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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2. 1 Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is a branch of linguistics study which discuss about the relation between the language and society. As said by Hudson (1980:4) that Sociolinguistics as the study of language in relation to society. Gumperz (1971:223) in defines sociolinguistics as an attempt to find correlation between social structure and linguistic structure and to observe any changes that occurs. While Wardhaugh (2006:12) himself states that sociolinguistic is concerned with investigating the relationship between language and society which the goal is to create a better understanding of the structure of language and how languages function in communication. Sociolinguistics ranges from the study of the wide variety of dialects across different region down to the analysis between the way men and women speak to one another. Sociolinguistics discusses how language and social relation affects to each other. Holmes (2002:1) says that Sociolinguistics is a branch of linguistics which studies about the relationship between society and language. She also says that Sociolinguists are interested in explaining why we speak differently in different social contexts, and they are concerned with identifying the social functions of language and the ways it is used to

convey social meaning. While Spolsky (1998:3) defines Sociolinguistics as the field that studies relationship between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live. Sociolinguistics encompasses a broad range of concerns, including bilingualism and pidgin languages, and other ways that language use is influenced by contact among people of different language communities. It examines different dialects, accents, and levels of diction depend to social distinctions among people. Although accent refers strictly to pronunciation, in practice a dialect can usually be identified by the accent of its speakers as well as by distinctive words, usage, idiomatic expressions, and grammatical features. The varying language, accents, dialects, diction, and other linguistics structure is called language variation or code, which many Sociolinguistics studies are now concerned to. 2. 2 Bilingualism and Multilingualism In this world we live in so many languages existed and it is a common thing when one speaks in two or more different languages. The phenomenon of people speaks in several languages is quite normal since they do it due to various situation and purposes. Wardhaugh (2006:96) simply refers that phenomenon which people having more than one language as bilingualism or multilingualism. This condition makes one to be called a bilingual person. Myers-Scotton (2006:2) simply defines bilingualism as the term for speaking one or more languages. As well as Spolsky (1998:45) defines a bilingual as a

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person who has some functional ability in the second language. This ability may vary from one bilingual to another. As what Sridhar (1996:50) says in Wardhaugh (2006:96) that multilingualism involving balanced, nativelike command of all languages in the repertoires is rather uncommon. Bilinguals or multilingual might have different language repertoire and different language competence. In contrary Bloomfield (1993:56) defines bilingualism as ability of a speaker in using two languages, in case the using of the first language as good as the second language. However many arguments towards Bloomfields concept of bilingualism since it is rare to see a speaker which has the same capability in both first language and second language. Even though for one who has been bilingual since birth, there is always one language which is dominant. Bilingual speakers are able to choose which language (or varieties) that they are going to use as Spolsky (1998:46) says that bilinguals have a repertoire of domain-related rules of language choice. Speakers with bilingual or multilingual abilities are able to choose which language they are going to use in their communication depends on the situation in order to make the communication become effective. Meanwhile, there are some reasons why someone becomes bilingual. Hoffman (1991:3) says there are three reasons for bilingualism to happened, namely membership, education, and administration. The example of membership reason is the use of French by

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all European aristocracy to signal the membership of the elite. The example of education and administrative reason is the use of English by Indonesians, Scandinavians, Germans, and Dutches in discussing their technologies, academics, or business. Bilingualism is a normal requirement for daily communication and not a sign of any particular reason in many countries and communities (Hoffman, 1991:3). This is supported by Wardhaugh (2006:96) who says in many parts of the world it is just a normal requirement of daily living that people speak several languages: perhaps one or more at home, another in the village, still another for purposes of trade, and yet another for contact with the outside world of wider social or political organization.

2. 3 Code In order to communicate to each other, people usually choose different codes according to the situation. As stated by Holmes (2001:6) that variety (or code) refer to any set of linguistics forms which patterns according to social factors. He also defines code as a set of linguistics forms used under specific social circumstances, i.e. with a distinctive social distribution. Different accents, different linguistics styles, different dialects and even different languages are considered as code. This is supported by Wardhaugh (2006:88) who says that code is a particular language, dialect, style, register or variety. And

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in order to make their communication effective they usually choose variety (code) among their language repertoire. Holmes (2001:23) draws three important social factors in code-choice participants, setting, and topic. Those factors mentioned before will trigger additional reasons contribute in the code (language) choice. The contributing factors to the language (code) choice are social distance, status, formality, and function or goal of interaction (Holmes, 2001:23). Social distance can be indicated in how well the speaker knows each other, i.e. what is the social distance between the speakers? Are they strangers, friends, or brothers? The status relationship between the speakers also contributes in language choice. The speaker often chooses an appropriate code to be used to talk to other. Social role may also be important and is often a factor contributing to status differences between people. For example, teacher-student, doctor-patient, official-citizen, manager-employee. Features of the setting and the dimension of formality may also be important in selecting an appropriate variety or code (Holmes, 2001:26). For example, the variety or code which is used on the formal ceremony at the church must be different from the variety or code which is used in the church front porch and the variety or code which is used in the televisions news program and the variety or code which is used in the advertisements during the commercial breaks. And the last contributing factor mentioned by Holmes is the function or goal of the interaction. The function factor is showing that

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what is the language being used for? Is the speaker asking a favor or giving orders to someone? These all can contribute to the language (variety/code) choice among speakers.

2. 4 Diglossia The existence of distinctive code or varieties in a speech community is called diglossia. Wardaugh (2006:89) states that a diglossic situation exist in a society when it has two distinct codes which show clear functional separation; that is, one code is employed in one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set. The term diglossia was originally introduced into English from French in 1959 by Charles A.Ferguson (1959/1972:232) who refers it as a specific relationship between two or more varieties of the same language in use in a speech community in different functions. Ferguson (1959:435) originally summarized diglossia as follows: Diglossia is a relatively stable language situation in which, in addition the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any section of the community for ordinary conversation.

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As Ferguson, the variety in diglossia considered from High variety (High=H) and the Low variety (Low=L). The H variety is the prestigious, powerful variety; the L variety lacks prestige and power. Formal domains such as public speaking, religious text and practice, education, and other prestigious kinds of usage are dominated by the H variety; the L variety is used for informal conversation, jokes, street and market, the telephone, and other domains not reserved for the H variety. Fishman (1967/1980:4) introduced the notion that diglossia could be extended to situations found in many societies where forms of two genetically unrelated (or at least historically distant) languages occupy H and L niches. Wardhaugh (2006:95) mentions the example of Fishmans extended diglossia as one language is used in one set of circumstances and other in an entirely different set and such difference is felt to be normal and proper. Some examples of extended diglossia which given by Fishman (1980:4) are Biblical Hebrew and Yiddish for many Jews, Spanish and Guarani in Paraguay, and even Standard English and Caribean Creole. 2. 5 Code switching and Code mixing In bilingual and multilingual society, people are having more than one variety. This situation makes them possible to alternate code (variety). Sometimes they change from one code (variety) to another, which is called code alternation. Spolsky (1998:45) agrees, by saying that bilinguals like to shift their language for convenience. Recently, many sociolinguists are interested in code alternation (code switching and code mixing). They

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propose many theories about the definitions, types, and reasons for switching and mixing codes. As Wardaugh (2002:98) defines code switching as the process where people select a particular code whenever they choose to speak, and they may also decide to switch from one code to another or to mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code. Poplack (1980:583) defines code switching as the alternation of two languages within a single discourse, sentence or constituent. This definition is supported by Wardhaugh (2006:101) which said that Code switching (also called code mixing) can occur in conversations between speakers turn or within a single speakers turn. Because of this reason, enough knowledge about grammatical systems is needed by the speaker in code switching (Poplack, 1980:601). Meanwhile, Muysken (2000:1) defines code mixing as all cases where lexical items and grammatical features from two languages appear in one sentence. Muysken avoids using the term switching for the general process of mixing like in Poplack (1980) who categorized code mixing as inter-sentential switching. A change in some social condition often triggers people to switch code to communicate to each other (Holmes, 2001:35). Myers-Scotton (2006:239) simply defines code switching as the use of two languages varieties in the same conversation. Code switching is very common to happen in bilingual or multilingual society.

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2.6 Types of code-switching and code-mixing Many sociolinguists have worked in classifying code switching and code mixing into several categories. Blom and Gumperz (1972), Poplack (1980), Hoffman (1991), Muysken (2000), Myers-Scotton (2006) and other sociolinguist have classified the phenomenon of code alternation, but some of them sometimes are resemble to each other. Based on the appearance of code switching in a sentence, Poplack (1980) divides code switching into three types: tag-switching, inter-sentential switching, and intra-sentential switching. Based on Poplack (1980): Sometimes Ill start a sentence in Spanish. Y TERMINO EN ESPANOL: Toward a typology of code-switching code switching grammatically divides into three types, they are: 1. Inter-sentential switching Inter-sentential switching is the first type of code switching proposed by Poplack (1980). Inter-sentential switching involves a switch at a clause or sentence boundary, where each clause or sentence is in one language or another (Romaine, 1995:122). A clause or sentence is wholly in one language and combined with another, and conforms to the rules of both languages that occur between the speaker turns. Here the examples of inter-sentential switching:

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The conversation between the stallholder and buyer at a market in Nairobi, Kenya. They code switch between Swahili and English (Myers-Scotton, 1993a: 40-1) Stallholder: Habari, mheshimiwa. (Hello, respected Sir.) Have some vegetables. Buyer: Mboga gani? Nipe kabeji hizi. (Which vegetables? Give me these cabbages). How much is that? The title of Shana Poplacks study in analyzing code switching occurrence in Puerto Ricans resident (1980). Sometimes Ill start a sentence in Spanish y termino en Espanol (Sometimes Ill start a sentence in Spanish and finish it in Spanish). 2. Tag-switching According to Poplack (1980) tag-switching is an insertion of a tag in one language into an utterance which is entirely in other language, the insertion of a tag to an utterance has virtually no ramifications for the rest of the sentence. Thus a bilingual can insert a tag or short expression in other language in anywhere of his/her utterance, as added by Romaine (1995:122) that tag-switching can be inserted anywhere, which do not have too many syntactic limits. The insertions of short expressions like you know, I mean, OK, by the way, well, etc in an utterance are considered as tag-switching. Holmes (2001:35) also named tag-switching as

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emblematic switching where the switch is simply an interjection, a tag, or a sentence filler in the other language which serves as an ethnic identity marker. Here the example of tag-switching/emblematic switching: The switches between Spanish and English by using English tag in: Se sininen talo, you know (that blue house, you know) (Poplack, 1980:589) The switches between Spanish and English by using Spanish tag in: A: Well, Im glad I met you. OK B: andale pues (OK SWELL), and do come again, mm? (Holmes, 2001:35) The switches between English and Cantonese Chinese by using Chinese Cantonese tag in: Confiscated by the Customs, da gai (probably) (Holmes, 2001:35) 3. Intra-sentential switching Poplack (1980) said that intra-sentential switching could be used in the middle of sentences or clauses, or even words. Intra-sentential switching is found

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when a word, a phrase, or a clause of a foreign language is found within the sentence of a base language. Poplack (1980) found that intra-sentential switching was practiced by the most balanced bilinguals only because it requires a lot of integration and is usually associated with the most fluent bilinguals. As two languages are mixed within a sentence, there are also two different grammars in play means that the speaker has to know both grammar in order to produce a grammatically correct utterance. Here the examples of intra-sentential switching: Why make Carol sentarse atras pa que (sit in the black so) everybody has to move paque se salaga (for her to get out)? (Poplack, 1980:589) He was sitting down en elcama, mirandonos peleando, y (in bed, watching us fighting and) really, I dont understand si el nos separo (if he separated us) or whatever, you know (Poplack, 1980:589) Following Poplack (1980) and the other structural analyses of code switching, Muysken (2000) set forth code switching as exhibiting rule governed features and not simply something that occurs randomly. Meanwhile, Muysken (2000:1) prefers to use the term code mixing rather than code switching to refer to all cases where lexical items and grammatical features from two languages appear in one sentence. Muysken discriminates between code mixing whereby both lexical items and grammatical features from the two

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languages concerned appear in the one sentence, and code switching whereby languages tend to alternate (clause-wise or sentence-wise in the same piece of discourse). There are three types of code mixing proposed by Muysken (2000): insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalization. 1. Insertion The concept of insertion proposed by Muysken (2000:3) is defined as insertion of material such as lexical items or entire constituents from one language into a structure from the other language. Here the process of code mixing is conceived as something akin to borrowing: the insertion of an alien lexical of phrasal category into a given structure. (Muysken, 2000:3). Here are the examples of insertion: The mixing of Spanish and English in: Pero bueno creo que hasta con que incluya la pregunta de enhanced mas todas las demas (Well, I think it is enough if I just include the question of enhanced output) (Cardenas-Claros & Isharyanti, 2009:70) The mixing of Indonesian and English in: Tergantung team, terus juga tergantung event. (It depends on team and on the event)

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(Cardenas-Claros & Isharyanti, 2009:70) The mixing of Spanish and English in: Yo anduve in the state of shock por dos dias (I walked in the state of shock for two days) (Pfaff, 1979:296) 2. Alternation The second category proposed by Muysken (2000) is alternation. A true switching from one language to the other, involving both grammar and lexicon is occurred in alternation (Muysken, 2000:5). Conjunctions and appositions are incorporated through adjunction rather than insertion. Alternation is more likely to have occurred when elements from language A both precede and follow an element from language B which is not structurally related. Alternation is just a special case of code switching, as it takes place between utterances in a turn or between turns. (Muysken, 2000:5). Here are the examples of alternation: The switching between English and Spanish I just have it in my room like a nina bonita como debe ser. (I just have it in my room like a girl pretty as it should be) (Cardenas-Claros & Isharyanti, 2009:70) The switching between Indonesian and English

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I mean, ganti ke kalimat laen (I mean, change it to another sentence) (Cardenas-Claros & Isharyanti, 2009:70) The switching between France and Russian Les femmes et le vin, ne ponimayu (Women and wine, I dont understand) (Timm, 1978:312) The switching between Spanish and English Andale pues and do come again (Thats all right then, and do come again) (Gumperz & Hernandez-Chavez, 1971:118) 3. Congruent Lexicalization The third category of code mixing proposed by Muysken (2000:6) is congruent lexicalization. It refers to the situation where two languages share grammatical structures which can be filled lexically with elements from either language. At the point where the two languages converge grammatically, lexis from one language can freely alternate with lexis from the other language. Here are the examples of congruent lexicalization: Congruent lexicalization in Indonesian and English

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Gw konek pake cellp gw (I connected using my cellphone) (Cardenas-Claros & Isharyanti, 2009:71) Congruent lexicalization in Indonesian and English Software gua buat convert file wav jadi mp3 uda expired (My software for converting wav files to mp3s has expired) (Cardenas-Claros & Isharyanti, 2009:71) 2. 7 Reasons for switching or mixing code Cecilia Montes-Alcala (2005, 2007) analyzed personal letters and bilingual blogs in an attempt to take a further step in the less-investigated area written code switching. In her study Dear Amigo: Exploring Code-switching in Personal Letters in 2005, she analyzed personal letters and notes exchanged among bilinguals Spanish-English population and found the facts that those individuals who normally code switch when speaking will do so when writing (Montes-Alcala, 2005:107). Meanwhile in her study Blogging in Two Languages: Code-Switching in Bilingual Blogs in 2007, she was curious to know whether the phenomenon of code switching also affected the way of communication in the internet. And she came up with the conclusion that bloggers also switch codes when writing their public journals (blog) and they are switching in order to manipulate the two languages for both stylistic and communicative effects (Montes-Alcala, 2007:169). According to both of Montes-Alcala (2007:165-169) the reasons of code switching in blog writing are:

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1. Lexical items The first reason of code switching in blog writing according to MontesAlcala (2007) is the lexical need. The issue of a real need is relative since roughly each and every switch fulfills a need, although under no circumstances should this be interpreted as lack of language proficiency, but rather than as the lack of an exact equivalent in the other language (Montes-Alcala, 2007:167). Here are Montes-Alcalas (2007:169) examples of code switching due to real lexical need to switch: Ayer me llego la roomie nueva, es Fransesca y se llama Celine pero es una limo party, y no me la puedo perder We had a kick-ass pachanga for my great grandmother Tala in Mexicali It was really nice to have gone and spent some time with la familia Remember when your abuelta would get all mad at you for getting prietita during the summer? 2. Triggered switches This category is the least productive category found in Montes-Alcala (2007) study, but still this category does occur in the blog writing. Triggered switch

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is code switching that occurred because it is triggered by a switched word or expression which follows or precedes it (Montes-Alcala, 2007:167). Here are her examples of triggered code switching: Voy anotando idioteces que se convertiran en futures posts for your reading enjoyment I was going to be madrina de regalo sorpresa for my neighbor My big brother was all excited and he told us that the truck was outside and my hermanillo y yo nos salimos a mirarla Precuentamente disparaging terms Los Angeles and Colorado will be the only recuerdos de lo que hubo anteriormente2 3. Quotes Code switching in blog writing can also occurred because the blogger wants to quote someone elses words or sayings. Bloggers are code switching in both direct and indirect quotations (Montes-Alcala, 2007:167). Here are the examples of code switching in order to quote someone elses words or expressions shown by Montes-Alcala (2007:167-168): [sic] uso la palabra confessional in

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Encontes le hable al Tigger: Hi J, you need to give me your last name so I can sign you in I was saying good night to her, when she asked me Que te pasa, hija, estas triste? She asked me, Y tienes hijos? I replied, No. And without missing a beat she replied, Que bueno. Ya estan deciendo [sic] que they dont understand us and the like. Our readership went down since we opened this yonderliesit offices dialogue window, que es puro cuento dicen 4. Elaboration Bloggers sometimes use code switching to elaborate or further explain the idea. This category also named as clarification in Montes-Alcalas work Dear Amigo: Exploring Code-Switching in Personal Letters (2005). In her study in 2007, she found that bilinguals in her subject code switch as an elaboration of an idea without distorting the flow of the sentence in the other language. Here are the examples of code switching used to elaborate or further explain the idea shown by Montes-Alcala (2005:105, 2007:168): Espero que te lo estes pasando bomba, Im sure you are, y ate conozco

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John esta arreglando el jardin. Dont panic if you see a man around Total, que el finde pasado estuve con el en la ciudad, recordando los viejos tiempos Shaggy is truly a cool cat, mellow, and chilled But we will have to get back to her in another post, because I have to go now Solo te dan 30 minutitos en el DLC No se que pense que iba suceder en un ano well whatever it was it sure as hell didnt happen The woman with hands of steel and a metaphorical 2nd heart El mio 5. Tags Tags in this category include linguistic routines, formulaic or idiomatic expressions. The difficulty of finding an accurate translation for an idiomatic expression is more difficult than rendering the term in the original language (Montes-Alcala, 2007:168). She found in her study the use of tags code switching for either discourse or identity markers, and there are also some tags that function as sentence fillers of which the writer might be unconscious. Here are the examples shown by Montes-Alcala (2005:106, 2007:168):

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Querida C: Happy Birthday! [] Con carino y muchos abrazos Fuertes Ella regresara definitivamente a Buenos Aires en junio. Time will tell La lectura de este constituyo uno de los ratos mas agradables que he pasado ultimamente no doubt! However, estoy de acuerdo con eso Chingado, I dont have a job right now and Ive been traveling across the state like a madman 6. Emphatic Code switching for emphatic reasons was not widely found in the personal letters and notes which Montes-Alcala analyzed in 2005, but it was widely found in the blogs she analyzed in 2007. Blog writers tend to give a foregrounding to the reader only by switching the languages, while in other case emphasis is accomplished by repeating the same or a similar sentence in both languages (Montes-Alcala, 2007:168), Here are the examples shown in Montes-Alcala (2005:104, 2007:168):

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We have our heads on straight and are smart and guys know that. They want someone easy. But I have standards! When, when, tendre mi oportunidad? I have been doing so for the past diez o quince anos or so Similarly, no se puede invader una isla, call its population citizens and not expect that theyre bringing their whole cultural shebang to the table Ahora me dieron 250 papelitos y se los tuve que poner a los 250 abrigos que mandarin por la linia. She was attaching labels on 250 coats that flew through the line It is at this time when I question God- Why?! Por que dios no nos dio la bendicion de in nino? Por que? 7. Parenthetical comments According to Montes-Alcala (2005:105), this category is strictly related to the elaboration category in the sense that the code switches constitute a further explanation of what was previously said (i.e., written). But in her study on bilingual blogs in 2007, she determined this kind of switching as elaboration. The only different in here is that the switched phrase or sentence is put in the parentheses (Montes-Alcala, 2005:105). Here are the examples shown by Montes-Alcala (2005:105, 2007:168):

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Tengo pensado volver a California [] y marchame a Chicago (a.k.a The Windy City) la primera semana de setiembre Al bajar ayer me encontre con todavia otra sorpresa, aunque esta constitute una agradable (unlike most of the other surprises Ive received in Barcelona) En el trabajo no pude hacer nada por la cruda (thats my excuse) A couple of them were my cousins (primos segundos) who I didnt know 8. Free switching In this category, Montes-Alcala (2007:169) found there was no obvious single reason to switch code or where code-switching constituted an eclectic combination of other functions. It could also be argued that the reason behind these switches is entirely stylistic. Bloggers might only suggesting their readers that theyre competent in the use of two languages and two cultures (Montes-Alcala, 2007:169). Here are the examples of free switching shown by Montes-Alcala (2005:107, 2007:169): Estoy muy animada para irme manana, pero triste como siempre porque el guero nunca viene on these trips Doddy is in the Drug Store para la medicina de Joe

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Y no te forgets about those damn soap operas, puro whity on the top homes Way back cuando estuve at the ALA convention, Id said que hubo a great small press called Soft Skull from whom Id gotten un monton de libros En el mundo hispanohablante we have a very similar debate sobre la influencia del Ingles on the other languages 2. 8 Personal blog The term weblog is a portmanteau word, coming from the contraction of web and log. A log refers to the log book in the navy (the ships record) and in the American aviation. Thus, weblog is website on which one or several people freely express themselves periodically (Penloup and Lienard, 2008). Blogs or weblogs have been around for over ten years although they were first named weblog at the end of 1997 (Blood, 2000 in Smedley 2006). A blog is like a virtual diary for it has features which make it seems so, such as text, images, and hypertext. Keepers of blogs are called bloggers, list of bloggers are termed blogrolls, and the world of bloggers is blogosphere (Smedley, 2006). Weblogs are frequently modified website where online journals are posted and regularly updated, with the latest entry posted at the top of the page this being in the reverse order to a

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handwritten journal. Weblogs contents are usually available for public, but some occasionally have restricted access. Personal blog is a weblog that is kept personally. The content of personal blog is not far from the blogger own daily life or experiences. In most personal blogs, its easy to find bloggers who share information to their unknown audience about their daily life which can make their audience to become familiar with the bloggers themselves. Frank P.Smedley has become quite attached to certain bloggers and feel personally enriched and encouraged by those bloggers honesty, humour, and disclosure of their own human struggles when he was doing his research on code switching and identity on the blogs on 2006. 2. 9 Kambing Jantan: Sebuah Catatan Harian Pelajar Bodoh by Raditya Dika In 2000s, the world of internet in Indonesia has been increasing rapidly. The increasing numbers of internet user also make the number of bloggers to be increased. One of them is Raditya Dika who is phenomenon with his personal blog, Kambing Jantan. His personal blog spotted the attention of many internet users in Indonesia and won several awards as the best blog. The blog tells its readers about the daily life of Kambing, the alias name of Raditya Dika in the blog and novel as a teenager, and his daily life while he was studying in Adelaide, Australia. The story narrates the kinky, funny, extra ordinary, stupidity, and Raditya Dikas vision to a life from the point of view most of the teenagers in Indonesia. The famous of his

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blog brought Dika to an interview by one of local website in Indonesia which the interviewer asked him, Bagaimana kalau suatu hari blog anda dibukukan? or How about if someday your blog will be published as a book? this question made an idea appear in Dikas mind to print all his blogs postings and then take them to a publisher. In 2005, Kambing Jantan was first published by Gagas Media and soon become a best seller book. The publisher thought that Raditya Dikas Kambing Jantan is a new genre of a novel which the novel itself is a collection of real story of Kambing (Dika) taken from the blog under the same title as the book, Kambing Jantan, Sebuah Catatan Harian Pelajar Bodoh. The novel version of Kambing Jantan is a collection of Dikas blog posts from 2002 to 2004.

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