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DATA Source
d(t)
r(t)
r'(t)
d'(t)
Ts
c(t)
d(t) Ts
cos c t
cos c t
c(t)
Sd ( f )
1 / Ts
Sc ( f )
c(t)
1 / Tc
r(t) =r'(t)
Sr ( f )
Sd ' ( f )
d'(t)
DS/SS: Principle
DS/SS makes noise-like waveforms Maximal-length shift register makes the binary sequence that have noise like properties h i lik i PN sequence PN sequence is mapped to a chip spreading sequence of 1s The spreading comprises of chips of duration Tc << Ts Processing gain (spreading factor): the number of chips per symbol = Ts/Tc
DS/SS: Principle
Transmitter: DS/SS signal generation
Power Density
user data
TIME Modulation (primary modulation) Base-band Frequency data rate
Power Density
10110100
Radio Frequency
Tx 6
DS/SS: Principle
Receiver: when the receiver knows the correct spreading sequence p g q
Power Density
received signal
TIME
10110100 01001011 10110100
10110100
gathering energy !
you can find the spreading timing which gives the g maximum detected power, and
Demodulated data
Base-band Frequency 0 1 0
DS/SS: Principle
Receiver: when the receiver does not know the correct spreading sequence p g q
Power Density
received signal
TIME
10110100 01001011 10110100
you cannot find the spreading timing without correct spreading code, and
Accumulate for one bit duration
Demodulated data
Base-band Frequency
Rake Receiver
Rake Receiver
Rake receiver realizes diversity from multi path propagation (a multi-path form of frequency diversity) How to isolate various multi path signals multi-path If the maximal delay spread (due to multi-path) is Tm and if the chip rate 1/Tc = W >> 1/Tm, then individual multi-path signal components can be isolated Amplitudes and phases of the multi-path components are found by correlating the received waveform with delayed versions of the signal Multi-path with delays less than 1/Tc cannot be resolved p y
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d(t)
DATA Mod Filter BPF BPF
Data demod
Freq. Synthesizer
....
Freq. Synthesizer
....
Code Generator
Code Generator
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What is CDMA?
Allows multiple users to share same bandwidth at the same time Each user s waveform is like an independent noise random users process Interference appears as white noise Matched filter pulls out desired users waveform, while suppressing interference DS-SS is one popular way to make the noise-like waveforms for CDMA
13
What is CDMA?
Freq.
Freq.
Freq.
Freq.
Data A
Code A
BPF
BPF
Despreader
Data A
MS-A
Code A
Freq.
Freq.
Freq.
Freq.
Data B
Code B
BPF
BPF
Despreader
Data B
MS B MS-B
Code B
BS
Characteristics of CDMA
Advantages dv ges
Universal frequency reuse Soft capacity Soft handoff Robust to multipath fading Robust t j R b t to jamming i
Disadvantages
Near-far problem N f bl Difficult synchronization
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One way is to use disjoint slots in frequency or time in the same cell as well as adjacent cells li i d frequency reuse ll ll dj ll limited f In CDMA, universal frequency reuse (frequency reuse factor = 1) applies not onl to users in the same cell but also in all other cells only sers b t No frequency plan revision as more cells are added Resource allocation of each users channel is energy (instead of R ll ti f h h li (i t d f time and frequency)
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Handoff
Handoffs between cells are supported while the mobile is in traffic or idle MS continuously keeps searching for new cells as it moves across the network
Initial cell search Target cell search
MS maintains active set, neighbor set, and remaining set as well as candidate set Two types of handoffs
Hard handoff Soft/softer handoff
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Handoff
Base A
margin exceeds
Base B
T_ADD
T_DROP
B_Active
B added to candidate list Drop timer starts Drop timer resets
Soft Handoff
Soft Handoff
Mobile commences communication with a new BS without interrupting communication with old BS (make-before-break) ( ) Same frequency assignment between old and new BSs Provides different site selection diversity, called macro diversity A unique feature of CDMA Neither the mobile nor the base station is required to change frequency
Softer Handoff
Handoff between sectors in a cell
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Near-Far Problem
P
Lp-a
DATA A
CDMA Receiver
Lp-b
Demodulated DATA
CODE A
DATA B
When user B is close to the receiver and user A is far from the receiver, Lp-a could be much bigger than Lp-b. In this case, desired signal power is smaller than the interfered power.
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Power Control
Motivation
Overcomes near-far problem CDMA would not work without it Copes with path loss and fading
Detec cted Power
from A from B
Time
Power Control
Power control is capable of compensating different path loss and fading fluctuation Each E h MS changes transmit power dynamically so that the receiv h t it d i ll th t th i ed power at the BS from all MSs is controlled to be equal
Detecte Power ed
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measuring received power estimating path ti ti th loss transmit decide transmission power
transmit i
transmit
receive 23
2. OFDM
OFDM Concept
Multicarrier modulation/multiplexing technique p g q Available bandwidth is divided into several subcarriers The subcarriers are overlapping but orthogonal pp g g Parallel data transmission
A high rate stream is partitioned into several low rate streams g p
25
OFDM Concept
Orthogonality between subcarriers
Each subcarrier has exactly an integer number of cycles Adjacent subcarriers have exactly one cycle difference j y y Transmit signal
s (t ) =
N s 1
Note: 0 exp j
2 k 2 l t exp j t dt = (k l) T T
1 T 2 l s ( t ) exp j t dt = d l T 0 T
Subcarrier S bcarrier spacing: 1 T
Subcarriers in frequency
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OFDM Concept
Transmitter and receiver architecture T i d i hi
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OFDM Concept
Signal Si l transmission and reception i i d i
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OFDM Concept
Transmit signal construction using IDFT
S (t ) =
i =
d
Ns 2
Ns 1 2
N i + 2s
+ j 2T it
, 0t T
+ j 2N in
S[n] = S (nT N ) =
S[0] = d 0 S[1] = d 0 S[2] = d 0
d0
N s 1 i =0
de
i
0
N T
s
+ d1 + d1e
j 2 N j 2 2 N
+ d2 + d 2e + d 2e
S
j 2 2 N j 2 22 N
+ L + L
+ d1e
(0 )
d1
IDFT
S (1 )
P/S
1)
D N s 1
(N s
29 30
cyclic prefix
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Even with long enough cyclic prefix, ICI can occur due to frequency offset or fast fading
T (1 exp( j 2 )) 2 k 2 (k + m + ) exp j t exp j t dt = 0 T j 2 (m + ) T where denotes the normalized frequency offset
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Implications to OFDM
Zero tones on edge of the band Time domain windowing smoothes adjacent symbols
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N TSYM Tsample
TSYM
TSYM
time
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-32 -30
-26-25
-21-20
-15
-10
-7
-5
-1 0 1
10
15
20 21
25 26
30 31
0 1 2 3 NU ULL 0 1 2 3
25 26 27 28 NU ULL NU ULL
36 37 38 39 NU ULL NU ULL
61 62 63
IFFT Block
25 26 27 28 36 37 38 39 61 62 63
r62 r63 r0 r1 r2 r3
Postfix
OFDM Symbol
Windowing Function
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OFDM Modem
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Disadvantages Di d t
More complex than single carrier transmission High PAPR need more linear power amplifier Long symbol duration vulnerable to frequency offset and fast fading
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Robustness
Single-carrier system performance degrades abruptly when delay spread exceeds the value for which the equalizer is designed OFDM systems are robust against delay spread
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Channel characterization
Frequency selectivity
RMS delay spread < 100 msec 90% coherence bandwidth (CB) = 1/(50m) = 209.2 kHz
Time selectivity y
Assumption for user mobility: 0-3 km/hr (maximum Doppler frequency (fm) = 2.5 Hz at the carrier frequency of 900 MHz) 50% coherence time (CT) = 9/(16fm) = 71.62 msec
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We select a subcarrier spacing of 72.27 kHz Set the number of subcarriers to 64 Total bandwidth = 72.27 kHz 64 = 4.625 MHz
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Given sk, k pilottone indices, solve yk = hl e 2 kl L l =0 j Find H k = hl e N Interpolation for all subcarriers
2 k l N
sk + nk for hl
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Coded OFDM
Different channel (fading) for different subcarriers ee c e ( d g) o d e e subc e s Bad subcarriers will cause many errors (channel-selective ) errors) Two approaches
Error correction coding across subcarriers Adaptive modulation & coding and/or unequal power allocation
Coding across subcarriers realizes frequency diversity gain as well as the coding gain ll h di i
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Coded OFDM
Two types of errors
Random errors: primarily caused by noise Channel-selective errors: caused by magnitude distortion in channel frequency response q y p
Error correcting codes are effective for random errors Interleaving is often used to scramble data bits so that standard g error correcting codes can be applied Interleaving and coding provide frequency diversity as well as the coding gain
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Coded OFDM
Transmitter Receiver
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48
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OFDM-Based Standards
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Diversity Di i
Reduce the fluctuation of received SNR Time, Time space (antenna), frequency polarization (antenna) frequency,
Antenna diversity
Receive diversity: MRC EGC, Selection MRC, EGC Transmit diversity
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Classification
Open-loop
Do not need feedback information STTD, OTD, TSTD
Closed-loop
Need feedback information TxAA
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x1
x1
0 T
x* 2
T 2T
h1
Alamouti STC
x2
2T
STTD Encoder
x2
0 T
x1*
2T
h2
P 2
STTD Decoder
STTD Encoder:
Ant. 1
Received Signal:
Time 1 Time 2
* x2 * x1
2
x1 Ant. 2 x2
STTD Decoder:
x1 = r1h1* + r2*h2 =
* x2 = r1h2 r2*h1 = P 2 P 2
r1 = r2 =
1
P 2 P 2
( h1 x1 + h2 x2 ) + n1
( h x
* 1 2
* + h2 x1 + n2
(h (h
1 2
+ h2 + h2
) x + ) x +
1 2
54
h1
Receiver
P 2
h1
STTD Encoder
h2
P 2
STTD Decoder
P h1 2 Avg. SNR: P 0
2
P 0
P 2 h1 + h2 2 2
h1
x1
x1
0 T
x1
T 2T
x2
2T
OTD Encoder
x2 x2
0 T 2T
h2
P 2
OTD Decoder
OTD Encoder:
Time 1 Time 2
Received Signal:
r1 = r2 =
P 2
Ant. 1 x1
Ant. 2 x2
x1 x2
2
( h1 x1 + h2 x2 ) + n1 P h x h2 x 2 ) + n 2 2 ( 1 1
OTD Decoder:
x1 = h1* ( r1 + r2 ) = 2 P h1 x1 + 1
* x2 = h2 ( r1 r2 ) = 2 P h2 x2 + 2 2
Different symbol different fading y g Interleaving effects Interleaving depth (diversity order) = 2 Useful at slow fading environment
56
h1
x1
x1
0 T
0
T 2T
x2
2T
0
0 T
x2
2T
h2
P
TSTD Decoder
TSTD Encoder:
Ant. 1 Ant. 2
Time 1 Time 2
x1 0
0 x2
Received Signal: r1 = P ( h1 x1 ) + n1
r2 = P ( h2 x 2 ) + n 2
TSTD Decoder:
x1 = h r1 = P h1 x1 + 1
* 1 2 * x2 = h2 r2 = P h2 x2 + 2 2
Different symbol different fading y g Interleaving effects Interleaving depth (diversity order) = 2 Useful at slow fading environment
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hm
hM
Weight Calculation
wm
wM
Feedback
Weighting
Received signal
SNR
wm =
h
M
* m 2
h
i =1
F I r = G w h J x + n H K
M m m m =1
hm
m =1
=x
h
m=1
+n
Performance of TxAA
10
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
-6
-4
-2
10
12
14
16
18
Eb/No (dB)
4 tx antennas: 5.2 dB gain at BER 10-2 compared with 2 antennas 8 tx antennas: 9.2dB gain
59
MIMO signal processing i th space domain can bring i l i in the d i bi enormous capacity enhancement without bandwidth expansion (Foschini, Telatar)
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Signal Model
M antennas
x1
N antennas
y1
Tx
xM
H 11 H H = 21 M H N1
NM
H 12 H 22 M HN2 L L O L H 1M H 2M M H NM
Rx
yN
y = Hx + n
Total transmit power E[xHx] = PT Noise covariance matrix at the receiver E[nnH] = 2I
Assumptions
Receiver perfectly knows the channel H Transmitter does not know the channel H (open loop) (open-loop)
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SISO: M = N = 1
P 2 CSISO = log 2 1 + T2 H11
SIMO: M = 1, N 2
CSIMO P = l 2 1 + T2 log
H
n =1 M
2 n1
MISO: M 2, N = 1
P CMISO = log 2 1 + 2T M
H
m =1
2 1m
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where K = min(M, N) and ( , ) ks are eigenvalues of HHH that is ordered such that 1 2 rank(H) rank(H)+1 = = K = 0
Interpretation:
1
Tx 2
Rx
rank(H)
log 2 (1 + pk k ), pk P
nT
nR
s1
p1
k =1
~ S1
V Decoupling Transform UH Decoupling Transform
sk
pk
~ Sk
snT
pnT
~ S nT
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MIMO Detection
Linear detectors e de ec o s
Zero-Forcing (ZF) Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE)
Nonlinear detectors
ZF-OSIC, MMSE-OSIC (V-BLAST) ML Reduced-complexity ML (sphere decoding, QRM-MLD)
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MIMO Detection
Received i l R i d signal model d l y N 1 = H N M x M 1 + n N 1 ZF
x = H + y = (H H H ) 1 H H y = x + (HH ) 1 H H n
MMSE
x = WMMSE y = ( H H H + ( M )I M ) H H y
1
ML
x = arg min y Hx c
xc 2
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MIMO Detection
V BLAST (OSIC ZF) V-BLAST (OSIC-ZF)
Initialization : i 1 y1 = y G1 = H + k1 = arg min < H + > j Recursion : w ki =< G i > ki zki = w ki y i xki = D ( zki ) y i +1 = y i xki [H ]ki G i +1 = (H ki ) + i i +1
j{ k1 , k2 ,, ki } 2
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MIMO Detection
V-BLAST Example (3x2 system) p ( y )
0.5 y1 1 n1 y = 0.2 0.3 x1 + n y = Hx + n : 2 x 2 y3 0.2 0.7 2 n3
First layer
0.8433 0.3175 0.4663 0 8433 0 3175 0 4663 G1 = H + = 0.2976 0.4762 1.0119
k1 = arg min < G > j
j
2
MIMO Detection
Second layer
0.5 y 2 = y [H ]k1 xk1 = 0 3 x2 + n, if xk1 = xk1 0.3 0.7 0.5 + G 2 = [H ]k1 = 0.3 = [ 0.6024 0.3614 0.8434] 0.7 k2 = 2 w k2 = G 2 = [ 0.6024 0.3614 0.8434] zk2 = w k2 y 2 = xk2 + w k2 n xk2 = D ( zk2 ) = D ( xk2 + w k2 n)
+
MIMO Detection
BER performance
71
Main Points
MIMO technology can greatly increase the capacity of wireless systems MIMO channel can be decomposed into rank(H) parallel SISO channel linear increase in capacity in contrast to logarithmical increase for SISO and MISO l ith i l i f d Greatest capacity improvements are obtained under rich scattering channels with full rank
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