratory reserve: is how much more air can be breathed in over and above the normal tidal volume when you take in a big breath. Expiratory reserve: is how much more air can be breathed out over and above the amount that is breathed in a tidal volume breath. Vital Capacity: is the largest volume of air that can be moved into and out of the lungs in any one breath. Dead Space: is the air in the bronchioles, bronchi and trachea where no gas exchange takes place. Residual Volume: is the volume of the air that always remains in the lungs even after the biggest possible exhalation.

Prokaryotes Vs Eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
No nucleus DNA is circular without No membrane bound organelles Ribosomes in the 70s type Single cell organisms Relatively small organisms Reproduction is also asexual No cytoskeleton Always single celled organism

Eukaryotes
Always Has a nucleus DNA is linear and condensed into chromosomes Has many membrane bound organelles Ribosomes is the 80s type Single or multi-cellular organism Relatively big organisms Reproduction cane asexual or sexual Always has cytoskeleton Often multi-cellar

Longitudinal section Cristae Matrix Mitochondria (Mitochondrion - singular)

Transverse Section

Electron Vs Light Microscopes

Light Microscopes Uses light Can observe living organism Can only see bigger organelles e.g. nucleus and external organelles as light microscope has a much shorter resolution and magnification as it wavelength is much longer. Can observe specimens in colour Capable of a magnification up to a maximum of X1500 Electron Microscopes Uses electrons Has a higher resolution and higher magnification because electrons have a much shorter wave length than light. Are able to penetrate much deeper into the specimen to see much smaller organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi body etc. Cant observe living organism as specimens are observed in a vacuum, therefore there is no oxygen available for respiration Final image can only be seen in black and white or enhance image by PC software.

Electron Microscope
Transmission Image -internal images can be seen e.g. mitochondrion etc. - X500 000 Scanning Image -can only see external features e.g. Microville - X100 000

Measuring
Units of measurement: 1cm = 10mm 1m = 1000mm 1mm = 1000m 1m = 1000nm = Micrometer n = Nanometre m = Metre mm = Millimetre cm = Centimetre

Definition
Magnification: the extent to which an image has been enlarged. Resolution: the ability to see two distinct points separately that are very close together.

I A M
Image size on paper Actual image size Magnification

I=AxM A = I/M M = I/A

Mitosis
Cell Division Replace old worn out cells Repair Asexual reproduction Growth

46 46

92
46

Prior to cell division, a cell must duplicate everything inside it. INTERPHASE: G1 (cells gets signals when ready to divide), S, G2 cell gets ready to divide This is the stage in which a cell is getting ready to divide. This is when organelles and DNA are replicated. Thus, during Interphase, the amount of DNA in the cell doubles (e.g. in humans before Interphase occurs there is 46 chromosomes however after Interphase take place there is 92 chromosomes). During Interphase intense metabolic activity occurs: to produce ATP for energy via aerobic respiration. ATP is needed for protein synthesis and lipid synthesis. Protein is needed to synthesise organelles.

Mitosis Vs Meiosis
Mitosis Division of body cells (asexual reproduction) Result is two genetically identical cells form mother cell Daughter cells of chromosomes stay the same in number as mother cells Does not make any changes to DNA4has one division. Meiosis Division of sex cells (sexual reproduction) Result is four non identical cells from one mother cell Number of chromosomes is halved Creates variation in the DNA of chromosomes Two cellular divisions occur
Fertilise Fertilise
50% of sperm will carry X chromosomes while the other 50% will be Y

Meiosis

Divides via Mitosis

or

Girl
100% of egg cells will be X chromosomes

Boy

Cell Specialisation
Sperm cell: function is to fertilise the egg cell.
Mitochondria - for ATP energy produced via aerobic respiration. So sperm are move its tail to get to the egg Head- carries genetic material and an acrosome which is a specialised Lysosome that contains powerful digestive enzymes to penetrate the eggs cell membrane to order to fertilise it.

Flagellum movement of the cell. Helps to propel the cell up the uterine tract towards the egg.

Cell Specialisation
Palisade mesphyll cell: function is to carry out photosynthesis as is contains many chloroplasts. Nerve cell: function is to conduct nerve impulses. Muscle cell: function is to cause movement. Red blood cells: function is to carry oxygen from the lungs to tissue. It shape biconcave discs Increases the surface area therefore more oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse in so this can occur. Red blood cells have a flexible membrane so it is able to squeeze into really narrow capillaries. They dont have nucleus and other organelles except ribosomes to make protein, thus there is more room for haemoglobin and has a greater capacity to carry oxygen. Note: all blood cells are produced undifferentiated stem cells in bone marrow.

Cell Specialisation
Root hair cell: it has a large surface area for absorption water and mineral ions from the soil.
Mitochondria to provide energy for active transport of ions against its Flexible cell membrane which concentration means they can squeeze gradient. through small gaps in the capillaries to travel to where they are needed in the body. They are adapted by having a large nucleus which contains many copies of genes for the control of the production of antibodies. Cell membrane has a sensitive surface to enable the cell to detect foreign bodies and destroy.

Thin wall therefore short diffusion distance

The cytoplasm contains enzymes. This means that once a micro-organism is ingested by the cell, it will be digested by these enzymes.

Micro-hair like projections that increase the surface area of the cell therefore more water can diffuse into the root hair.

White blood cells: are in the blood to digest invading microorganism that the organism or cell dont recognise.

Gas Exchange
Single cell organisms (e.g. Amoeba fresh water dweller) High surface area to volume ratio therefore all gas exchange is possible via simple diffusion. Gas has short diffusion path to the centre of the cell. Therefore single celled organisms dont need a specialised area to carry out gases exchange. Multi-cellular organism The gas diffusion path is longer therefore it will take longer of gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide to diffuse to the centre of the cell. So the centre may starve from oxygen. Complex organism (e.g. mammal) The gases exchange pathway is much longer therefore you cannot rely on simple diffusion for gas exchange into the centre is not possible so a circulatory system (e.g. capillary) is needed and a pump.

Plant
Stomata: pore in leaf epidermis, surrounded by two guard cells. Changes in turgidity of the guard cells can open or close the stoma. Stomata allow gases exchange in plants and also allow transpiration. Guard cell: plays a part in gases exchange in plant leaves and they become turgid when water enters causing the walls to stretch opening the pores between them. They have many mitochondria for active transport of ions they take up. Xylem: Well suited for moving water and minerals up the plant. Phloem: Play an important role in moving products of photosynthesis up and down the plant in sieve tubes. Pit: allow lateral (sideways) flow of water so other parts of the plant get water. Spiral band of Lignin: waterproofing, support and strength stops vessels from collapsing under pressure, rigidity maintains continuous column of water. Plants cant control is own temperature so its depends on the surrounding temperature. Transpiration los of vapour from the leaf stomata due to photosynthetic gas exchange.

Inevitable

The Leaf
Leafs are the major organ of photosynthesis in a plant, their cells and overall shape are arranged to help maximise the rate of photosynthesis. Requirements of photosynthesis: Light Water Carbon dioxide Presence of chlorophyll The leaf has adapted in a number of ways: The upper epidermis lets light through (transparent) Palisade layer underneath consists of a long, thin, tightly packed cells containing a lot of chloroplast. Loosely packed spongy mesophyll layer that allows circulation of gases. Lower epidermis layer that has stomata (pores). Allow gases to be exchanged between the leaf and the outside air. A leaf vein system that contains xylem and phloem tissues to support the leaf as well as carrying the transport tissue.

Diastole and Systole

Diastole (RELAXING PERIOD) While both the atria and the ventricles are relaxing the internal volume increases and the blood flows into the heart from the major veins. The blood flows into the atria, then through the tricuspid and bicuspid valves and into the ventricles Systole (CONTRACTING PERIOD) The heart beats when the atria contracts. Both the right and left atria contracts together. The small increase in pressure created by this contraction helps to push the blood into the ventricles stretching the walls of the ventricle and ensuring they are full of blood. Once ventricles are full they contract causing the tricuspid and bicuspid valves to snap shut preventing the blood from returning to the atria. The semi lunar valves open releasing blood to the pulmonary artery (right) and aorta (left).

The Cardiac Cycle

The atria always contracts first, then the ventricles contract. The pressure in the atria is always lower than the pressure in the atria as it has thinner muscles therefore less force is needed for contractions. Both atria are relaxed and filling up with blood. Both atria contracts pushing open the tricuspid and bicuspid valves releasing the blood in both ventricles. Tricuspid and bicuspid values shut. Both ventricles contract increasing the pressure within them forcing open the semi-lunar valves forcing blood in to the pulmonary artery (deoxygenated blood) from the right ventricle and to the aorta (oxygenated blood) from the left ventricle.

External features of the heart

Vein: carry deoxygenated blood Artery: Carry oxygenated blood

Only exception is the pulmonary artery that carries deoxygenated blood and the pulmonary vein that carries oxygenated blood

Electrocardiogram (ECG)
P - Wave- Atria contracts QRS complex Ventricle contracts T - Wave - Diastole (total relaxation of the heart)