AMERICAN PUBLIC UNIVERSITY

RESEARCH PAPER: QUEEN OF SHEBA

A TERM PAPER SUBMITTED TO DR BRETT WOODS

FOR THE DEGREE REQUIREMENTS OF A MASTERS OF ARTS IN GLOBAL HISTORY

RC575 C001 HISTORIOGRAPHY

BY JMICHAEL ANDERSON Student ID: 3123909 NOVEMBER 3, 2007

CONTENTS INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1 WORKS CITED............................................................................................................................13

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INTRODUCTION

I would like to engage on a quest to identify the Queen of Sheba. Having read the rather newly published co-authored book by John Ashton and David Down, Unwrapping the Pharaohs,--who states that the Queen of Sheba should be identified with the Egyptian Queen/Pharaoh, Hatshepsut. Having been a licensed minister since age twenty-four, I have often referred to sources, even Christian authors, and archaeologists that identify the Queen of Sheba as being from the South Arabian capital, Marib in Yemen. With the new archaeological discoveries, including the body of Queen Hatshepsut, and the many presentations, it will be interesting to discover new truths about this great pharaoh. Secular and many Christian sources seem to parrot the same theories which also contradict the archaeological interpretations of the discoveries of Sheba and the discoveries of the Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt. Perhaps while the discovery of Sheba supports the Biblical mention of the place as having actually existed; but, does this necessarily mean that a queen from this place actually visited Solomon? Or that a person from this place is the famous Queen of Sheba, Solomon talks about? Is it possible to identify her with Solomons Queen of Sheba and the same that Jesus alludes? Perhaps new lights will shed a spark of truth and further qualify or authenticate the Bible as the inspired word of God. More than this, if historians and archaeologists can provide enough evidence to support the Queen of Sheba as Hatshepsut, perhaps totally new discoveries will significantly impact knowledge of this time period in Egyptian history and the relationship between King Solomon and Egypt at this time. 1

2 Truth is challenged by fiction; many times fiction becomes truth. The ultimate importance of this topic is Biblically and historically related. The Bible is the greatest book ever written! It is the greatest storyHIS storyof how God created man and gave him freedom of choice. HIS story tells and instructs in the greatest characteristic any human is capable of possessing, that of an unending and unconditional love. God created man in HIS image, breathed life into him, and he became a living soul. All histories of developed and undeveloped civilizations hinge upon HIS story. The mythologies of mankind confirm the original source of creation. The Bible tells a story of types and foreshadows that inspire mankind to seek after righteousness. While God gave mankind the options of choice; He devised a plan to redeem mankind from the wreckage of demoralized sin. Through the God-breathed inspiration of Moses, God gave humanity liberty and freedom. This is important, because when we contemplate the history of the Bible, we, in truth, are looking for confirmations of revelations to man substantiated through scientific methods and discovery. In discussing the history of the Bible, we try to develop a timeline to help provide answers to lifes questions of creation and existence. Joel Westbrook, confirms the relevance of Scripture as an excellent historical resource, and in some cases, the only source, Some of the books of the Bible are excellent historical booksas a matter of fact, the earliest historical books that we have. And, quiet accurate, because we have crossreferences from other sources, and they are found to be most very preciseso they are very important. This discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls was the most famous event in Biblical archaeology, but it was, by no means, the first. The urge to explore Biblical history has a venerable tradition. Its a search that began in the Holy Land but would lead to Mesopotamia. Throughout history, crusaders, mystics, and believers have been drawn to sites where the great Bible stories took place; but with the arrival of the nineteenth century, a new kind of pilgrim sought to fortify their belief in the Bible through the infant science of archaeology.1 This fortification gives rise to the question concerning the identities of the Queen of Sheba and Hatshepsut, Queen and Pharaoh of Egypt. Much speculation cause debate among scholars, but
Joel Westbrook, Video: Narrated By Sam Waterston, in Time Life's Lost Civilizations: Mesopotamia: Return to Eden (ISBN: 0-7835 8271-4; reprint, Alexandria, Virginia: Time Life Video & Television, 1995).
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3 a picture is worth a thousand words, they say. Archaeologist, David Down, quotes Polish Archaeologist, Franciszek Pawlicki, author of the book, The Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, published by the Supreme Council of Antiquities in Egypt and the Polish Centre of Archaeology, Hatshepsut should be identified with the Queen of Sheba who visited Solomon . . .2 Before the discovery of Sheba, in Arabia, one could have supposed this statement to be correct. How can this be, when Sheba has been discovered and is a very long way from Egypt?

Analysis of the Issue: This is the heart of the paper. It will include a discussion of the topic based on relevant literature and concepts discussed in the course. In order to prove the argument, you should document your statements with research in primary and secondary sources.

Janet Allison gives instruction to Read about a queen who had heard about the wisdom of Solomon and his riches and went on a long journey in order to see with her own eyes the things she had heard about. She was the queen of another country called Sheba, and it was very far from Solomons kingdom.3 According to Google search page, it is approximately 1264 miles from Yemen to Jerusalem in modern times.

David Down, Queen Hatshepsut's Temple, Archaeological Diggings, January/February 2007, 32.

Janet Allison, Lesson 27: The Queen of Sheba, in Women of The Bible (Grand Rapids, Mich.: National Printing Press Ltd. for Kenya Church of Christ, 1957), 110.

The world can be assured of the existence of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba because Jesus Christ acknowledged these persons as having existed, as Allison states, Jesus said that the Queen of Sheba would rise up and judge this generation, because there is a greater one than Solomon, and we are not seeking him as she sought even to see Solomon.4 Perhaps the phrase, Queen of Sheba refers to many different identities. Barbara Walker tells of the myth regarding the goddess, Shayba (var. Sheba, Shebat), Arabic-Aramaean title of the Great Goddess. Shayba was the Old Woman whose spirit dwelt in the sacred stone of the Kaaba in Mecca. Sheba was the land-name and Goddessname of Arabian queens in the ancient seat of government, Marib, in southern Arabia (now Yemen). Shebat was the Mesopotamian Moon-goddess (a variation of Hebat or Eve), and the month named after her. In Assyria the ancient head of a family was called shebu, formerly a matriarch, later a tribal elder of either sex.5

Concerning the Queen of Sheba, John Reader places the Queen of Sheba as a mythological figure in Africa, The legend of Solomon, Sheba, and Menelic has no historical basis. The Queen of Sheba is a mythical figure; Aksum did not exist as a political entity while Solomon was alive, and the city of Aksum itself was founded several centuries after Menelik was supposed to have brought the Ark to it from Jerusalem.6 While the above statement may be true, in lieu of the fact that Reader greatly challenges the common knowledge of historians that civilization actually began in the Mesopotamian Valley, not in Africa, and emphatically, but inconsistently, discredits the theory of Creation in support of

Ibid.

Barbara G. Walker, Shayba, in The Woman's Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1983), 931. John Reader, Chapter 22: Aksum, in Africa: A Biography of The Continent (First Vintage Books, 1999; reprint, New York: A.A. Knopf, 1998), 221.
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5 the theory of Evolution it is without surprise that he concludes the Queen of Sheba to be mythological. However, Queen Hatshepsut is not mythological. Concerning Queen Hatshepsut, Reader states, The most celebrated expedition to Punt was that ordered by Queen Hatshepsut c. 1472/I BC. . . . The records indicate that Queen Hatshepsut dispatched her expedition to Punt via the arduous overland and Red Sea route because the Nubians controlled the Nile route between Aswan and Khartoum and were demanding payment on the marvels of the land of Punt in transit to Egypt.7 Ashton refutes this statement by demonstrating that the land of Punt is in Egypt, instead of Africa, based on archaeological discovery and interpretation, In her [Hatshepsut] inscriptions she refers to the land of Punt as Gods Land, saying that it was a beautiful land, a fitting reference to the land of Israel at that time. Egyptian inscriptions also refer to Punt being in Palestine rather than in Africa. The flora that she brought back that has been identified as coming from Africa could have been imported by Solomon from Africa. Solomon was an avid gardener (Eccles. 2:4-6), and zoologist, and had imported trees and apes from Africa (I Kings 10:11, 22).8 If evidence indicates these persons to be one and the same person, the story and quest for truth is greatly enhanced and challenges historians like John Reader and J.M. Roberts that advertently seek to discredit Biblical infallibility. David Edwards informs Bible readers, Among the rulers with whom Solomon developed social and trading relationships, the Queen of Sheba (in Arabia) is the most famous (I Kings 10:1-15).9 In talking about the influences of King Solomon and his wealth, John Ashton discusses the heirs of Thutmosis I,

Ibid., 196-197.

John Ashton, and David Down, Chapter 16:Hatshepsut, The Female Pharaoh, in Unwrapping The Pharaohs: How Egyptian Archaeology Confirms The Biblical Timeline (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2006), 122. David L. Edwards, Chapter 4: The Growth of a People, in A Key to The Old Testament (London: Collins, 1976), 107.
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6 Thutmosis I had two daughters, Princess Nefrubity andPrinces Hatshepsut. Hatshepsut is very well known because she later became the sole ruler of Egypt, but because there is no further record in Egyptian historical sources of Princess Nefrubity it is assumed that she died prematurely. However, it is more likely that she was the Egyptian princess who was married to King Solomon.10 Ashton tells the story of the Queen of Sheba as told in the Bible, The record in 1 Kings 10:1,2 says, Now when the queen of Sheba heard of the fame of Solomon concerning the name of the Lord she came to test him with hard questions. She came to Jerusalem with a very great retinue, with camels that bore spices, very much gold, and precious stones. Sheba is usually identified with Marib in Yemen, but for this there is only very flimsy circumstantial evidence.11 This statement causes the scholar to contemplate over the variety of questions Sheba may have asked Solomon. What was their nature? Were they spiritual, political, psychological, sociological, or philosophy? Could they have been concerned with mathematics, science, medicine, space, architectural and artistic designs, technological advances, or environmental situations? What would you ask, if permitted, the wisest person in the world? The liberal arts concern humanity. How could knowledge from such an interview most greatly enhance a persons sphere of influence? This desire to dramatically influence society, leads the historian and theologian to automatically presume this to have been the nature of those questions. Ashton identifies her as the Egyptian Queen that Jesus refers and hermeneutically applies Scripture to equate her with the Old Testament prophet, Daniels reference, Jesus Christ also identified her as coming from Egypt. He said I Matthew 12:42, The queen of the South will rise up in the judgment with this generation and condemn it, for she came form the ends of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon. Daniel 11:5 and 8

John Ashton, and David Down, Chapter 15: A New Day Dawns Over Egypt, in Unwrapping The Pharaohs: How Egyptian Archaeology Confirms The Biblical Timeline (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2006), 111.
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10

Ibid., 121.

7 refers to the king of the south as the king of Egypt, so it would be logical to identify the queen of the south as the queen of Egypt.12 Without a doubt, Queen and Pharaoh of Egypt, Hatshepsut, is confidently identified as the Queen of Sheba. Flavius Josephus, the Jewish Historian, touches on historiography and tells of the Queen of Egypt, There was then a woman, queen of Egypt and Ethiopia; she was inquisitive into philosophy, and one that on other accounts also was to be admired. When this queen heard of the virtue and prudence of Solomon, she had a great mind to see him; and the reports that went every day abroad induced her to come to him, she being desirous to be satisfied by her own experience, and not by a bare hearing (for reports thus heard, are likely enough to comply with a false opinion, while they wholly depend on the credit of the relators); so she resolved to come to him, and that especially, in order to have a trial of his wisdom, while she proposed questions of very great difficulty, and entreated that he would solve their hidden meaning. Accordingly she came to Jerusalem with great splendor and rich furniture; for she brought with her camels laden with gold, with several sorts of sweet spices, and with precious stones. Now, upon the kings kind reception of her, he both showed a great desire to please her, and easily comprehending in his mind the meaning of the curious questions she propounded to him, he resolved them sooner than anybody could have expected.13 In citing Flavius Josephus, the question of historiography arises. When considering historiography, Ernst Breisach criticizes Josephus, The Jewish historian Flavius Josephus used the Babyloniaca [written by Berossus, a priest of Bel in Babylon, between 280 and 270 B.C., of the Mesopotamian peoples.] and the histories of Egypt by Hecataeus and Manetho for reconstructing Jewish history. Early Christian scholars, particularly Eusebius, scrutinized the Babyloniaca in their attempts to date the creation of the world and of Adam.14 In discussing the impact of Egypts New Kingdom, under the Hyksos, J.M. Roberts discusses Hatshepsut,
12

Ibid.

William Whiston, The Antiquities of The Jews: Book 8: Containing The Interval of One Hundred and Sixty-Three Years: From The Death of David to The Death of Ahab: Chapter 6: How Solomon Fortified The City of Jerusalem, and Built Great Cities; and How He Brought Some of The Canaanites Into Subjection, and Entertained The Queen of Egypt and of Ethiopia, in The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, new updated ed. (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987), 224. Ernst Breisach, 3: Reaching The Limits of Greek Historiography, in Historiography: Ancient, Medieval & Modern, 2d ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 35.
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8 The New Kingdom in its prime was internationally so successful and has left such rich physical memorials that it is difficult not to think that the Hyksos domination must have had a cathartic or fertilizing effect. There was under the Eighteenth Dynasty almost a renaissance of the arts, a transformation of military techniques by the adoption of Asiatic devices such as the chariot, and, above all, a huge consolidation of royal authority. It was then that a female, Hatshepsut, for the first time occupied the throne in a reign notable for the expansion of Egyptian commerce, or so her mortuary temple seems to show.15 Henry H Halley refers to Hatshepsut, though grammatically incorrect, as the First Great Queen in history. A most remarkable woman, and one of Egypts greatest and most vigorous rulers. Had many of her statues represent her as a man. Extended the Empire. Built many monuments two great obilisks at Karnak, the great Temple at Deir el Bahri, furnished with many statues of herself. Thotmes III hated her, and on her death, one of his first acts was to take her name off all monuments and destroy all her statues. Those at Bahri were broken to pieces, flung in a quarry, covered by drifting sands, and recently found by the Metropolitan Museum.16 Although chronology does not support Queen Hatshepsut as being the adopted mother of Moses, Halley states, The Pharaohs Daughter who adopted Moses is generally thought to have been the famous Queen Hatshepsut.17 Many atheists and agnostics have determined to discredit Biblical authenticity by challenging histories, and places named in the Bible as being inaccurate and untrue based on the fact that some places cannot be found. Archaeological records of Werner Keller give an archaeological perspective and proof of the existence of Sheba, A gigantic dam blocked the River Adhanat in Sheba, collecting the rainfall from a wide area. The water was then led off in canals for irrigation purposes, which was what gave the land its fertility. Remains of this technical marvel in the shape of walls over sixty feet high still defy the sand dunes of the desert. Just as Holland is in modern times the Land of Tulips, so Sheba was then the Land of Spices, one vast fairy-like scented garden of the
15 J.M. Roberts, 3: Ancient Egypt, in The New History of The World, 4th rev. ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 83.

Henry H. Halley, Exodus: Chapter 1: Period of Moses and The Exodus, in Halley's Bible Handbook: An Abbreviated Bible Commentary, 24th ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan Pub. House, Academic and Professional Books, 1965), 112.
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16

Ibid., 119.

9 costliest spices in the world. In the midst of it lay the capital, which was called Marib. For 1500 years this garden of spices bloomed around Marib. That was until 542 B.C. Then the dam burst. The importunate desert crept over the fertile lands and destroyed them. The people of Sheba, says the Koran, had beautiful gardens in which the most costly fruits ripened.18 While archaeological discoveries confirmed massive trade goods exported from Sheba via camel, and as Keller dreamily expounds, this fairytale country of Sheba began to take definite shape.19 Since it was uncommon for people of the area to embrace polygamy, it would be easy to assume that there were many Queens of Sheba. If the Marib Queen of Sheba was the Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut, why was she not referred to by Solomon as such; or vice versa? In the zeal to discover new proofs of Biblical relevance, are the archaeologist merely speculating?

Equating the identification of the Queen of Sheba with Egyptian Queen and Pharaoh, Hatshepsut, poses many questions, most of which involve the historic questions regarding Hatshepsut. Smithsonian writer, Elizabeth B. Wilson poses the question of contemplation among Egyptian scholars, historians, and archaeologists; was Hatshepsut viewed as a bad person because dominant male chauvinism does not approve of her rise to the throne? To the ancient Egyptians, pharaohs were gods. What could this one have done to warrant such blasphemy?20 Perhaps slanted male chauvinism has been responsible for dogmatically influencing predominant speculation concerning the queen that equates on a grand scale of myth and propaganda. Terms like vile usurper, schemer, naked ambition, abhorrently describes Hatshepsut. Wilson quotes Renee Dreyfus concerning such propaganda, So much of what was written about

Werner Keller, Chapter 3: The Queen of Sheba As a Business Partner, in The Bible As History: Archaeology Confirms The Book of Books, new ed. ]. 9 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1974), 233.
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18

Ibid. Elizabeth B. Wilson, The Queen Who Would Be King, Smithsonian, September 2006, 80.

20

10 Hatshepsut, I think, had to do with who the archaeologists were . . . gentlemen scholars of a certain generation.21

The Discovery Channel post scripts its feature presentation, Secrets of Egypts Lost Queen, In what is being called the most important find in Egypts Valley of the Kings since the discovery of King Tutankhamuns tomb, Discovery Channels Secrets of Egypts Lost Queen exclusively reveals archaeological, forensic evidence identifying a 3,000-year-old mummy as Hatshepsut, Egypts greatest female Pharaoh.22 Perhaps new discoveries will change historical perception of this great queen. Wilson, addresses Queen Hatshepsuts appearance, By the seventh year of her regency, however (and it may have been much earlier), the formerly slim, graceful queen appears as a full-blown flail-and-crook-wielding king, with the broad, bare chest of a man and the pharaonic false beard. But why? To Egyptologists of an earlier generation, Hatshepsuts elevaton to godlike status was an act of naked ambition. (It was not long, Hayes wrote, before this vain, ambitious, and unscrupulous woman showed . . . her true colors.) But more recent scholarship suggests that a political crisis, such as a threat from a competing branch of the royal family, obliged Hatshepsut to become pharaoh.23 Wilson quotes Cathleen Keller, professor of Near Eastern Studies at the University of California at Berkely, She was not pretending to be a man! She was not cross-dressing! pointing out that inscriptions on Hatshepsuts statues almost always contain some indication of her true gendera title, such as Daughter of Re, or feminine word endings, resulting in such grammatical conundrums as His Majesty, Herself.24

21

Ibid., 82.

Discovery Channel: Discovery Channel Feature, Secrets of Egypt's Lost Queen, Tuesday October 30, 2007, http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/quest/lost-queen/program/program.html (accessed November 5, 2007).
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22

Ibid. Wilson, The Queen Who Would Be King, 84.

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11 Assuming David Down, John Ashton, to be correct in identifying Queen Hatshepsut as the

Queen of Sheba, perhaps, because of having come in contact with Solomon, she did not want to be portrayed and remembered as a god. Wilson quotes Renee Dreyfus, curator of ancient art and interpretation at the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco, Once you took on the attributes of kingship that was it. You were a god. Its not queen for a day, its king for all time.25 Wilson later illustrates that Hatshepsut has accepted that rules did not live forevereven as a god, Toward the end of her reign, Hatshepsut erected a second pair of obelisks at Karnak. On one of the inscription reads: Now my heart turns this way and that, as I think what the people will saythose who shall see my monuments in years to come, and who shall speak of what I have done.26 What evidence that the smashing of the monuments were done in hatred? Could the smashing of her monuments by her successor, Thutmosis III, have been a death-bed request?

Ryan Jaroncyk states, In Hatshepsuts inscriptions she refers to the land of Punt as Gods Land. At least one Egyptian inscription refers to Punt being north of Egypt, in Palestine. This is consistent with the biblical account in which she visited Solomon in Jerusalem.27

25

Wilson, The Queen Who Would Be King, 84. Wilson, The Queen Who Would Be King, 87.

26

Ryan Jaroncyk, The Queen of Sheba: Was Solomon Visited By an Egyptian Pharaoh?, March 23, 2007, Creation Ministries International: Creation On The Web.com, http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4927/ (accessed November 7, 2007).

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12 This website, http://www.specialtyinterests.net/sheba.html#shpi, quotes Damien Mackey in developing a very precise publication that highly supports the argument concerning the identity of the Queen of Sheba with that of Queen Hatshepsut, As Damien has recently published his findings where he shows that the crucial point of the Hatshepsut/Queen of Sheba equation is that it must be tied to the principal diplomatic event of Solomon's reign - his marriage of an Egyptian princess, daughter of Thutmose II. The quantity of gifts exchanged give every indication of an additional dowry or down payment in an ally situation as Solomon, now ruling a substantial kingdom, is courted by the Egyptians. According to Damien's earlier reconstruction `Shishak', Thutmose II, was the father of the princess who was married to Solomon and he was the husband of Hatshepsut. Thutmose did in fact campaign in Palestine. [Likewise Thutmose III was later also called Shishak.] That is the reason how it could be that the Queen who visited Jerusalem was "the mother-in-law of Solomon." Damien then concludes that the Queen's celebrated visit to Jerusalem occurred while she was still Queen, before she became Pharaoh, and therefore we have the appellation "Queen of Sheba". Her husband, Thutmose II, was then ruler of Egypt. Conventionally, Thutmose I is dated from about 1524-1518 and Thutmose II ca. 1518-1504 BC. Their revised regnal years were, for Thutmose I from 969-ca. 963, and for Thutmose II from about 963-950/49 BC. When Thutmose II disappeared from the scene, Senenmut began to intervene in the affairs of Egypt at the invitation of Hatshepsut herself, the word used is "command", as Senenmut himself puts it.28

Conclusion: What does it all mean? What does your analysis show? Commonly, conclusions restate the thesis statement and restate the argument made to support it.

The Queen of Sheba--the 18th Dynasty and Queen Pharaoh Hatshepsut, June 27, 2007, http://www.specialtyinterests.net/sheba.html#shpi (accessed November 7, 2007).

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WORKS CITED Allison, Janet. Lesson 27: The Queen of Sheba. In Women of The Bible. Grand Rapids, Mich.: National Printing Press Ltd. for Kenya Church of Christ, 1957. Ashton, John, and David Down. Chapter 16:Hatshepsut, The Female Pharaoh. In Unwrapping The Pharaohs: How Egyptian Archaeology Confirms The Biblical Timeline. Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2006. ________. Chapter 15: A New Day Dawns Over Egypt. In Unwrapping The Pharaohs: How Egyptian Archaeology Confirms The Biblical Timeline. Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2006. Breisach, Ernst. 3: Reaching The Limits of Greek Historiography. In Historiography: Ancient, Medieval & Modern, 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994. Discovery Channel: Discovery Channel Feature. Secrets of Egypt's Lost Queen, Tuesday October 30, 2007. http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/quest/lostqueen/program/program.html. Down, David. Queen Hatshepsut's Temple. Archaeological Diggings, January/February 2007, 4. Edwards, David L. Chapter 4: The Growth of a People. In A Key to The Old Testament. London: Collins, 1976. Halley, Henry H. Exodus: Chapter 2: Moses. In Halley's Bible Handbook: An Abbreviated Bible Commentary, 24th ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan Pub. House, Academic and Professional Books, 1965. ________. Exodus: Chapter 1: Period of Moses and The Exodus. In Halley's Bible Handbook: An Abbreviated Bible Commentary, 24th ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan Pub. House, Academic and Professional Books, 1965. Jaroncyk, Ryan. The Queen of Sheba: Was Solomon Visited By an Egyptian Pharaoh?, March 23, 2007. Creation Ministries International: Creation On The Web.com. http://www.creationontheweb.com/content/view/4927/. Keller, Werner. Chapter 3: The Queen of Sheba As a Business Partner. In The Bible As History: Archaeology Confirms The Book of Books, new ed. ]. 9. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1974.

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14 The Queen of Sheba--the 18th Dynasty and Queen Pharaoh Hatshepsut, June 27, 2007. http:// www.specialtyinterests.net/sheba.html#shpi. Reader, John. Part 4: African Civilizations: Chapter 20: The Nile. In Africa: A Biography of The Continent. First Vintage Books, 1999. Reprint, New York: A.A. Knopf, 1998. ________. Chapter 22: Aksum. In Africa: A Biography of The Continent. First Vintage Books, 1999. Reprint, New York: A.A. Knopf, 1998. Roberts, J.M. 3: Ancient Egypt. In The New History of The World, 4th rev. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Walker, Barbara G. Shayba. In The Woman's Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1983. Westbrook, Joel. Video: Narrated By Sam Waterston. In Time Life's Lost Civilizations: Mesopotamia: Return to Eden. ISBN: 0-7835 8271-4. Reprint, Alexandria, Virginia: Time Life Video & Television, 1995. Whiston, William. The Antiquities of The Jews: Book 8: Containing The Interval of One Hundred and Sixty-Three Years: From The Death of David to The Death of Ahab: Chapter 6: How Solomon Fortified The City of Jerusalem, and Built Great Cities; and How He Brought Some of The Canaanites Into Subjection, and Entertained The Queen of Egypt and of Ethiopia. In The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, new updated ed. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, 1987. Wilson, Elizabeth B. The Queen Who Would Be King. Smithsonian, September 2006, 8.

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