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Course E-6002
First Order RLC Circuits: Time Domain Analysis

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rev. 1.3 6/11/2007
Table of Contents
1 2 3 Preface ........................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1 Purpose and Intended Audience................................................................................................1-1 1.2 Navigation ..................................................................................................................................1-1
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 2-1 Using RLC Devices and Circuits .................................................................................. 3-1
3.1 Device Electrical Characteristics................................................................................................3-1 3.2 Practical Use of First Order RLC Circuits...................................................................................3-2
3.2.1 Cost of Discreet Devices................................................................................................................... 3-2
Getting the Complete Response .................................................................................. 4-1

4.1 Obtain the Reduced System Equation .......................................................................................4-1 4.2 Solve for The Transient Term ....................................................................................................4-2 4.3 Solve for The Steady State Term...............................................................................................4-3
4.3.1 4.3.2 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 Unit Step Input .................................................................................................................................. 4-3 Complex Sinusoidal Input ................................................................................................................. 4-3 Complete Response to Unit Step Function Input ............................................................................. 4-6 Complete Response to Complex Input ............................................................................................. 4-7 Complete Response to sin(t) Input ................................................................................................ 4-8 Complete Response to cos(t) Input ............................................................................................... 4-9
4.4 The Complete Response ...........................................................................................................4-6
First Order RC Circuits ................................................................................................. 5-1

5.1 RC Low Pass Circuit ..................................................................................................................5-2
5.1.1 5.1.2 5.1.3 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 The System Equation........................................................................................................................ 5-2 Complete Responses........................................................................................................................ 5-3 Graphs of the Complete Responses................................................................................................. 5-4 The System Equation........................................................................................................................ 5-7 Complete Responses........................................................................................................................ 5-8 Graphs of the Complete Responses................................................................................................. 5-9
5.2 RC High-Pass Circuit .................................................................................................................5-7
First Order RL Circuits.................................................................................................. 6-1

6.1 RL Low-Pass Circuit...................................................................................................................6-2
6.1.1 6.1.2 6.1.3 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 The System Equation........................................................................................................................ 6-2 Complete Responses........................................................................................................................ 6-3 Graphs of the Complete Responses................................................................................................. 6-4 The System Equation........................................................................................................................ 6-7 Complete Responses........................................................................................................................ 6-8 Graphs of the Complete Responses................................................................................................. 6-9
6.2 RL High-Pass Circuit..................................................................................................................6-7
Appendix A Trigonometric Properties and Identities ........................................................A-1 Appendix B Complex Variables and Eulers Identities......................................................B-1
Appendix B-2 Solving for Complex Input........................................................................................... B-2
ii
Table List
Table 3-1 Ideal R,L,C Voltage and Current Characteristics............................................... 3-1 Table 3-2 Some Uses of RLC Circuits................................................................................. 3-2 Table 5-1 RC Low-pass Circuit Complete Responses....................................................... 5-3 Table 5-2 RC High-pass Circuit Complete Responses ...................................................... 5-8 Table 6-1 RL Low-pass Circuit Complete Responses ....................................................... 6-3 Table 6-2 RL High-pass Circuit Complete Responses ...................................................... 6-8
Figures List
Figure 4-1 RC High-pass circuit example ........................................................................... 4-1 Figure 4-2 Unit Step Function.............................................................................................. 4-3 Figure 4-3 Typical Voltage Divider ...................................................................................... 4-4 Figure 5-1 RC Low Pass Circuit ......................................................................................... 5-2 Figure 5-2 RC Low Pass Unit Step Response .................................................................... 5-4 Figure 5-3 RC Low Pass Response to sin(t).................................................................... 5-5 Figure 5-4 RC Low Pass Response to cos(t)................................................................... 5-6 Figure 5-5 RC High Pass Circuit.......................................................................................... 5-7 Figure 5-6 RC High Pass Unit Step Response ................................................................... 5-9 Figure 5-7 RC High Pass Response to sin(t)................................................................. 5-10 Figure 5-8 RC High Pass Response to cos(t)................................................................ 5-11 Figure 6-1 RL Low Pass Circuit........................................................................................... 6-2 Figure 6-2 RL Low Pass Unit Step Response .................................................................... 6-4 Figure 6-3 RL Low Pass Response to sin(t) .................................................................... 6-5 Figure 6-4 RL Low Pass Response to cos(t) ................................................................... 6-6 Figure 6-5 RL High Pass Circuit .......................................................................................... 6-7 Figure 6-6 RL High Pass Unit Step Response.................................................................... 6-9 Figure 6-7 RL High Pass Response to sin(t) ................................................................. 6-10 Figure 6-8 RL High Pass Response to cos(t) ................................................................ 6-11
iii
1 Preface
TOC
1 Preface
1.1 Purpose and Intended Audience
This lesson is a refresher in basic network analysis of passive RLC circuits using discreet passive (R) resistor, (L) inductor and (C) capacitor components. The complete response for each of the 4 basic circuits has transient and steady state responses. This course covers RC high and low-pass, and RL high and low-pass circuits (first order circuits). Well obtain the complete response using time domain analysis. Time domain network analysis uses linear, integral and differential equations for voltage and current characteristics of the devices and the overall circuit. The intended audience is practicing electrical and electronics engineers or second year college level electrical engineering students. The focus is not so much on the mathematics but on electrical engineering concepts, having the necessary math skills as a foundation for rapid and accurate circuit analysis.
1.2
Navigation
Suggestions for navigating this course: The TOC link at the top of each page brings you up to the Table of Contents of this document. Navigable links are in bold blue-colored font Use the back button if from Microsoft Word or Adobe Reader Use the Document Map in Word Use the Bookmark Pane in Adobe
1-1
2 Introduction
TOC
2 Introduction
Passive discrete electronic components used in signal conditioning / generation are the resistor (R), inductor (L) and capacitor (C). Passive discrete components are stand-alone packaged devices whose physical characteristics and parameters are independent of any sources of voltage or current applied to them. In this lesson we will not consider device tolerances, environmental parameters (temperature, power or working voltage ratings) or (EMI) electromagnetic interference. The nominal frequency band for our analysis is DC to 10MHz; beyond 10MHz we have to take high frequency effects into account. At higher frequencies we have to consider: stray capacitance and inductance, EMI, and physical construction of the circuit. Our objective is to come up with the complete response (with transient and steady state terms) for each of 4 first order RLC circuits: RC high and low-pass circuits and RL high and low-pass circuits.
2-1
3 Using RLC Devices and Circuits

TOC
3.1 Device Electrical Characteristics

3.1 Device Electrical Characteristics
The resistor is a linear device and is characterized by a straight-line equation. It dissipates power as heat, its value in ohms can vary as to the tolerance rating (ohms % of rated value). The resistor cannot store energy. An inductor or capacitor is an energy storage device; a capacitors current or an inductors voltage does not change instantaneously. Initial conditions can apply to both of these devices. The ideal capacitor has zero conductance or infinite resistance and the ideal inductor has zero resistance or infinite conductance. Ideally, neither device dissipates heat (power). The total power consumed or delivered in an RLC is presented as a complex variable (phasor) with a real (dissipated power by resistors) and imaginary (reactive power ) component. Although we will not include the following in this lesson, it should be mentioned that, a capacitors conductance (or an inductors resistance) only approaches zero and the rated component value (Farads for capacitors or Henries for inductors) may also vary. These variants in addition to EMI and environmental effects would require you to alter your design or analysis somewhat, depending on how critical they are to your design or model. The Ideal voltage vs. current characteristics for the resistor, inductor and capacitor are shown below in Table 1.
Device
Resistor
Voltage and Current Characteristics

VR =iR R
iR = VR R 1 L
1 C
Comments
straight line equation y = mx
Inductor
VL = L
d i dt
iL =
V dt
L
integro-differential equation
Capacitor
iC =
d VC dt
VC =
C dt
integro-differential equation
Table 3-1 Ideal R,L,C Voltage and Current Characteristics
3-1

TOC
3.2 Practical Use of First Order RLC Circuits
3.2
Practical Use of First Order RLC Circuits
Some Uses of First Order RLC Circuits are:

noise reduction and filtering coupling circuits between subsystems compensating networks or circuits high-pass and low-pass filtering signal generation signal shaping pre-conditioning for oscillators, pulse and waveshape generators pre-conditioning for pulse and waveshape generators Table 3-2 Some Uses of RLC Circuits reduce noise from signals block DC voltages or meet next stage requirements phase, delay or distortion compensation or meet next stage input requirements
3.2.1
Cost of Discreet Devices
The cost for each of the R, L, C components varies with power rating, tolerance ratings, and market demand and supply. The inductor can be the most expensive of the three because of the physical construction; ferrite core, copper windings etc. In most instances a capacitor will do the job unless an inductors characteristics are specifically required.
3-2
4 Getting the Complete Response

TOC

The complete response is found by using the mathematical concept of finding the general solution. The general solution is the sum of the homogeneous solution and the particular solution. The homogeneous solution is the transient term while the particular solution is the steady state term; so the complete response is equal to the transient term plus the steady state term. Using our background as engineers, we will find the steady state term by inspection rather than solving the differential equation. The steps for obtaining the complete response for each circuit are pretty much the same. This section covers the steps using the RC high-pass circuit as an example. The system equation is the reduced integral or differential equation relating the input voltage to the output current or preferably the output voltage. Solving for the constant in the transient term and finding the steady state term can be done by inspection which alleviates the need for generally rigorous derivations.
4.1
Obtain the Reduced System Equation
Using the RC high - pass circuit as an example with Vi , VO, VC , VR and i being functions of time
The loop equation is : Vi = VC + VR and since Vo = VR and VR = iR i = Vo d V 1 also i = C VC = o VC = R dt R RC
Vodt
rewriting the loop equation we have : Vi ( t ) = 1 RC
Vo (t)dt + Vo (t)
Figure 4-1 RC High-pass circuit example
First write the loop equation and simplify as much as possible. The net result is ideally an equation that yields a direct relationship between input and output. This would be the system equation. Eqn 4-1
1 RC
Vi ( t ) =
Vo (t)dt +Vo (t)
Eqn 4-1 is the system equation we will use to get the complete response
4-1

TOC
4.2 Solve for The Transient Term
4.2
Solve for The Transient Term
To obtain the transient term, if necessary, differentiate both sides of Eqn 4-1 with respect to t to get the system equation in differential equation form; in this case Eqn 4-2
d [Vi ] = d 1 dt dt RC
Vi =
Vo dt + Vo
Eqn 4-2
1 Vo + Vo RC
set Eqn 4-2 = 0 and find a solution to the differential equation;

1 V + V =0 o o RC 1 V = V o o RC
So a solution is Eqn 4-3

t RC
Eqn 4-3
Voh ( t ) = Ae
Eqn 4-3 is the solution for the transient term. The transient term is the same whether the input is a step function or a sinusoidal function. The constant A is found after the steady state term is found.
4-2

TOC
4.3 Solve for The Steady State Term
4.3
Solve for The Steady State Term
The steady state term can be found by inspection using our engineering background. Long after the transient term decays to a negligible value the steady state term remains the only term. Designate the steady state term Vo ( t ) as V ( ) .
t
The steady state term V() will depend on what we have for an input Vi ( t ) The following subsections will go over 2 types of input; the unit step input and the various sinusoidal inputs. The unit step function input is not required for sinusoidal inputs or for any other reason other than giving us an idea of the envelope of the complete response for other inputs. The unit step input is not a periodic function; it is the equivalent of throwing the switch to a DC source at time t = 0 and leaving it on indefinitely.
4.3.1
Unit Step Input

0 t < 0 If Vi ( t ) is a unit step function ; Vi (t) = V t 0 m Vi (t) = Vm u(t) Long after the transient decays to a negligible value, no more current is supplied to the load; in this case the resistor R The steady state term for the RC high-pass circuit with a unit step input is Vo ( ) = 0
Figure 4-2 Unit Step Function
4.3.2
Complex Sinusoidal Input
Note that the complex input (general phasor form) is not a realizable input, it is used for analysis only. Getting the complete response in this way allows you to extract the real and imaginary parts from the complete response. The real and imaginary parts of the complete response would be the complete response for a purely sine or cosine input. For a complex sinusoidal input Vi ( t ) = Vm e jt , where = 2f , f having a period of T secs
2 t , and the argument for a sine, cosine function or complex combination of both varies T from 0 to 2 radians every T secs. indefinitely. This can be pictured as a circle with r = Vm We note that t =
see Appendix B Complex Variables and Eulers Identities
4-3

TOC
4.3.2.1
AC Analysis / Voltage Divider Circuit
Vi ( t ) is the input signal and Vo ( t ) is the output signal i( t ) is the loop current the output signal Vo ( t ) = i( t ) Z 2 we see that i( t ) = so Vo ( t ) = Vi ( t ) Z1 + Z 2
Z2 Z1 + Z 2
Vi ( t )
Figure 4-3 Typical Voltage Divider
Fig 4-3 above is a single loop with Z1 + Z 2 being the total impedance around the loop, Z1 being the series impedance and Z 2 being the load impedance (where the output Vo ( t ) is taken).
Fig 4-3 is a voltage divider Vo ( t ) =
load impedance Vi ( t ) loop impedance
By letting Vi ( t ) = Vm e jt we can easily find the steady state response and the complete response for either Vm sin(t ) or Vm cos( t ) as an input without re-doing the calculations; just by taking the real or imaginary part of Vi ( t ) .
see Appendix B-2 Solving for Complex Input
Treating the RC high-pass circuit as a voltage divider we have
Eqn 4-4
Vo ( ) =
R R+ 1 jC
Vm e jt
jRC Vm e jt jRC + 1
4-4

TOC
4.3.2.2
Making Use of Polar Coordinates
Using polar coordinates (phasor form) provides a constant phase term
Recall Eqn 4-4
Vo ( ) =
jRC Vme jt jRC + 1
we can rewrite the constant term of Vo ( ) , where tan( ) = RC or *note also that | r | =
jRC Vm as jRC Vm e j jRC + 1 |r | (RC)2 + 1
sin( ) = RC and | r | = cos( ) cos ()

2
sin 2 () + cos 2 ()
1 cos()
so Eqn 4-4 can be rewritten as
Eqn 4-5
Vo ( ) =
jRC r
Vm e jt j
4-5

TOC
4.4 The Complete Response
4.4
The Complete Response
The complete response Vo ( t ) is the sum of the transient term and the steady state term
Eqn 4-6
Vo ( t ) = Ae
t RC
+ Vo ( )
4.4.1
Complete Response to Unit Step Function Input
Recall from Sec 4.3.1 that VO () = 0 for the RC high-pass circuit with a unit step input
Vo ( t ) = Ae
t RC
+0
we know that for the RC high - pass circuit Vi (0) = Vm and Vo (0) = Vi (0) so A = Vm The complete response to a unit step input for this circuit is
Eqn 4-7
Vo (t) = Vm e
t RC
Note* You do not need to know the complete response to a unit step function input if your input is not a unit step function. However, the complete unit step response provides insight into what the envelope of the complete response for other inputs would look like.
4-6

TOC
4.4.2
Complete Response to Complex Input
Substituting Eqn 4-5 into Eqn 4-6 we have Eqn 4-8 below, which is the complete response with unsolved constant A. Solving for A by inspection, we know that because the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously for the RC high-pass circuit V0 (t) = Vm
t=0
Eqn 4-8
Vo ( t ) = Ae
t RC
jRC Vm e jt jRC + 1
since Vo (0) = Vm = A +
jRC Vm jRC + 1
jRC A = Vm 1 jRC + 1 V 1 Vm or A = m e j so A = jRC + 1 |r |
Eqn 4-9 is the complete response for the RC high-pass circuit with Vi ( t ) = Vm e jt
Eqn 4-9
Vo ( t ) =
or
t Vm e RC + jRC e jt jRC + 1
t Vm RC j Vo ( t ) = + jRC e jt j e |r |
Checking that Vo ( t ) = Vm
t =0
Vo ( t ) =
t =0
Vm r
[e
+ jRC e j
] = Vr
e j [ 1 + jRC
recall that r = r e j = 1 + jRC 1 + jRC so that Vo ( t ) = Vm = Vm checks out 1 + jRC t =0
4-7

TOC
4.4.3
Complete Response to sin(t) Input
Since we solved for Vi (t) = e jt we can use Eqn 4 - 9 to find VO (t) when Vi (t) is a sine function t j V + jRC e jt j by taking the imaginary part of Eqn 4 - 9 Vo (t) = m e RC r Im { Vi ( t ) } = Im Vme jt = Vm sin(t )
Im
{ {
V Vo ( t ) } = Im m r
t j e RC + jRC e jt j
Im
t Vm RC sin() + RC cos(t ) Vo ( t ) } = e r
so the complete response Vo(t) with Vi(t) = sin(t) is given by Eqn 4 - 10
Eqn 4-10
t Vm RC sin( ) + RC cos( t ) e Vo ( t ) = r
Checking : We know that at t = 0 the RC high - pass circuit output is = Vi ( t ) in this case Vi ( t ) = Vm sin(0) = 0
t =0 t =0
so Vo ( t ) =
t =0
Vm [ - sin( ) + RCcos(-) r
since sin( ) = RCcos( ) Vo ( t ) =

t =0
Vm r
[ - sin() + sin()] = 0 ; checks
out
4-8

TOC
4.4.4
Complete Response to cos(t) Input
Since we solved for Vi (t) = e jt we can use Eqn 4 - 8 to find VO (t) when Vi (t) is a cosine function t j V by taking the real part of Eqn 4 - 8 Vo (t) = m e RC + jRC e jt j r jt Re { Vi ( t ) } = Re Vme = Vm cos(t )
Re
{ {
V Vo ( t ) } = Re m r
t j e RC + jRC e jt j
Re
t Vm RC Vo ( t ) } = e cos() RC sin(t ) r
so the complete response Vo (t) with Vi (t) = cos(t) is given by Eqn 4 - 11
Eqn 4-11
Vo ( t ) =
Vm r
t e RC cos( ) RC sin( t )
Checking : We know that at t = 0 the RC high - pass circuit output is = Vi ( t ) in this case Vi ( t ) = Vm cos( 0 ) = Vm
t =0 t =0
V so Vo ( t ) = m r t =0 since
[ cos() + RCsin(-) ]
sin( ) 1 = RC and r = cos( ) cos( )
Vo ( t ) = Vm
t =0
[ cos 2 () + sin 2 ()] =
Vm ; checks out
4-9
5 First Order RC Circuits

TOC

The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously. Initially, it appears as a short circuit, conducting the maximum current available from the source until the voltage across the capacitor settles to a steady state value.
For a unit step input, there is only a transient response until the capacitor is fully charged and then no more current will flow until the voltage across the capacitor changes. As a rule of thumb, the minimum time it takes for the transient to decay is 5 time constants. The time constant being 5 times the RC constant. If Vo ( t ) = Ae
t RC
then at t = 5 RC, Vo ( t ) = 0.00673 A

t = 5RC
As t increases, the output will further decrease but t = 5RC is the earliest we can consider the transient term to be negligible.
The steady state value (for a unit step input) depends on the circuit configuration. We will see that the steady state value for a RC low-pass circuit is equal to the input voltage while the RC high-pass circuit steady state value is equal to zero. For an alternating input such as a sinusoidal input, the reactance of the capacitor is inversely proportional to the frequency of the input. So as the frequency increases, the reactance decreases and the voltage drop across the capacitor decreases
jX c =
1 as approaches infinity, jX c approaches zero jC
5-1

TOC
5.1 RC Low Pass Circuit
5.1
RC Low Pass Circuit
A first order RC low-pass circuit is shown in Fig 5-1 with Vi , Vo , VC , VR and i are all functions of time. Given Vi as an input, we see that the output in this case is Vo which is the output across the capacitor C.
5.1.1
The loop equation is :
The System Equation ion
Vi = VR + VC with VR = iR and i = C 1 Vi ( t ) = C
d 1 idt and Vo = VC VC so VC = dt C 1 idt + iR (and later solve for Vo by using Vo ( t ) = idt ) C
or we can obtain Vo directly by : VR = Vi Vo = iR i = Vi = Vi = 1 RC 1 RC ( Vi Vo )dt + Vi Vo so R R
Vi Vo R
( Vi Vo )dt + (Vi Vo )
1
1 RC
Vi (t)dt = RC Vo (t)dt + Vo (t)
Figure 5-1 RC Low Pass Circuit

So we have 2 alternatives for reducing the node equation from which we can get the complete response.
Eqn 5-1
Vi ( t ) =
1 C
idt + iR and later solve for

= 1 RC
Vo by using Vo ( t ) =
1 C
idt
Eqn 5-2
1 RC
V i ( t )dt
V o ( t )dt
+ Vo ( t )
saves a step
5-2

TOC
5.1.2
Complete Responses
Below is a table of the complete responses for the RC Low-pass circuit. The complete response for sinusoidal inputs are in phasor form, arguments show magnitude and phase components.
Unit Step Function Input Vi (t) = Vmu(t)

Arguments Complete Response
t Vo ( t ) = Vm 1 e RC
none
Transient Term

Vm e
t RC
Steady State Term

Vm
Complex Sinusoidal Input ; Vi (t) = Vm e jt

Vo ( t ) =
t Vm j e e RC + e jt |r |
tan( ) = RC and r =
(RC) 2 + 1 =
1 cos( )
Transient Term
Vm RC j e |r |
t
Steady State Term

Vm j( t ) e |r |
Sine Input ; Vi (t) = Im {Vm e jt } = Vm sin(t )

Vo ( t ) =
Vm |r |
-- same as Complex Sinusoidal --
Transient Term
Steady State Term

Vm [sin(t )] |r |
t RC
sin() + sin( t )
t Vm RC e
|r |
sin( )
Cosine input ; Vi (t) = Re{Vm e jt } = Vm cos( t )

Vo ( t ) =
Vm |r |
Transient Term
Steady State Term

Vm [cos(t )] |r |
t RC
cos() + cos(t )
Vm |r |
t RC e
cos( )
Table 5-1 RC Low-pass Circuit Complete Responses
5-3

TOC
5.1.3 Graphs of the Complete Responses
Vi ( t ) = Vmu( t )
t Vo ( t ) = Vm 1 e RC
1.2 1
1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 9.5 10.0
Vo ( t ) Vm
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0
Vi ( t ) Vm
t RC
Figure 5-2 RC Low Pass Unit Step Response
5-4

TOC
RC Low Pass Response to sin(t)

Vi ( t ) = Vm sin(t )
Vo ( t ) =
t Vm RC e sin() + sin(t ) r
= 1000 ( frequency = 500Hz ) and RC = 0.002 = 1.413 = 0.449 = 81.0 and r = 6.362 * transient decays at 5RC secs which is 10 on the t axis below
0.3
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0
Vo ( t ) Vm
0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
Vi ( t ) Vm
t in multiples of
Figure 5-3 RC Low Pass Response to sin(t)
5-5

TOC
Vi ( t ) = Vm cos(t )
t Vm RC cos( ) + cos( t ) e Vo ( t ) = r
= 1000 ( frequency = 500Hz ) and RC = 0.002 = 1.413 = 0.449 = 81.0 and r = 6.362 * transient decays at 5RC secs which is 10 on the t axis below
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0
0.2
Vo ( t ) Vm
0.15 0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1 -0.15 -0.2 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Vi ( t ) Vm
t in multiples of
Figure 5-4 RC Low Pass Response to cos(t)
5-6

TOC
5.2 RC High-Pass Circuit
5.2
.
RC High-Pass Circuit
A first order RC high-pass circuit is shown in Fig 5-5 with Vi , VO , VC , VR and i all functions of time. Given Vi is as an input, we see that the output VO in this case, is across the resistor R
5.2.1
The System Equation
The loop equation is : Vi = VC + VR sin ce Vo = VR and VR = iR i = also i =C V 1 d VC = o VC = dt R RC Vo R
Vo dt
rewrite the loop equation 1 Vi ( t ) = Vo ( t )dt + Vo ( t ) RC
Figure 5-5 RC High Pass Circuit

The system equation is Eqn 5-3 giving a direct relationship between Vi ( t ) and Vo ( t ) .
Eqn 5-3
Vi ( t ) =
1 RC
Vo (t)dt + Vo (t)
5-7

TOC
5.2.2
Complete Responses
Below is a table of the complete responses for the RC High-pass circuit. The complete response for sinusoidal inputs are in phasor form, arguments show magnitude and phase components.
Unit Step Function Input Vi (t) = Vm u(t)

Vo ( t ) = Vm e
t RC
none
Transient Term
Vm e
t RC
Steady State Term

0

t Vm j RC Vo ( t ) = e e + jRC e jt |r |
tan( ) = RC and r =
(RC) 2 + 1 =
1 cos( )
Transient Term
Vm RC j e |r |
t
Steady State Term

jRC Vm j( t ) e |r |
Sine Input ; Vi (t) = Im{Vm e jt } = Vm sin(t )

t Vm RC sin() + RC cos(t ) Vo ( t ) = e |r |
Transient Term
t Vm RC sin( ) e |r |
Steady State Term

Vm |r |
[RC cos(t ) ]
Cosine input ; Vi (t) = Re { Vm e jt

Vo ( t ) =
}= V
cos( t ) -- same as Complex Sinusoidal --
Transient Term
t Vm RC e cos( ) |r |
Steady State Term

Vm [ RC sin(t ) ] |r |
t Vm RC e cos( ) RC sin( t ) |r |
Table 5-2 RC High-pass Circuit Complete Responses
5-8

TOC
Vi(t) = Vmu(t)
Vo(t) = Vme
1.2
t RC
1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 10.0
Vo ( t ) Vm
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5
Vi ( t ) Vm
t RC
Figure 5-6 RC High Pass Unit Step Response
5-9

TOC
RC High Pass Response to sin(t)

Vo ( t ) =
t Vm e RC sin() + RC cos(t ) r
= 10000 ( frequency = 5000Hz ) and RC = 0.0002 = 0.561 = 0.179 = 32.1 and r = 1.181 * transient decays at 5RC secs which is 1.0 on the t axis below
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0
0.6
Vo ( t ) Vm
0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Vi ( t ) Vm
t in multiples of
Figure 5-7 RC High Pass Response to sin(t)
5-10

TOC
t Vm RC e Vo ( t ) = cos() RC sin(t ) r
= 10000 ( frequency = 5000Hz ) and RC = 0.0002 = 0.561 = 0.179 = 32.1 and r = 1.181 * transient decays at 5RC secs which is 1.0 on the t axis below
1.5
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0
Vo ( t ) Vm
1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Vi ( t ) Vm
t in multiples of
Figure 5-8 RC High Pass Response to cos(t)
5-11
6 First Order RL Circuits

TOC

The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously. Initially, it appears as an open circuit, until the voltage across the inductor settles to a steady state value. The inductor conducts the maximum current at steady state
For a unit step input, there is only a transient reaction until the inductor is fully energized and then conducts the maximum current. As a rule of thumb, the minimum time it takes for the transient to decay is 5 time constants. L constant. The time constant being 5 times the R
If Vo ( t ) = Ae
R t L
then at t = 5
L , Vo ( t ) = 0.00673 A R 5L
t= R
As t increases, the output will further decrease but t = be negligible.
5L is the earliest we can consider the transient term to R
The steady state value (for a unit step input) depends on the circuit configuration. We will see that the steady state value for a RL low-pass circuit is equal to the input voltage while the RL high-pass circuit steady state value is equal to zero. For an alternating input such as a sinusoidal input, the reactance of the inductor is directly proportional to the frequency of the input. So as the frequency increases, the reactance increases and the voltage drop across the inductor increases jXL = jL as approaches infinity, jXL approaches infnity
6-1

TOC
6.1 RL Low-Pass Circuit
6.1
RL Low-Pass Circuit
6.1.1
The System Equation
A first order RL low-pass circuit is shown in Fig 6-1 with Vi , Vo , VL , VR and i are all functions of time. Given Vi as an input, we see that the output in this case is Vo which is the output across the resistor R.
The loop equation is : Vi = VL + VR d L d Vo = VR = iR with VL = L i= Vo dt R dt L Vi = Vo + Vo R
Figure 6-1 RL Low Pass Circuit
Eqn 6-1
The system equation we need to solve is L Vi = Vo + Vo R
6-2

TOC
6.1.2
Complete Responses
Below is a table of the complete responses for the RL Low-pass circuit. The complete response for sinusoidal inputs are in phasor form, arguments show magnitude and phase components.
Unit Step Function Input Vi (t) = Vm u(t)

R t Vo ( t ) = Vm 1 e L
none Transient Term Vm e

R t L
Steady State Term

Vm

Vo ( t ) =
R t Vm j e L + e j t e |r |
tan( ) =
L R
r =
1 L +1 = cos( ) R
Transient Term

Steady State Term

Vm j( t ) e |r |
Vm L t j e |r |
Sine Input ; Vi (t) = Im {Vm e jt } = Vm sin( t )

R Vm L t e sin() + sin(t ) Vo ( t ) = |r |
-- same as Complex Sinusoidal -Transient Term Steady State Term

R Vm L t e sin() |r |
Vm |r |
[sin(t ) ]

Vo ( t ) =
}= V
cos(t ) -- same as Complex Sinusoidal --
Transient Term
t Vm RC e cos() |r |
Steady State Term

Vm [cos(t ) ] |r |
R Vm L t e cos( ) + cos( t ) |r |
Table 6-1 RL Low-pass Circuit Complete Responses
6-3

TOC
Vi ( t ) = Vmu( t ) R t Vo ( t ) = Vm 1 e L
1.2 1 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 9.5 10.0
Vo ( t ) Vm
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0
Vi ( t ) Vm
R t L
Figure 6-2 RL Low Pass Unit Step Response
6-4

TOC
RL Low Pass Response to sin(t)

Vo ( t ) =
R Vm L t sin( ) + sin(t ) e r
= 500 ( frequency = 250Hz ) and
L = 0.002 R
= 1.263 = 0.402 = 72.3 and r = 3.297 * transient decays at 5L which is 5 on the t axis R
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0
0.5
Vo ( t ) Vm
0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Vi ( t ) Vm
t in multiples of
Figure 6-3 RL Low Pass Response to sin(t)
6-5

TOC
R t Vm Vo ( t ) = e L cos( ) + cos( t ) r
L = 0.002 R
= 1.263 = 0.402 = 72.3 and r = 3.297 * transient decays at 5L which is 5 on the t axis R
1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0
0.4
Vo ( t ) Vm
0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Vi ( t ) Vm
t in multiples of
Figure 6-4 RL Low Pass Response to cos(t)
6-6

TOC
6.2 RL High-Pass Circuit
6.2
RL High-Pass Circuit
6.2.1
The System Equation
A first order RL high-pass circuit is shown in Fig 6-5 with Vi , Vo , VL , VR and i are all functions of time. Given Vi as an input, we see that the output in this case is Vo which is the output across the inductor L. ctor
VR R
The loop equation is : Vi = VL + VR VR = iR Vo = VL = L d i dt VR R VR = R L
Vi(t)
L Vo
i =
1 L
Vo dt =
R L
Vo dt
Vi =
Vo dt + Vo
Figure 6-5 RL High Pass Circuit
The system equation is Eqn 6-2
Eqn 6-2
Vi =
R L
Vo (t)dt + Vo
differentiate both sides with respect to t

d Vi = Vi dt R L
d dt
Vo (t)dt + Vo
Vi =
]=
R Vo + Vo L
so the equation to solve is

R Vo + Vo L
6-7

TOC
6.2.2
Complete Responses
Below is a table of the complete responses for the RL High-pass circuit. The complete response for sinusoidal inputs are in phasor form, arguments show magnitude and phase components.
Unit Step Function Input Vi (t) = Vmu(t)

Vo ( t ) = Vm
R t e L
none Transient Term Vm

R t e L
Steady State Term

0

R Vm j L t j L Vo ( t ) = e + e |r | R
tan( ) =
L R
r =
1 L +1 = cos( ) R
Transient Term
Steady State Term

j L R
e j t
Vm L t j e |r |
Vm
|r |
e j( t )
Sine Input ; Vi (t) = Im {Vm e jt } = Vm sin(t )

Vo ( t ) =
Vm |r |
Transient Term
Steady State Term

L Vm [cos(t ) ] R |r |
R t L
sin() +
L cos(t ) R
R t Vm e L sin( ) |r |

Vo ( t ) =
}= V
cos( t )
Transient Term
R Vm L t e cos( ) |r |
Steady State Term

L Vm [sin(t ) ] R |r |
R Vm L t L e sin( t ) cos( ) |r | R
Table 6-2 RL High-pass Circuit Complete Responses
6-8

TOC
RL High Pass Unit Step Response

Vi ( t ) = Vmu( t )
Vo ( t ) = Vm e
R L
1.2 1.0
1.2 1.0
Vo ( t ) 0.8 Vm
0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0
Vi ( t ) 0.8 V m
0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 9.5 10.0
R t L
Figure 6-6 RL High Pass Unit Step Response
6-9

TOC
RL High Pass Response to sin(t)

Vo ( t ) =
R t L Vm e L sin( ) + cos( t ) r R
L = 0.00002 R
= 0.561 = 0.179 = 32.1 and r = 1.181 * transient decays at 5L which is 1.0 on the t axis R
1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0 20.0
0.6
Vo ( t ) Vm
0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0
Vi ( t ) Vm
t in multiples of
Figure 6-7 RL High Pass Response to sin(t)
6-10

TOC
L = 0.00002 R
Vo ( t ) =
R Vm L t L e cos() sin(t ) r R
= 0.561 = 0.179 = 32.1 and r = 1.181 * transient decays at 5L which is 1.0 on the t axis R
1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 20.0
1.5
Vo ( t ) Vm
1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 17.0 18.0 19.0
Vi ( t ) Vm
t in multiples of
Figure 6-8 RL High Pass Response to cos(t)
6-11
Appendix A Trigonometric Properties and Identities

TOC
Appendix A Trigonometric Properties and Identities

positive direction
to displace in the:
negative direction
) 2 negative direction, move clockwise ; subtract from ; ie., ( - ) 2

positive direction, move counter clockwise ; add to ; ie., ( +
sin(-t) = -sin(t)
d sin(t ) = cos(t ) dt 1 sin( t ) = cos(t )dt
cos(-t) = cos(t)
d cos(t) = -sin(t) dt 1 cos(t) = sin( t)dt
sin (
) = - cos 2 sin ( + ) = cos 2
) = sin 2 cos ( + ) = - sin 2

cos ( cos ( + ) = cos ( ) = - cos cos( + ) = coscos - sinsin cos( - ) = coscos + sinsin cos2 = cos2 sin2 cos2 =
sin ( + ) = sin ( ) = - sin sin( + ) = sincos + cossin sin( - ) = sincos - cossin sin2 = 2sincos sin2 =
1 (1 - cos2) 2
sinsin =
1 (1 + cos2) 2
1 ( -cos( + ) + cos( - ) ) 2 1 coscos = ( cos( + ) + cos( - ) ) 2 1 sincos = ( sin( + ) + sin( - ) ) 2

-tan() = tan(-)
A-1
Appendix B Complex Variables and Eulers Identities

TOC

In polar coordinates, the triangle to the left can be expressed as a vector r or
r with
r = a2 + b2
r=
y x
a2 + b2 sin b = tan = cos a
In phasor form, the triangle can be expressed as a complex variable a + jb or r .ej using Eulers identity where
Imaginary axis
r = a2 + b2
Im Re
| r | = a2 + b2 ej = cos + jsin . a= | r | cos . b= | r | sin tan =
Real axis
sin b = cos a
The circle to the left represents a periodic complex sinusoidal function with one revolution being 360o or 2 radians. the cycle repeating indefinitely Each quadrant is a multiple of ; the real and imaginary parts 2 are calculated using
| r | = a2 + b2 j e = cos + jsin . a= | r | cos . b= | r | sin
Im Re
tan =
sin b = cos a
B-1

TOC
Appendix B-2 Solving for Complex Input

If given a function f(t) with f(t) =
g( t )dt + g(t) (this is the system equation for the RC low-pass circuit) and we
. jwt
would like to get the complete response for f(t) = sin(t) or f(t) = cos(t), we solve for f(t) = | r | e and take the Im { g(t) } or Re { g(t) }
This will save a step in finding the solutions and solving for the constants by solving for the phasor form and just extracting the real and imaginary parts for obtaining g(t) for sin(t) or cos(t) input If we want to know the response to f(t) = sin(t) or f(t) = cos(t); then g( t )
f ( t ) = sin( t )
= Im { g(t) } or g( t )
f ( t ) = cos( t)
= Re { g(t) }
if we solve for g(t) using f(t) = | r |.ejwt we can find g(t) for f(t) = sin(t) or f(t) = cos(t) by extracting the real and imaginary parts as needed Im { f(t) } = | r | sin(t) = Im { Im {
g( t )dt + g(t) }
g( t )dt + g(t) } = Im { g( t )dt }+ Im { g(t) } and Im { g( t )dt } = Im { g(t) }

Similarly, Re { f(t) } = | r | cos(t) = Re { g( t )dt + g(t) } Re { g( t )dt } = Re { g(t) }
B-2

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First Order RLC Circuits: Time Domain Analysis

First Order RLC Circuits: Time Domain Analysis

First Order RLC Circuits: Time Domain Analysis

First Order RLC Circuits: Time Domain Analysis

Getting the Complete Response .................................................................................. 4-1

4.4 The Complete Response ...........................................................................................................4-6

First Order RC Circuits ................................................................................................. 5-1

5.2 RC High-Pass Circuit .................................................................................................................5-7

First Order RL Circuits.................................................................................................. 6-1

6.2 RL High-Pass Circuit..................................................................................................................6-7

First Order RLC Circuits: Time Domain Analysis

3 Using RLC Devices and Circuits

3.1 Device Electrical Characteristics

3 Using RLC Devices and Circuits

Voltage and Current Characteristics

Table 3-1 Ideal R,L,C Voltage and Current Characteristics

3 Using RLC Devices and Circuits

3.2 Practical Use of First Order RLC Circuits

Practical Use of First Order RLC Circuits

Some Uses of First Order RLC Circuits are:

Cost of Discreet Devices

4 Getting the Complete Response

4 Getting the Complete Response

Obtain the Reduced System Equation

The loop equation is : Vi = VC + VR and since Vo = VR and VR = iR i = Vo d V 1 also i = C VC = o VC = R dt R RC

rewriting the loop equation we have : Vi ( t ) = 1 RC

Figure 4-1 RC High-pass circuit example

Vo (t)dt +Vo (t)

4 Getting the Complete Response

4.2 Solve for The Transient Term

Solve for The Transient Term

set Eqn 4-2 = 0 and find a solution to the differential equation;

So a solution is Eqn 4-3

4 Getting the Complete Response

4.3 Solve for The Steady State Term

Solve for The Steady State Term

Unit Step Input

Figure 4-2 Unit Step Function

Complex Sinusoidal Input

4 Getting the Complete Response

4.3 Solve for The Steady State Term

AC Analysis / Voltage Divider Circuit

Figure 4-3 Typical Voltage Divider

Fig 4-3 is a voltage divider Vo ( t ) =

load impedance Vi ( t ) loop impedance

see Appendix B-2 Solving for Complex Input

Treating the RC high-pass circuit as a voltage divider we have

4 Getting the Complete Response

4.3 Solve for The Steady State Term

Making Use of Polar Coordinates

Using polar coordinates (phasor form) provides a constant phase term

Recall Eqn 4-4

jRC Vme jt jRC + 1

jRC Vm as jRC Vm e j jRC + 1 |r | (RC)2 + 1

sin( ) = RC and | r | = cos( ) cos ()

so Eqn 4-4 can be rewritten as

4 Getting the Complete Response

4.4 The Complete Response

The Complete Response

Complete Response to Unit Step Function Input

4 Getting the Complete Response

4.4 The Complete Response

Complete Response to Complex Input