04 Steering and Turning Vehicles

ME 360/390 Prof. R.G.
Longoria
Vehicle System Dynamics and Control
Department of Mechanical Engineering
The University of Texas at Austin
Steering and Turning Vehicles
Prof. R.G. Longoria
Spring 2012
ME 360/390 Prof. R.G. Longoria
Overview
Steering mechanisms
Differentially-steered vehicle kinematic
Ackermann steered vehicle kinematic
Simulation examples
5
th
wheel
steering
Likely developed by the Romans, and preceded only by a 2
wheel cart.
Consumes space
Poor performance unstable
Longitudinal disturbance forces have large moment arms
'hand wheel' angle =
H
Articulated-vehicle steering
Tractors, heavy industrial
vehicles
turntable steering
Classical steering mechanisms
Differential steer Synchro-drive Tricycle
and some systems also employ Ackermann-type.
What is minimum
# of actuators?
Common Steering Mechanisms
X
Recall the simple 2D turning vehicle with kinematic state quantified by,
x
y
Y
cos sin 0
( ) sin cos 0
0 0 1

(
(
=
(
(

[ ]
I
X Y = q
The velocities in the local (body-fixed) reference frame

are transformed into a global frame by the rotation
matrix,
cos sin 0
( ) sin cos 0
0 0 1

(
(
=
(
(

R
Inverting, we arrive at the velocities in the global reference frame,
( )
I
= q R q

( )
I
= q q

and the velocities are then,
where,
Lets apply these relations to the case of a single-axis vehicle that has two wheels
differentially driven with controlled speed.
X
Kinematic model of single-axle turning vehicle
X
We defined the vehicles kinematic state in the inertial frame by,
x
y
Y
I
X
Y
(
(
=
(
(

q
Velocities in the local (body-fixed)

reference frame are transformed
into the inertial frame by the
rotation matrix,
cos sin 0
( ) sin cos 0
0 0 1

(
(
=
(
(

R
Inverting, we arrive at the velocities in the global reference
frame,
( )
I
= q R q

cos sin 0
( ) sin cos 0
0 0 1
x
I y
z
X U v
Y V v

(
( ( (
(
( ( (
= = = =
(
( ( (
(
( ( (

q q
or, specifically,
So, for our simple (single-axle) vehicle,
the velocities in the inertial frame in
terms of the wheel velocities are,
X
2
1 2 1 2
2
1 2 1 2
1 2
( ) cos ( ) sin
2
( ) sin ( ) cos
2
( )
w w
w w
I
w
R l R
B
X
R l R
Y
B
R
B

(
+
(
(
(
(
(
= = + +
(
(
(
(

(
(

q
Recall: position and velocity in inertial frame

1
l
2
l
B
X
For a kinematic model of a differentially-driven vehicle, we assume there is no slip, and
that the wheels have controllable speeds,
1
and
2
. If the CG is on the rear axle,
x
y
Y
the velocities in the global reference frame are,

track width B =
1 2
1 2
1 2
( ) cos
2
( ) sin
2
( )
w
w
I
w
R
X
R
Y
R
B

(
+
(
(
(
(
(
= = +
(
(
(
(

(
(

q
1
2
0
l L
l
=
=
Example: Differentially-driven basic vehicle
% Differentially-steered kinematic vehicle model
% Requires right (#1) and left (#2) wheel velocities, omegaw1 and omegaw2,
% as controlled inputs for single axle, to be passed as global parameters
% Wheel radius, R_w, and axle track width, B, are also required
% Updated 2/20/12 RGL
function Xidot = DS_vehicle(t,Xi)
global R_w B omegaw1 omegaw2
X = Xi(1); Y = Xi(2); psi = Xi(3);
% NOTE: these are global coordinates
% These equations assume CG on single axle
Xdot = 0.5*cos(psi)*R_w*(omegaw1+omegaw2);
Ydot = 0.5*sin(psi)*R_w*(omegaw1+omegaw2);
psidot = R_w*(omegaw1-omegaw2)/B;
Xidot=[Xdot;Ydot;psidot];
% test_DS_vehicle.m
clear all
global R_w B omegaw1 omegaw2
% Rw = wheel radius, B = track width
% omegaw1 = right wheel speed
R_w = 0.05; B = 0.18;
omegaw1 = 4; omegaw2 = 2;
Xi0=[0,0,0];
[t,Xi] = ode45(@DS_vehicle,[0 10],Xi0);
N = length(t);
figure(1)
plot(Xi(:,1),Xi(:,2)), axis([-1.0 1.0 -0.5 1.5]), axis('square')
xlabel('X'), ylabel('Y')
A simple code in Matlab to compute and plot out the vehicle trajectory is given below.
Vehicle trajectory in XY
Simulation of the differentially-steered single-axle vehicle trajectory
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
X
Y
1. Specify and plot initial location
and orientation of the vehicle CG.
2. Initiate some handle graphics
functions for defining the body.
3. Perform a fixed wheel speed
simulation loop to find state, q.
4. The state of the robot is used to
define the position and orientation
of the vehicle over time.
5. A simple routine is used to
animate 2D motion of the vehicle
by progressive plotting of the
body/wheel positions.
A code in Matlab to plot out the vehicle trajectory including a simple graphing animation of
the vehicle body/orientation is provided on the course log. This provides visual feedback on
the model results.
The key elements of this code are:
Simulation of differentially-steered vehicle with 2D animation
1. Steering arm
2. Drag link
3. Idler arm
4. Tie rod/rack
5. Steering wheel
6. Steering shaft
7. Steering box
8. Pitman arm
Rigid axle with
kingpin
Divided track rods
for independent
suspension.
knuckle
Lankensperger/Ackermann-type steering
What is low-speed?
Negligible centrifugal forces
Tires need not develop lateral
forces
Pure rolling, no lateral sliding
(minimum tire scrub).
For proper geometry in the turn,
the steer angles, , are given by:
The average value (small angles)
is the Ackerman angle,
B
L
o
R
Turn Center
Ref. Wong, Ch. 5
cot cot
steer angle of outside wheel
steer angle of inside wheel
track
wheelbase
o i
o
i
B
L
B
L

=
=
=
=
=
Ackermann steering geometry
2 2
o i
L L
B B
R R
<
+
Ackermann
L
R
=
Simple relationship between
heading and steering wheel angle.
Turning at low (Ackermann) speed
*To align the wheel with heading direction
(vector), you would have to go .
The lateral force should simply always
oppose the motion the lateral force is a
dissipative force!
A positive slip angle is said to give a
negative force on the wheel (to the left).
y
F C
=
The slip angle is the angle between the
wheels direction of heading (wheel plane)
and its direction of travel. So, to compute
the slip angle, need to track tire velocity
components, as shown below.
Gillespie (1992)
Excerpt from Liljedahl, et al (1996)
Wheel slip angle definition
At low speed the wheels will roll without slip angle.
If the rear wheels have no slip angle, the center of the turn lies
on the projection of the rear axle. Each front steered wheel has
a normal to the wheel plane that passes through the same center
of the turn. This is what Ackermann geometry dictates.
Correct Ackermann reduces tire wear and is easy on terrain.
Ackermann steering geometry leads to steering torques that
increase with steer angle. The driver gets feedback about the
extent to which wheels are turned. With parallel steer, the trend
is different, becoming negative (not desirable in a steering
system positive feedback).
Off-tracking of the rear wheels, , is related to this geometry.
The is R[1-cos(L/R)], or approximately L
2
/(2R).
Additional notes/comments on Ackermann steering
B
L
o
Can you pass the vehicle
through a given position?
Using the basic geometry of Ackermann steering
1. Assume low-speed turning
2. Project along rear-axle
3. Define R = L/
max
4. Project from CG
5. Project ideal turning path
A wheeled vehicle is said to have kinematic (or Ackermann) steering when a wheel is
actually given a steer angle, , as shown. A kinematic model for the steered basic vehicle
in the inertial frame is given by the equations,
cos cos
sin sin
tan
w
w
X v R
Y v R
v
L

= =
= =
=
where it is assumed that the wheels do not slip, so we

can control the rotational speed and thus velocity at each
wheel-ground contact.
So, the input control variables are velocity, v=R
w
,
and steer angle, .
In this example, the CG is located on the rear axle.
These kinematic equations can be readily simulated.
Y
X
( )
1 2
1
2
v v v = +
X
x
y
wheel base L =
tricycle
Note:
tan
t
z
t
v
L
v
v

= =
=
Example: 2D vehicle with front-steered wheel

Y
X
( )
1 2
1
2
v v v = +
X
x
y
wheel base L =
Derivation of equations
Note that the forward velocity at the front wheel
is simply, v, but because of kinematic steering
the velocity along the path of the wheel must be,
cos
v
v
=
tan
z
v
L
=
This means that the lateral velocity at the front
steered wheel must be,
sin tan
t
v v v
= =
Now we can find the angular velocity about the CG, which is located at the
center of the rear axle as,
% -----------------------------------------------------
% tricycle_model.m
% revised 2/21/12 rgl
% -----------------------------------------------------
function qdot = tricycle_model(t,q)
global L vc delta_radc delta_max_deg R_w
% L is length between the front wheel axis and rear wheel axis [m]
% vc is speed command
% delta_radc is the steering angle command
% State variables
x = q(1); y = q(2); psi = q(3);
% Control variables
v = vc;
delta = delta_radc;
% kinematic model
xdot = v*cos(psi);
ydot = v*sin(psi);
psidot = v*tan(delta)/L;
qdot = [xdot;ydot;psidot];
Example: simulation and animation of steered tricycle kinematic model
% Physical parameters of the tricycle
L = 2.040; % Length between the front wheel axis and rear wheel axis [m]
B = 1.164; % Distance between the rear wheels [m]
m_max_rpm= 8000; % Motor max speed [rpm]
gratio = 20; % Gear ratio
R_w = 13/39.37; % Radius of wheel [m]
% desired turn radius
R_turn = 3*L;
delta_max_rad = L/R_turn; % Maximum steering angle [deg]
R = 6.12 m
= 0.33 rad = 19.1 deg
The models introduced here provide additional review of
fundamental kinematics principles and how they can be applied
to vehicle systems.
The concepts of differential and Ackermann steering are
demonstrated through simulations.
The kinematic models are commonly used in mobile robot
applications for path planning, estimation, and control.
These kinematic models cannot tell you anything about the
effect of forces or stability.
Summary of kinematic vehicle turning
Directional stability refers to a vehicles ability to
stabilize its direction of motion against disturbances.
So, we are typically concerned with:
Unforced transient operations (natural response)
Forced response aperiodic inputs (step, ramp, etc.)
Forced response periodic forcing (sine)
Steady-state directional response
Well discuss both lateral and longitudinal stability.
Vehicle directional stability
One of the earliest analyses of vehicle stability was
conducted by Y. Rocard (1954) (Steeds, 1960).
The vehicle was simplified as a rigid rectangular
frame with a wheel at each corner and the plane of
each wheel is vertical and parallel to the frame.
The steering force is assumed to be directly related to
slip angle,
and the contact forces are assumed not to be affected
by vehicle motion.
There is no steering angle in this model.
First, lets review the lateral forces using modern
notation.
F K =
2D vehicle of Rocard
2 1
tan
z y
r
x
l v
v

| |
=
|
\
1 1
tan
y z
f f
x
v l
v

+ | |
=
|
\
1 1
2 1
rear steer
tan
tan
y z
f f
x
y z
r r
x
v l
v
v l
v

+ | |
=
|
\
| |
=
|
\
Wong (2001)
From Liljedahl, et al (1996)
The slip angle, , is derived using body-fixed variables.
Lateral tire forces induced by slip angles
The slip angle, , is the angle between direction of
heading and direction of travel of a wheel (OA).
A lateral force, F
y
, also referred to as a cornering
force (camber angle of the wheel is zero), is
generated at a tire-surface interface, but this may not
be collinear with the applied force at the wheel
center.
A torque is induced, referred to as a self-aligning
torque. This torque helps a steered wheel return to
its original position after a turn.
The distance between these two applied forces is
called the pneumatic trail.
The self-aligning torque is given by the product of
the cornering force and the pneumatic trail.
For more on self-aligning moment and pneumatic
trail, see Wong, Section 1.4.
Wong
side slip is due to the
lateral elasticity of the
tire.
s
F
y
F
s
F
y
F
p
t
Tire cornering forces
Fig. 1.23 from Wong
Fig. 1.24 from Wong
linear region

Maximum cornering forces:
passenger car tires: 18 degrees
racing car tires: 6 degrees
(Wong)
Ratio to normal load
Variables that impact cornering force:
Normal load
Inflation pressure
Lateral load transfer
Size
Typical data on tire cornering forces
The cornering stiffness will depend on tire
properties such as:
tire size and type (e.g., radial, bias-ply, etc.),
number of plies,
cord angles,
wheel width, and
tread.
Dependence on load is taken into account
through the cornering coefficient,
where F
z
is the vertical load.
z
C
CC
F
=
Cornering stiffness and coefficient
Fig. 1.27 from Wong
Fig. 1.28 from Wong
Cornering stiffness for car, light truck
and heavy truck tires
Effect of normal load
on the cornering
coefficient
Cornering stiffness and coefficients
Rocard derived two 2nd order ODEs for this
problem*, and for linear approximations found
the characteristic equation,
2
2
1 3
1 3
2 ( )
( )
c
K K a b
V
M K a K b
+
=
3 1
K b K a > Stable for all speeds if:
( )
( )
2 2
2 2
1 3
2 2
2
1 3 1 3
2 2
0
2
1 1
4 ( ) 2( )
s Rs S s
a b
R K K
MV k k
K K a b K a K b
S
Mk
MkV
+ + =
(
| | | |
= + + +
( | |
\ \

+
=
A critical speed
is defined by:
choose the position of the mass center of the
vehicle and the steering force characteristics for
the front and rear tires
If the steering force are equal, then stability is
assured if b is greater than a, or putting the CG in
front of the midpoint of the wheelbase.
*Refer to Steeds handout for details; well
come back to this later
2
I Mk =
Now, Rocards linearized model
Lets match this up with modern notation:
2
2
2
1 3
1 3 1 2
2
2 ( )
( ) ( )

+
= =

f r
c
f r
C C L
K K a b
V
M K a K b M C L C L
1
3
=
=
f
r
K C
K C
2 1
0 (for stability at all speeds)

= >
factor r f
R C L C L
So, only compute a critical speed if R
factor
is less than or equal to zero.
A critical speed is defined by,
(Steeds, 1960)
Directional Stability per Rocard
Assume: symmetric vehicle, no roll or pitch
Represent the two wheels on the front and rear
axles by a single equivalent wheel.
The bicycle model will have at least three states:
forward translational momentum or velocity of
the CG
lateral translational momentum or velocity of the
CG
yaw angular momentum or velocity about the CG
( )
( )
rear drive
front drive lateral force effect
1 2 1
cos( ) sin( )
cos( ) sin( )
cos( ) sin( )
x y z xf f xr yf f
y x z yr yf f xf f
z z yf f yr xf f
m v V F F F
m v V F F F
I l F l F l F

= +
+ = + +
= +
Refer to Wong, Chapter 5, Eqs. 5.25 5.27:

How would you add a disturbance?
Need to determine the external forces.
Adapted from Wong
The Bicycle or Single-Track Model
f
f
l
1
r
X
Y
x
y
Z
y
t
x
t
l
2
z
x
v
y
v
1
sideslip tan
y
x
v
v

| |
= =
|
\
2 1
tan
y z
r r
x
v l
v

| |
=
|
\
1 1
tan
y z
f f
x
v l
v

+ | |
=
|
\
A more general bicycle model schematic

( )
rear drive
front drive lateral force effect
small steering angle
cos( ) sin( )
x
f
x y z xf f xr yf f
v V
m v V F F F

=
= =
= +

0
1 2 1
0
y yr yf xf f x z
z z yf yr xf f
mv F F F mv
I l F l F l F
= + +
= +
Note how falls out, but it enters again in the lateral forces, since,
2 2 1
tan
z y z y
r
x x
l v l v
v v

| | | |
=
| |
\ \
1 1 1
tan
y z y z
f f f
x x
v l v l
v v

+ + | | | |
=
| |
\ \
Reduced bicycle model: 2 DOF by assuming V
x
= constant = V
cos( ) sin( )
sin( ) cos( )
x y
x y
z
X v v
Y v v

=
= +
=
Recall, these models solve for forward and lateral velocity and yaw
velocity, resulting from input steer angles, , relative to the body-
fixed axes.
To find the trajectory of the CG in the Earth-based coordinates, we
use transformation equations for basic 2-D trajectory simulations,
As before, we can calculate vehicle trajectory calculations
We examine directional stability, reviewing Steeds form of
Rocards (linearized) model (see class handout), which is
essentially the bicycle model with steer angle, = 0.
Determine if this vehicle with baseline parameter data given
(next slide) is stable, and compare with results from a
simulation of the bicycle model subjected to a force
perturbation at the front wheel applied in the +y direction.
Additional car specification data is provided as Appendix B.
Example: directional stability with zero steer + disturbance
(In Matlab script form)
% Baseline values
g = 9.81;
L = 3.075; L1 = 1.568; L2 = L-L1;
% Inertia parameters
m = 1945; % total mass, kg
W = m*g; % weight, N
iyaw = 0.992; % yaw dynamic index
% the following is a defined relation between yaw dynamic index and
% the yaw moment of inertia (see Dixon reference and table of car specs)
Iz = iyaw*m*L1*L2; % moment of inertia about z, kg-m^2
Wf = L2*W/L; % static weight on front axle
Wr = L1*W/L; % static weight on rear axle
% Refer to Wong, Section 1.4 for guide to the following parameters
CCf = 0.171*180/pi; % front corning stiffness coefficient, /rad
CCr = 0.5*0.181*180/pi; % rear corning stiffness coefficient, /rad
Cf = CCf*Wf/2; % corning stiffness per tire, N/rad (front)
Cr = CCr*Wr/2; % rear cornering stiffness per tire, N/rad (rear)
Example: baseline vehicle parameter data (from simple_bicycle.m)
if (t>=tdon & t<=tdoff)
Fd = Fyfd;
else
Fd = 0;
end
Vy_dot = (-m*Vx*omegaz + Fyr + Fyf*cos(deltaf) + Fxf*sin(deltaf) + Fd)/m;
omegaz_dot = (L1*Fyf*cos(deltaf) - L2*Fyr + L1*Fxf*sin(deltaf) + Fd*L1)/Iz;
d
F
Add disturbance as a lateral
force and related moment.
don
t
d
F
yfd
F
doff
t
Pulse disturbance
Disturbance force application
0 5 10 15
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
x 10
-3
Lateral Velocity
0 5 10 15
-2
0
2
4
6
x 10
-3
Yaw Velocity
0 50 100 150 200
-50
0
50
Position
0 5 10 15
0
1
2
3
x 10
-3
Yaw
Given case:
R
factor
= 4200.4
V
c
= non-existent
v
x
=V= 5L/sec
A lateral pulse disturbance is
applied at front wheel.
Afterwards, the vehicle
stabilizes (lateral and yaw
velocities go to zero).
Used: simple_bicycle.m
For Nominal Case, Vehicle Stabilizes
In this case, the rear lateral
stiffness was cut in half.
R
factor
= 33814.
V
c
= 18.2 m/s
Let (since vehicle is now
unstable for V > Vc)
V = 1.2* V
c
=21.8
After the pulse disturbance,
the vehicle does not stabilize.
0 5 10 15
-100
-50
0
50
Lateral Velocity
0 5 10 15
0
5
10
15
Yaw Velocity
0 100 200
-50
0
50
100
Position
0 5 10 15
0
5
10
15
Yaw
Used: simple_bicycle.m
Change rear lateral stiffness (i.e., the cornering stiffness values of tires)
Using the stable case for the
simple_bicycle model, an
open loop lane change is
achieved by:
(put right into function file):
% double lane change
if (t<1) deltaf = 0; end;
if (t>=1 & t<2) deltaf = steer_angle; end;
if (t>=2 & t<3) deltaf = -steer_angle; end;
if (t>=3 & t<4) deltaf = 0; end;
if (t>=4 & t<5) deltaf = -steer_angle; end;
if (t>=5 & t<6) deltaf = steer_angle; end;
if (t>=6) deltaf = 0; end;
0 2 4 6 8
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Lateral Velocity
0 2 4 6 8
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
Yaw Velocity
0 50 100 150
-2
0
2
4
6
Position
0 2 4 6 8
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
Yaw
Used: simple_bicycle_lanechange.m
Example: a double lane change using simple bicycle model
The classic bicycle (or single-track) model forms the basis for
understanding steering and steering control.
Lateral forces induced by tires depend on wheel slip angle and
play a key role in lateral stability. See also the Rocard handout.
We saw earlier that longitudinal traction (driving or braking)
influences lateral forces, so driven bicycle models (where there
are traction/braking forces) require us to model the coupling
between longitudinal and lateral tire forces (friction ellipse).
In extreme maneuvers, for example, it would be possible to
predict yaw instability if lateral forces were significantly
reduced.
Bicycle model summary
References
1. Den Hartog, J.P., Mechanics, Dover edition.
2. Dixon, J.C., Tires, Suspension and Handling (2nd ed.), SAE, Warrendale, PA,
1996.
3. Greenwood, D.T., Principles of Dynamics, Prentice-Hall, 1965.
4. Gillespie, T.D., Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics, SAE, Warrendale, PA, 1992.
5. Hibbeler, Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, 9th ed., Prentice-Hall.
6. Meriam, J.L. and L.G. Kraige, Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics (4th ed.), Wiley
and Sons, Inc., NY, 1997.
7. Rocard, Y., Linstabilite en Mecanique, Masson et Cie, Paris, 1954.
8. Segel, L., Theoretical Prediction and Experimental Substantiation of the
Response of the Automobile to Steering Control, The Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Proceedings of the Automobile Division, No. 7, pp. 310-330, 1956-7.
9. Steeds, W., Mechanics of Road Vehicles, Iliffe and Sons, Ltd., London, 1960.
10. Wong, J.Y., Theory of Ground Vehicles, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
2001 (3rd ed.).
Example Car Specifications*
*Table C.1 from J.C. Dixon, Tires, Suspension and Handling (2
nd
ed.), SAE, Warrendale, PA, 1996.
APPENDIX
Appendix:
More on Steering Mechanisms
DaNI: 4-wheeled, differentially driven
Motor: Tetrix DC (handout)
Gear Ratio: 2:1
Shaft Diameter: 4.73 mm
Wheel Diameter: 100 mm
Wheel base: 133 mm.
Under what conditions would you need to
use a dynamic model?
General Steering System Requirements
A steering system should be insensitive to disturbances from the ground/road
while providing the driver/controller with essential feedback as needed to
maintain stability.
The steering system should achieve the required turning geometry. For
example, it may be required to satisfy the Ackermann condition.
The vehicle should be responsive to steering corrections.
The orientation of the steered wheels with respect to the vehicle should be
maintained in a stable fashion. For example, passenger vehicles require that
the steered wheels automatically return to a straight-ahead stable equilibrium
position.
It should be possible to achieve reasonable handling without excessive
control input (e.g., a minimum of steering wheel turns from one locked
position to the other).
Passenger Steering Requirements
Driver should alter steering wheel angle to keep deviation from course low.
Correlation between steering wheel and driving direction is not linear due to:
a) turns of the steering wheel, b) steered wheel alterations, c) lateral tire
loads, and d) alteration of driving direction.
Driver must steer to account for compliance in steering system, chassis, etc.,
as well as need to change directions.
Driver uses visual as well as haptic feedback. For example, roll inclination
of vehicle body, vibration, and feedback through the steering wheel (effect of
self-centering torque on wheels).
It is believed that the feedback from the steering torque coming back up
through the steering system from the wheels is the most important
information used by many drivers.
Impact of Steering Geometry
Ref. Milliken & Milliken
0.56
B
L
=
Ref. Wong
Steering Results and
Error in Ackermann
Ref. Wong
0.56
B
L
=
Steering error curves for a front beam axle
Impact on Steering Geometry
of using Ackermann in High Speed
A car with a steering geometry chosen for low-speed (Ackermann)
will not be as effective at higher vehicle speeds.
In a high speed turn, the inside tire will have a lower normal force,
which means it could achieve the same amount of lateral cornering
force with a smaller slip angle.
Using Ackermann will result in more instances in which the inside
tire is dragged along at too high a slip angle, unnecessarily raising
the temperature and slowing the vehicle down with excessive slip
induced drag.
Steering Systems Rigid Axle
Rack and pinion is not suitable for steering wheels on rigid
front axles, as the axles tend to move in the longitudinal
direction. This movement between the wheels and steering
system can induce unintended steering action.
Only steering gears (1) with rotational movement are used.
Design must minimize effects from motion.
1. Steering arm
2. Drag link
3. Idler arm
4. Tie rod/rack
5. Steering wheel
6. Steering shaft
7. Steering box
8. Pitman arm
7
8
2
1
You may see some older model
Toyota Land Cruisers that use
this type of steering design.
Axle-Beam Steering Linkage
Heisler (1999)
Axle-Beam Steering Linkage
Heisler (1999)
Front Axle and Tie Rod Assembly
From: J.W. Durstine, The Truck Steering System From
Hand Wheel to Road Wheel, SAE, SP-374, 1973 (L. Ray
Bukendale Lecture).
Steering Gearbox and Ratio
From Gillespie (Fig. 8.18).
Experimentally measured steering
ratio on a truck.
The gearbox provides the primary means for reducing the rotational input from
the steering wheel and the steering axis.
Steering wheel to road wheel ratios may vary
with angle, but have values of 15:1 in passenger
cars and may go as high as 36:1 for heavy
trucks.
Rack and pinions are commonly designed to
have a variable gear ratio depending on steer
angle.
The actual steer ratio can be influenced by
steering system effects, such as compliance.
The plot here from Gillespie shows how much
this can change.
Rack-and-Pinion 1
Used on most passenger cars and some light trucks,
as well as on some heavier and high speed vehicles.
Used on vehicles with independent suspensions.
Some advantages: simple, manufacturing ease,
efficient, minimal backlash, tie rods can be joined
to rack, minimal compliance, compact, eliminate
idler arm and intermediate rod
Some disadvantages: sensitive to impacts, greater
stress in tie rod, since it is efficient you feel
disturbances, size of steering angle depends on rack
travel so you have short steering arms and higher
forces throughout, cannot be used on rigid axles
3 Steering arms
7 Tie rod joints
8 Steering rack
Steering ratio is ratio of pinion revolutions to rack travel.
Rack-and-Pinion 2
Heisler (1999)
Split track-rod with relay-rod
Heisler (1999)
Summary
Steering mechanisms were reviewed briefly
Steering geometry how do you select steering
system?
Steering control how does it translate into
steering mechanism design?
There is a complex relationship to suspension
(see Segel, Gillespie)

04 Steering and Turning Vehicles

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04 Steering and Turning Vehicles

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ME 360/390 Prof. R.G.

The velocities in the local (body-fixed) reference frame

Velocities in the local (body-fixed)

Recall: position and velocity in inertial frame

the velocities in the global reference frame are,

where it is assumed that the wheels do not slip, so we

Example: 2D vehicle with front-steered wheel

Refer to Wong, Chapter 5, Eqs. 5.25 5.27:

A more general bicycle model schematic

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