CHAPTER ONE 1.

0 INTRODUCTION Drilling involves the use of an implement with cutting edges or a pointed end for boring holes in hard materials, usually by a rotating abrasion or repeated blows: using a bit. This implement (bit) are used together within a massive structures housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or natural gas extraction wells (drilling rig). Drilling operations are carried out by auger drilling, core drilling, rotary air percussion drilling, diamond core drilling and sonic drilling etc. In every drilling operation the main objectives are: high drilling efficiency through the achievement of; optimum penetration rate, minimum downtime, minimum operating cost, effective safety, and minimum environmental impact. But there are however number of problems encountered during drilling operations which mitigate against the achievement of the above key objectives. These problems may come in form of stuck pipe or pipe sticking, lost circulation, kick or blowout, and formation damage. 1.1 METHODS OF DRILLING There are a variety of drilling techniques which can be used to sink a borehole into the ground. Each has its advantages and disadvantages, in terms of the depth to which it can drill, the type of sample returned, the costs involved and penetration rates achieved. There are two basic types of drills: drills which produce rock chips, and drills which produce core samples. 1.1.1 AUGER DRILLING Auger drilling is done with a helical screw which is driven into the ground with rotation; the earth is lifted up the borehole by the blade of the screw. Hollow stem auger drilling is used for softer ground such as swamps where the hole will not stay open by itself for environmental drilling, geotechnical drilling, soil engineering and geochemistry reconnaissance work in exploration for mineral deposits. Solid flight augers/bucket augers are used in harder ground construction drilling. In some cases, mine shafts are dug with auger drills. Small augers can be mounted on the back of a utility truck, with large augers used for sinking piles for bridge foundations.

Auger drilling is restricted to generally soft unconsolidated material or weak weathered rock. It is cheap and fast. 1.1.2 ROTARY AIR PERCUSSION DRILLING (AIR PERCUSSION) Air Percussion drilling is used most frequently in the mineral and water exploration industry. The drill uses a pneumatic reciprocating piston-driven 'hammer' to energetically drive a heavy drill bit into the rock. The drill bit is hollow, solid steel and has ~20 mm thick tungsten rods protruding from the steel matrix as 'buttons'. The tungsten buttons are the cutting face of the bit. The cuttings or "chips" are blown up the outside of the rods and collected at surface. Air or a combination of air and foam lift the cuttings. Air Percussion drilling is used primarily for mineral exploration, water borehole drilling and blast-hole drilling in mines, there are other applications such as engineering solutions, etc. Air Percussion produces lower quality samples because the cuttings are blown up the outside of the rods and can be contaminated from contact with other rocks. Air Percussion drilling to depths of more than 200metres and could present quite a challenge to the drilling team as encountering water could rapidly clog the outside of the hole with debris, precluding removal of drill cuttings from the hole. Experienced drillers will however understand these limitations and through the use of drill enhancing fluids and proper drilling techniques, not only ensure that the hole stays open until completion, but also ensure further drilling. Depths in excess of 500m have been recorded in Southern Africa. The use of multiple high-powered air compressors, which push 900-1150cfm of air at 300-350psi down the hole ensures drilling of a deeper holes up to ~1250m due to higher air pressure which pushes all rock cuttings and any water to the surface. This, of course, is all dependent on the density and weight of the rock being drilled, as well as the state of equipment used. 1.1.3 CORE DRILLING Core drilling and related methods use hardened steel or tungsten blades to bore a hole into unconsolidated ground. The drill bit has three blades arranged around the bit head, which cut the unconsolidated ground. The rods are hollow and contain an
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inner tube which sits inside the hollow outer rod barrel. The drill cuttings are removed by injection of compressed air into the hole via the annular area between the innertube and the drill rod. The cuttings are then blown back to surface up the inner tube where they pass through the sample separating system and are collected if needed. Drilling continues with the addition of rods to the top of the drill string. Air core drilling can occasionally produce small chunks of cored rock. This method of drilling is used to drill the weathered regolith, as the drill rig and steel or tungsten blades cannot penetrate fresh rock. 1.1.4 CABLE TOOL DRILLING Cable tool rigs are a traditional way of drilling water wells internationally and on many farms in Southern Africa stories could be related on how the jumper rigs drilled on various sites for months. The majority of large diameter water supply wells, especially deep wells completed in bedrock aquifers, were completed using this drilling method. The impact of the drill bit fractures the rock and in many shale rock situations increases the water flow into a well over rotary. Also known as ballistic well drilling and sometimes called "spudders", these rigs raise and drop a drill string with a heavy carbide tipped drilling bit that chisels through the rock by finely pulverizing the subsurface materials. During the drilling process, the drill string is periodically removed from the borehole and a bailer is lowered to collect the drill cuttings (rock fragments, soil, etc.). The bailer is a bucket-like tool with a trapdoor in the base. 1.1.5 REVERSE CIRCULATION (RC) DRILLING RC drilling is similar to air core drilling, in that the drill cuttings are returned to surface inside the rods. The drilling mechanism is a pneumatic reciprocating piston known as a hammer driving a tungsten-steel drill bit. RC drilling utilizes much larger rigs and machinery and depths of up to 500 metres are routinely achieved. RC drilling ideally produces dry rock chips, as large air compressors dry the rock out ahead of the advancing drill bit. Reverse circulation is achieved by blowing air down the rods, the differential pressure creating air lift of the water and cuttings up the inner tube which is inside each rod. It reaches the bell at the top of the hole, and then moves through a sample hose which is attached to the top of the cyclone.
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The drill cuttings travel around the inside of the cyclone until they fall through an opening at the bottom and are collected in a sample bag. 1.2.6 DIAMOND DRILLING) CORE DRILLING (EXPLORATION DIAMOND

It utilizes an annular diamond-impregnated drill bit attached to the end of hollow drill rods to cut a cylindrical core of solid rock. The diamonds used are fine to microfine industrial grade diamonds. They are set within a matrix of varying hardness, from brass to high-grade steel. Matrix hardness, diamond size and dosing can be varied according to the rock which must be cut (plate 1). Holes within the bit allow water to be delivered to the cutting face. This provides three essential functions lubrication, cooling, and removal of drill cuttings from the hole. Diamond drilling is much slower than reverse circulation (RC) drilling due to the hardness of the ground being drilled. Drilling of 1200 to 1800 metres is common and at these depths, ground is mainly hard rock. Diamond rigs need to drill slowly to lengthen the life of drill bits and rods, which are very expensive.

Plate 1: Diamond core drill bits 1.1.7 SONIC (VIBRATORY) DRILLING A sonic drill head works by sending high frequency resonant vibrations down the drill string to the drill bit, while the operator controls these frequencies to suit the specific conditions of the soil/rock geology. Resonance magnifies the amplitude of the drill bit, which fluidizes the soil particles at the bit face, allowing for fast and easy penetration through most

geological formations. An internal spring system isolates these vibrational forces from the rest of the drill rig. 1.2 DRILLING FLUID Drilling fluids are generally the blood of all drilling operations and the petroleum industry especially has continued to make increasing use of these fluids, the cost of which can account for over 20% of total operating cost. To minimize the cost as well as improve performance and safety, other generic types of these, fluids are continuously being developed mainly to meet the increasing challenges of: Deeper well drilling/completion especially in high temperature and pressure environment Increasing use of advanced wells (ERD, multilateral and horizontal wells) Stiff environment regulations. 1.2.1 FUNCTIONS OF DRILLING FLUIDS Basically, drilling fluids are used to: 1. Remove cuttings from the bottom of the hole and carry them to the surface 2. Release any carried sand and cuttings at the surface 3. Hold cuttings and any weight material in suspension during circulation interruption 4. Cool and lubricate the bit and drilling string 5. Wall the borehole wall with an impermeable filter cake 6. Control formation pressure 7. Support part of the weight of drill pipe and casing 8. Reduce to a minimum any adverse effects upon the formation adjacent to the hole 9. Insure maximum information about the formation to be penetrated 10.Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the bit 11.Prevent and control corrosion of drill string and other well bore facilities

1.2.2 PROPERTIES OF DRILLING FLUIDS In performing the above listed functions, drilling fluids must not; Generate secondary reaction which can lead to precipitation Must not react with the formation Must maintain stability of properties under the operating conditions of temperature and pressure Must not damage the formation either through plugging by soils, bacterial deterioration etc. The properties of the fluids depend largely on the fluid composition and flow behavioral characteristics. Nevertheless, the key properties of the drilling fluid are; 1. Mud density: This is measured normally with a mud balance 2. Rheological properties: apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity, yield point, gel strength, flow behavior index (n), consistency (k). These are derived from measurements carried out with viscometer. Six speed fann 35 viscometer is the most common. 3. Fluid loss: both filtrate (in millilitres) and cake (in 116411) are measured using the filter press. There are static and dynamic filter presses for static and dynamic filtration. 4. Solid contents: sand content can be measured by the sand content kit while the retort kit can evaluate all solids in the system plus the liquid fractions 5. pH: this is measured using pH meter or litmus paper pH < 7 is acidic and pH > 7 is basic 6. Resistivity: this is measured using the resistivity meter. 1.2.3 DRILLING FLUID COMPOSITION Drilling fluid can either be gas, liquid slurry or foam. The liquid slurry is called drilling mud and is the most commonly used drilling fluid. Gas drilling fluids are hardly used but for some special application. They are used in combination with the liquid, a foam fluid especially for underbalanced drilling.

1.2.3.1 DRILLING MUD The drilling mud is basically made up of; A continuous phase which can be either water, oil and is the base fluid A dispersed phase which can be basically clay (bentonite) or other solids (asphalt etc) Chemical additives to control fluid properties such as weighing materials (barytes) viscosity and loss control additives. From the point of view of mud logging, drilling mud offer the best advantage especially with respect to cutting recovery and well control. There are basically three major types of drilling fluids nowadays. These are: 1.2.3.1.1 WATER BASED DRILLING FLUIDS: These are a mixture of solids, liquids and chemicals. These are active solids like bentonite added to water with the water as the continuous phase. Bentonite acts mainly as the dispersed phase providing the main gel structure. Chemical additives are added in various proportions to control the fluid properties. These chemical additives are commonly used for the control of viscosity, weight, fluid loss etc. For example; Caustic soda is used to control pH and can be classified as an active solid Barite is used to increase mud weight; this is an active solid CMC (carboxy-methyl-cellulose) a polymer is used to control fluid loss. This is an active additive Lignite can be used to control mud viscosity; this is an active additive. 1.3.3.1.2 OIL BASED MUD These are similar in composition as water based mud except that the continuous phase is oil. There are three types; Pure oil based mud Water-in-oil-emulsion with oil as continuous phase and water as dispersed phase
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 Invert mud (oil-in water emulsions with water as continuous phase and oil as dispersed phase) These muds are generally more expensive and require more stringent pollution control. Their use is generally restricted to conditions where water based mud is dangerous, technically impossible or uneconomical to use. These include high pressure and high pressure application as well as conditions where the formation such as shale is highly sensitive to water based mud. They are particularly popular for drilling advanced wells such as extended reach well, multilateral and horizontal wells. Typical composition can be; Diesel as base oil Calcium or sodium chloride Water in dispersed phase Bentonite

Typical additives are; L.C.M (loss control material) Barites 1.2.3.1.3 SYNTHETIC BASE MUD Because of the environmental effect of oil based mud (OBM), many drilled cuttings have to be processed to clean out the oil before dumping to meet control regulations. This makes its use rather expensive. To reduce cost and minimize pollution, new synthetic oil are now being developed and used to make synthetic base mud (SBM). The SBMs are classified according to molecular structure of the synthetic base fluid which can be esters, ethers, etc. they have drilling and operational properties similar to OBMs but have the advance of being more environmentally friendly.

CHAPTER TWO DRILLING PROBLEMS The main objectives of every drilling operation are; High drilling efficiency through the achievement of; Optimum penetration rate Minimum downtime Minimum operating cost Effective safety Minimum environmental impact

These are however a number of problems encountered in the hole which mitigate against the achievement of the above key objectives. The problems which constitute a hazard to drilling are; Stuck pipe or pipe sticking Lost circulation Kick or blowout Formation damage

2.1 Stuck pipe or pipe sticking Even when all precautions are taken, stuck pipe may occur. As one of the problems associated with drilling, stuck pipe when it happens, one cannot pull, go down or rotate the pipe (plate 2). This is possible because a portion of the drill string is embedded in the mud cake on the walls of the hole. Stuck pipe occur in two ways; Differential pressure Mechanical sticking 2.1.1 Differential Pressure A portion of the drill string is embedded in the mud cake on the walls of the hole. It is held there by the pressure difference between in the hole and formation. The force necessary to free the drill string will be proportional to the area of contact, coefficient of friction and pressure differential and will increase with time because of filter cake build-up. Due to the filter cake builder, the area of contact can double
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by the thickening of the filter cake. The force holding the drill string against the borehole wall can be calculated very quickly. This force will have to be exceeded to free the drill string. If the force is greater than the pull of the block or the tensile strength of the drill string, the general practice is to add some compound e.g diesel, black magic etc, to the drilling fluid to reduce the friction between the drill string and filter cake. 2.1.2 Mechanical Sticking This can occur as a result of; High accumulation of cutting in the annulus Borehole instability ( hole caving, sloughing, plastic squeezing) Key seat 2.1.2.1 Accumulation of Cuttings This can occur in wells that do not have the adequate hole cleaning. This is common in directional or horizontal wells. Increasing circulating pressure while drilling, or increase in drag when tripping are indications of a problem. It is good idea to circulate bottoms up before tripping the pipe as this cleans the hole. 2.1.2.2 Borehole instability These are problems common in shale sections of the hole. Shale can plastically flow inward or slough causing mechanical sticking. Salt also exhibit plastic behavior. Any formation can collapse if the mud weight is not high enough to control it. Indications of trouble are an increase in the torque, increase in circulating pressure or even the blocking of returns to the surface.

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2.1.2.3 Key Seat A key seat is formed by the drill string pressing against the side of the hole and cutting groove. This happens when the hole is not straight. The problem occurs

Plate 2: Common Drilling Problems, Yogyakarta, 2008. (A) reactive formation, (B) mobile formation,
(C) collapsed casing, (D)junk, (E)cement related, (F)drillstring vibration, (G)well bore geometry, (H)poor hole cleaning.

when pulling out of the hole, the bottom hole assembly will catch on the this groove. 2.2 Lost Circulation Lost circulation can be one of the more serious problems that can arise during the drilling of an oil well or gas well. Circulation is said to be lost when the drilling fluid known commonly as mud, flows into one or more geological formation instead of returning up the annulus. Lost circulation occurs when the drill bit encounters a very porous and permeable formation, natural fissures, fractures or caverns in the subsurface and more mud flows into the newly available space than it flows backup (plate 3). The consequences of lost circulation can be as little as the loss of dollars of drilling fluid or as disastrous as a blowout and loss of life, so close monitoring of tanks pits and flow from the well, to quickly assess and control lost circulation, is taught and practiced. If the fluid in the well bore drops due to lost circulation, hydrostatic

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pressure is reduced, thus allowing a gas or fluid, which is under a higher pressure than the reduced hydrostatic pressure to influx into the wellbore.

Plate 3: Lost circulation offshore; (Colins Bowes and Ray Procter , 1997) Another consequence of lost circulation is called dry drilling. Dry drilling occurs when fluid is completely lost from the wellbore without actual drilling coming to a stop. The effect of dry drilling can be as minor as destroying a bit to as serious as major damage to the wellbore requiring a new well to be drilled. Dry drilling can also cause severe damage to the drill string including snapping the pipe and the drilling rig itself. 2.2.1 CATEGORIES OF LOST CIRCULATION Lost circulation falls into two main categories 2.2.1.1 Minor Losses: This is where losses are between 6 and 470 barrels, and remains within those amounts, or is ceased within 48 hours. 2.2.1.2 Severe Losses: This is where losses are greater than 470 barrels, or it takes greater than 48 hours to control or cease the lost circulation. Total losses may also occur, where the return of fluids is completely lost to the surface. This may fall into either the minor or severe losses categories, depending on the amount of losses and the time involved in regaining circulation.
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2.3 BLOWOUT/KICK An unexpected pressure in the subsurface can cause a blowout. The overbalance is lost and the fluids flow out of the subsurface rocks into the well in what is called a kick. As the water, gas, or oil flows into the well, it mixes with the drilling mud, causing it to become even lighter and exert less pressure on the bottom of the well. The diluted drilling mud is called gas cut, salt-water cut, or oil cut. The blowout preventers are immediately thrown to close the hole. The kick can be dangerous if it is caused by flammable natural gas or poisonous hydrogen sulfide gas (recent blowout in Bayelsa State Nigeria). Sometimes the blowout occurs so fast that the drillers do not have time to throw the blowout preventers, and the results are disastrous. Slides and cables are located on the rig to evacuate the crew in such an emergency. If the blowout preventers are thrown in time, heavier drilling mud is pumped into the well through a choke manifold to circulate the kick out. A kick and possible blowout is detected by several different methods during drilling. As subsurface fluids enter the well during a kick, more fluids will be flowing out of the well than are circulating into the well. The sudden increase of fluid flow out of the well or rise of fluid level in the mud pit is detected by instruments. The drilling mud can also be continuously monitored for sudden changes in weight, temperature, or electrical resistivity that would indicate the mud is being cut by subsurface fluids. A blowout can also be caused by raising the drill string out of the well. The drill string displaces a volume of drilling mud in the well. As the drill string is raised, the level of drilling mud falls in the well and the pressure is decreased on the bottom of the well. If the level of the drilling mud is not maintained in the well, overbalance could be lost and a blowout could occur. A CASE STUDY OF BLOWOUT AND FIRE, OFF THE COAST OF NIGERIA (PENNINGTON FIELD IN BAYELSA STATE). SOURCE: Drilling Ahead World Oilfield Forum. The local jack up rig belongs to FODE and was built in 2010. Accurate location of the RIG is: 04 20 N/ 005 45 E. The Incident happened at a depth of 11,000 ft. The KS Endeavor was drilling for Chevron in the Pennington Field in Bayelsa state waters before Fire caught on the RIG KS ENDEAVOUR - CHEVRON Escravos and.the RIG disappeared.

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Other conflicting reports from locals claimed that the explosion was due to gas leakage from the drilling platform while others reported that the explosion occurred from a new gas well head at Funawa 5 along the Koluama River. Still other report claims that the explosion occurred following a fire from an oil barge under repair. According to local sources, the fire was much in that the entire rig was burnt down. They tried to stop it but it went out of control." The K.S. Endeavor platform is leased to Chevron from owner FODE Drilling Company and is capable of drilling up to 30,000' in up to 300' of water. The reports are that 2 people are missing. 1 French Toolpusher and 1 Indian driller. The background on this disaster is that the KS Endeavor took a kick around 3 days earlier with 13.5 unit but for whatever reason they did not weight up & kill the well. (possibly for fear of breaking down the formation). After 3 days gas migrated up outside the casing and ignited. Apparently they spent quite a bit of time monitoring well pressures over this period. A relief well was drilled to kill the well. Below is an image taken at fire location (plate 4).

Plate 4: Blowout at Pennington field Bayelsa State. Source: drilling ahead world forum (2012)

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Table 1: Notable offshore well blowouts (data from industry information)

Year Rig Owner Type Chevron Sub Recessed 1955 S-44 Corporation pontoons 1959 C. T. Thornton Reading & Bates Jackup 1964 C. P. Baker 1965 Trion 1965 1968 1969 1969 Reading & Bates Drill barge Royal Dutch Shell SNAM Coral Floor drilling Sedco Inc Jackup Jackup Jackup Drilling barge Semi-submersible Submersible Jackup Drillship Drill barge Drill barge Jackup Jackup Jackup Rig Name Damage / details Blowout and fire. Returned to service. Blowout and fire damage. Blowout in Gulf of Mexico, vessel capsized, 22 killed. Destroyed by blowout. Destroyed by blowout and fire. Blowout and fire, killed 7. Blowout Blowout damage Blowout in Gulf of Mexico Blowout and fire damage. Blowout (S. China Seas) Blowout and fire. Blowout and fire off Peru, 7 killed. Blowout in Gulf of Mexico Blowout and capsize in Java Sea. Blowout in Gulf of Martaban.

Paguro Little Bob Wodeco III Sedco 135G Rimrick 1969 ODECO Tidelands 1970 Stormdrill III Storm Drilling 1970 Discoverer III Offshore Co. Atwood 1971 Big John Oceanics 1971 Unknown Floor Drilling Marine Drilling 1972 J. Storm II Co. 1972 M. G. Hulme Reading & Bates Transworld 1972 Rig 20 Drilling 1973 Mariner I Sante Fe Drilling 1975 Mariner II Sante Fe Drilling Marine Drilling 1975 J. Storm II Co. 1976 Petrobras III Petrobras 1976 W. D. Kent Reading & Bates Maersk 1977 Maersk Drilling Explorer Phillips 1977 Ekofisk Bravo Petroleum 1978 Scan Bay Scan Drilling 1979 Salenergy II Salen Offshore 1979 Sedco 135F Sedco Drilling

Semi-sub Blowout off Trinidad, 3 killed. Semi-submersible Lost BOP during blowout. Jackup Jackup Jackup Jackup Platform Jackup Jackup Blowout in Gulf of Mexico. No info. Damage while drilling relief well. Blowout and fire in North Sea Blowout during well workover.[26]

Blowout and fire in the Persion Gulfd Blowout in Gulf of Mexico Blowout and fire in Bay of Campeche Semi-submersible Ixtoc I well.[26]
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1980 Sedco 135G Sedco Drilling 1980 Discoverer 534 Offshore Co. Ron 1980 Reading & Bates Tappmeyer Peoples Republic 1980 Nanhai II of China Maersk 1980 Maersk Drilling Endurer 1980 Ocean King 1980 Marlin 14 1981 Penrod 50 West 1985 Vanguard 1981 Petromar V 1983 Bull Run 1988 1989 1993 2001 2002 2004 2007 2009 2010 2010 2012 ODECO Marlin Drilling Penrod Drilling Smedvig Petromar

Semi-submersible Blowout and fire of Nigeria. Drillship Gas escape caught fire Jackup Jackup Jackup Jackup Blowout in Persian Gulf, 5 killed. Blowout of Hainan Islandd Blowout in Red Sea, 2 killed.

Blowout and fire in Gulf of Mexico, 5 killed.[27] Jackup Blowout in Gulf of Mexico Submersible Blowout and fire in Gulf of Mexico Shallow gas blowout and fire in Semi-submersible Norwegian sea, 1 fatality. Gas blowout and capsize in S. China Drillship seas

Atwood Tender Oil and gas blowout Dubai, 3 fatalities. Oceanics Ocean Diamond Gas blowout at BOP and fire in the UK Semi-submersible Odyssey Offshore Drilling North Sea, 1 killed. Shallow gas blowout and fire in Al Baz Sante Fe Jackup Nigeria, 5 killed.[28] Actinia Transocean Semi-submersible Sub-sea blowout in Vietnam. .[29] Gas blowout and fire, Gulf of Mexico, Ensco 51 Ensco Jackup no casualties[30] Arabian Drilling Structural collapse, blowout, fire and Arabdrill 19 Jackup Co. sinking.[31] Blowout and fire at Temsah platform, Adriatic IV Global Sante Fe Jackup Mediterranean Sea[32] Storm forced rig to move, causing well Usumacinta PEMEX Jackup blowout on Kab 101 platform, 22 killed.[33] West Atlas / Blowout and fire on rig and platform in Seadrill Jackup / Platform Montara Australia.[34] Deepwater Blowout and fire on the rig, subsea well Transocean Semi-submersible Horizon blowout, killed 11 in explosion. Blowout and fire, 13 survivors, 1 MARINER Vermilion Platform injured.[35][36] ENERGY Block 380 Blowout and fire off the coast of K.S Endevour Jackup/platform FODE drilling Nigeria, entire rig got burnt, 3 dead

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A B Plate 5: Blowout/kick caused by formation pressure being greater than hydrostatic pressure imposed by fluid, (Yogyakarta, June 2008). (A) subsurface blowout, (B) surface blowout. 2.3.1 Kick detection techniques There are a number of indicators that provide early warning of kick occurrence. These indictors include: Incorrect hole fillup during trip Decrease in stand pipe pressure/increase in pump rate Increase/decrease in drilling weight Increase in penetration rate lost circulation changes in gas levels, mud density and conductivity

2.3.1.1 Incorrect fillup during trip When pulling out of the hole, if the volume of mud pumped to keep the hole full is less than that normally required, then there is an evidence of influx. The mud
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volume required should be equal to a slightly greater than the volume of drill pipe (normally five stands) already pulled. Mud loggers must follow trips even though an automatic trip monitor is usually used. Conversely during a trip into the hole, the downward movement of the drill pipe expels fluid from the annulus to the trip tank or active mud system. This return flow should cease a few seconds after pipe movement stops. If flow continues then there is a kick. 2.3.1.2 Decrease in stand pipe pressure/increase in pump rate Influx of fluid into the annulus creates an imbalance resulting in a decrease in hydrostatic pressure in the annulus. In such an unbalanced system, gravity helps move drilling fluid down the hole, requiring less energy from the pump. This will result in a decrease in the stand pipe pressure. 2.3.1.3 Increase/decrease in drill string weight Any influx into the well bore from the formation reduces the buoyancy of the annular drilling fluid. A sensitive weight indicator will register this change in weight as an increase in drill string weight. For very large kicks, fluid may enter the annulus with enough force to cause a decrease in indicated string weight. 2.3.1.4 Increase in penetration rate (drilling break) A marked increase in rate of penetration (ROP) may indicate either changes in the type of formation being drilled or a reduction in the differential between the mud pressure and pore pressure. Generally, the following parameter affect the ROP; rock type, formation bulk density/porosity, differential pressure, bit types/wear, hydraulic weight on bit, rotary speed, personnel/equipment. Drilling breaks are generally evidence of porosity change. Drilling rate tends to decrease with depth. Thus when a drilling breaks occurs, it may be an evidence of transition to an abnormal zone. It is crucial at this point to stop drilling and check for flows.

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2.3.1.5 Lost circulation Loss of substantial quantity of mud into the formation will result in reduction in hydrostatic column height. If not checked, this can result in a kick. 2.3.1.6 Changes in gas levels/mud density/conductivity Gas extracted from the mud comes from one or more of four sources Liberated gas: This is the measured gas from the return mud flow, released from the pore spaces of the drilled cuttings. It is the so-called background gas during circulation. If there is overbalance, and the ROP is constant with flow rate, this is liberated. Produced gas: This gas enters the well bore from adjacent permeable formations when underbalanced exists. A background gas increase when ROP is constant is evidence of produced gas. Recycled gas: Is the gas re-circulated into the hole. It appears on detection equipment as an increase in background level. Contaminated gas results from chemical breakdown of mud additives Connection gas and trip gas are short duration gas peaks caused by swabbing action. Depending on sensitivity level, surface monitors should detect a relatively steady level of gas extracted from mud during normal drilling. This background gas level may show occasional variation depending on penetration rate, mud pumping rate, hydrocarbon content of section drilled. Under normal conditions, the background gas should remain within about 50% of local average. It is crucial that all gas values must be reported whether they are significant or not. Thorough inspection of gas monitoring systems and calibration as part or routine maintenance exercise is essential to preventing potential disaster. 2.4 FORMATION DAMAGE Formation damage can be defined as a measure of the reduction in the production capacity or injectivity of a given reservoir formation. This can be due to the combined effect of;
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 Reduction in the formation absolute permeability Alteration in the relative permeability of the formation to a specific fluid Alteration in the viscosity of the mobile fluid It is mainly a consequence of a number of operations conducted in well from the initial drilling, through the production and worker over phases to final abandonment. In a well bore gas separates from oil when the bottom hole pressure drops below the bubble point pressure, forming gas bubbles. These expanding bubbles partially block the pores of the rock matrix, create near wellbore negative skin effects, and reduce relative oil permeability (plate 5). Oil production declines.

Plate 6: Formation damage caused by gas and water conning. Source:

Production is impaired as relative oil permeability is reduced by negative skin effects. This hampers the flow of oil from the formation to the well bore and allows gas and water cones to form at the top and bottom of the producing horizon. The formation's finite energy (pressure) is wasted. Some formations are strong and porosity is a weak function of the differential pressure. Even so, gas will separate from oil when the bottomhole pressure drops below the bubble point pressure. This creates skin effects, which reduce the oil flow's permeability, and water and gas cones that increase GOR and WC while blocking the perforation interval.
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CHAPTER THREE CAUSES OF DRILLING PROBLEM 3.1 CAUSES OF LOST CIRCULATION The problem can be caused by natural or induced factors 3.1.1 Natural causes are basically caused by the presence of natural fractures, high permeability formation, cracks, vugs and fissures. 3.1.2 Induced causes High mud density: When the mud density is so high as to make the hydrostatic or bottom hole pressure greater than the formation fracture gradient resulting in a breakdown of the formation. Fractures can be generated which will result in mud loss Increase in Annular Pressure: Increase in annular pressure beyond the maximum allowable annular surface pressure (MAASP) can result in the generation of fracture, a potential thief zone. Pressure Surge: During trips, running-in the drill string at a very high velocity can result in localized pressure surges that can lead to the breakdown of weak formations. Penetration of depleted or subnormal formation 3.2 CAUSES OF PIPE STICKING Drill string get stuck due to variety of reasons 3.2.1 Differential sticking It should be remembered that this type of sticking will develop if six factors are present; a permeable formation thick filter cake (due to high water loss) the drill string is in contact with that filter cake (plate 6) an overbalance situation exists insufficient drill string movement and, a lack of circulation between the drill string and the filter cake
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Plate 7: differentially stuck pipe. Source: (After Bowes and Procter, 1997). 3.2.2 Geopressured formation: These formations have a pore pressure which exceeds the hydrostatic pressure of the drill string fluid. If these formations are not permeable (for example shale), once drilled, these formation will cave into the borehole (plate 7).

Plate 8: differentially stuck pipe. Source: (After Bowes and Procter, 1997).

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3.2.3 Reactive Formation

These are naturally occurring bentonitic shale, generally known as gumbo shale. The clays within the shale react with mud filterate and hydrate. The hydrated shale will then fall or swell into the borehole (plate 8). When drilling, the bit tends to bell-up with these clays. When tripping the bottom hole assembly (BHA) can become stuck in the smaller diameter (swelled) portion of the borehole.

Plate 9: Differentially stuck pipe due to reactive formation. Source: (After Bowes and Procter, 1997). 3.2.4 Unconsolidated Formations These naturally occurring sand and gravel formation will collapse into the borehole when drilled (plate 9). When this occurs, they can easily bury the bit or form a bridge around the collars.

Plate 10: differentially stuck pipe due to unconsolidated formation. Source: (After Bowes and Procter, 1997).
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3.2.5 Mobile Formation These are naturally occurring plastic formations most commonly shale and salt. When drilled, they will tend to flow into the borehole (plate 10)

Plate 11: stuck pipe caused by flowing formation. Source: (After Bowes and Procter, 1997). 3.2.6 Fractured / Faulted Formation These are naturally occurring formations. When the fractured or faulted formation is drilled, there will be a tendency for pieces of the formation to fall into the borehole (plate 11). The size of the pieces will vary from pebbles to boulders. They more commonly occur in limestone and shale.

Plate 12: stuck pipe caused by fractured formation. Source: (After Bowes and Procter, 1997).
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3.2.7 Key Seating

Key seats are the result of the drill string creating an additional hole into the side of the borehole. This extra hole will generally have the identity of the drill pipes tool joints and the drill collar will not pass through this extra hole when tripping out. 3.2.8 Borehole Geometry The borehole is seldom drilled in a smooth manner ledge and washouts are common, especially when alternating hard/soft formations are drilled. Problems with borehole geometry normally occur during tripping operations. Remember, when tripping-in, the drill string is in compression making it more flexible. When tripping-out, the drill string is in tension making it more rigid. 3.2.9 Undergauge Borehole When drilling long sections of abrasive formations, the gauge protection on the bit and stabilizers can become so worn out that it becomes ineffective. Any additional hole that is drilled will be undergauge. 3.2.10 Indequate Hole Cleaning Inadequate hole cleaning causes overloading of the annulus. In highly deviated or horizontal wells, this results in the formation of a cutting bed on the low side of the borehole (plate 12).

Plate 13: stuck pipe caused by improper hole cleaning. Source: (After Bowes and Procter, 1997).
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3.2.11 Junk in the Borehole Junk is a foreign object in the borehole, which is not meant to be there. Since the clearance between casing and collars/stabilizer is not great, even small pieces of junk can stick the drill string.

Plate 14: stuck pipe caused by junks in the hole. Source: (After Bowes and Procter, 1997).

3.2.12 Cement Blocks After a leak-off test has been performed and drilling has resumed, the large sized collars or stabilizers can cause blocks of cement to break loose and fall into the borehole. These large blocks can easily jam against the drill string. 3.3 CAUSES OF BLOWOUT/KICK Kick generally occur during trips with influx occurring from a combination of swabbing and failure to keep the hole full. Swabbing is the result of the piston effect of the drill pipe due to excessive trip speed resulting in instantaneous vacuum being created below the bit. Kick occurring during drilling operations most often occur due to insufficient mud weight. The influx of formation fluid arises for a variety of reasons. These include:
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insufficient mud weight low level of fluid column in the annulus excessive drilling rate in gas bearing formation excessive swabbing diffusion of gas through mud cake

The three major ones are discussed below 3.3.1 Insufficient Mud Weight Insufficient mud weight may occur due to: penetration of a geopressured zone accidental dilution of the mud by fluid addition at surface dilution of mud by influx from an aquifer exposed to open hole gradual mud density reduction due to gas cut and failure to degas the mud at surface improper mud mixing and poor quality control in measurement 3.3.2 Low level of drilling fluid column Two conditions may lower the fluid column in the annulus. These are; failure to fill the hole during a trip lost circulation during drilling 3.3.2.1 Failure to fill the hole during a trip. In pulling out the drill string, the hole driller must refill tile hole with mud of equivalent volume. Monitoring of the volume of mud filling the hole is done with the use of the trip tank or possum Belly Tank. The trip tank is a small mud pit (approximately 50bbls) separate from the active pits. This trip tank is fully equipped with a volume gauge that can be monitored from rig floor or mud loggers console. In monitoring the trip, the driller must calculate the theoretical mud volume displaced by one or five stands of drill pipe. During the trip, the driller then measures the actual mud volume pumped into the hole for each stand of pipe pulled.

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3.3.2.2 Lost circulation during drilling. Lost circulation is the loss of substantial quantity or whole mud into the formation. It may as a result of; mud loss to caverous or vugular formation penetration of depleted or subnormal zone mud loss to fracture opened by excessive annulus pressure. This may be due to annular blockage, surge pressure, excessive hydraulic, pressure imposed to break mud gel strength. Lost circulation will result in insufficient mud column and thus reduction in bottom hole pressure. Kick due to lost circulation can be shut in, an underground blow out can occur. 3.3.3 Excessive swabbing Swabbing is the reduction of bottom hole pressure caused by upward pipe movement. As the pipe is being pulled out during trips, mud flows down through the annulus to fill the space in the hole. The downward mud flow creates a frictional pressure loss in the direction of the surface. The result is reduced bottom hole pressure. High trip speed can lead to instantaneous vacuum below the bit. The swab pressure depends on: Pipe velocity Clearance between pipe and hole (the smaller the annular cross section, the greater the swabbing action) Mud rheology (the higher the viscosity, the greater the swabbing action ) Total measured depth (the longer the section, the greater the swabbing action) 3.4 CAUSES OF FORMATION DAMAGE Formation damage can be considered to be caused by a physical or chemical interaction between the following; Invading fluid liquid phase and the reservoir fluid
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 Invading liquid phase and the reservoir rock constituents The solid constituents of the invading fluid and the reservoir rock. The damage mechanisms do vary but these can be listed as; 1. Formation damage resulting in reduction of absolute permeability due to; Particle plugging due to solids in drilling and completion fluids invading the reservoir rock pore spaces Clay problems: In-situ clays are found in majority of reservoir rocks especially sandstone. Majority are very sensitive to fluids invasion and may swell thus blocking the pores Fines migration: A typical sandstone reservoir rock consist of in-situ quartzitic or siliceous fines generally held within the in-situ connate film surrounding the sandstone grains. These fines can become mobilized either due to high production rate or due to increase in wetting phase saturation. Once mobilized, fines are transported and can result in particle plugging. 2. Inorganic scale deposit resulting from reaction of incompatible invading and reservoir fluids changes in pressure and temperature also contribute to the precipitation of solids forming scales. 3. Plugging by organic deposits such as wax and asphaltenes 4. Damage resulting from reduction in relative permeability: invasion by wellbore fluids cause hydrocarbon saturation to decrease around the wellbore. This lowers the relative permeability to oil and especially during early stages of production; a significant pressure drop is created around the wellbore. 5. Damage due to emulsion blocking: result of formation of emulsion between oil and water. Bacterial action may also form emulsion blockage 6. Gas breakthrough and water coning: increase in gas and water saturation reduces the relative permeability to oil (fig 1).

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Hydrocarbon gases from the gas cap of the oil formation collect around the wellbore. Gas enters the perforation interval and increases GOR. Perforation intervals marred by negative skin effects still produce oil, but the effective range of the pay zone is reduced by the encroaching gas and water cones. High differential pressure creates water cones. When the perforation interval is exposed to water, WC increases and oil production decreases. Fig 1: Formation Damage caused by gas and water coning. Source: (Orewell Production Services LLC, 2000)

7. Stress-induced permeability change: changes in stress distribution will result in changes in compaction status and thus pore pressure change. This will affect the net permeability of the reservoir. 8. Sand production from unconsolidated reservoir rocks: these are known to be production rate sensitive. Thus high production rate and water encroachment among other factors can lead to the migration of in-situ sand grains and massive sand intrusion.

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CHAPTER FOUR PREVENTION OF DRILLING PROBLEMS. 4.1 PREVENTION OF PIPE STICKING During the course of a well, there are many operations or items within those operations which can prevent stuck pipe from occurring. Even when problems are evident, there are generally ways to prevent the drillstring from sticking. This section will list the most common causes of stuck pipe and the most commonly used operations to prevent the drillstring from sticking. Differentially stuck pipe: The preventive measures include 1. Moving the drillstring as much as possible 2. Rotate the drillstring on connections 3. Always begin pipe motion in a downward direction 4. Ensure a pit is available for pumping pills 5. Use grooved or spiral drill collars 6. Minimize the length of unstabilized drill collars 7. Minimize the length of the BHA 8. Use undergauge stabilizers when possible 9. Consider placing the jar(s) in the heavy-weight pipe section 10. Use survey methods that are of short duration There are basically three methods which can be followed if the drillstring becomes differentially stuck. The first operation is to immediately work/jar the drillstring (downwards if possible) and apply right-hand torque. Secondly, reducing the hydrostatic pressure may be an option (well control considerations must be taken into account). The third operation involves spotting a friction reducing fluid within the stuck zone. If these methods fail, then back-off operations, using a free-point indicator, must be considered. The fish can then be recovered using washover pipe, or a DST tool can be used to reduce the hydrostatic pressure followed by the washover pipe. Geopressured Formations These formations have a pore pressure which exceed the hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid. If these formations are not permeable (for example, shales), once
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drilled, these formations will cave into the borehole. Preventive measures include: 1. Clean the hole of cuttings when not drilling 2. Observe the cuttings for cavings, some being large and convex/ concave in appearance 3. Increase the mud density if possible 4. Ream on each connection 5. Perform regular wiper trips 6. Monitor pump pressure for annular loading 7. Control the drill rate 8. Minimize the time in the open hole when tripping 9. Recognize overpull, then circulate to clean the hole 10. Monitor the drilling fluid's parameters Reactive Formations These are naturally occurring bentonitic shales, generally known as gumbo shales. The clays within the shales react with the mud filtrate and hydrate. The hydrated shales will then fall or swell into the borehole. When drilling, the bit tends to ball-up with these clays. When tripping, the BHA can become stuck in the smaller diameter (swelled) portions of the borehole. Preventive measures include: 1. Avoid long time periods without circulation 2. Be prepared to stop drilling and circulate 3. Plan to initiate wiper trips whenever necessary 4. Carefully monitor swab/surge pressures 5. Be prepared to ream when tripping 6. Carefully monitor drilling fluid properties Unconsolidated Formations These naturally occurring sand and gravel formations will collapse into the borehole when drilled. When this occurs, they can easily bury the bit or form a bridge around the collars. Preventive measures include: 1. Control the drill rate 2. Use all solids removal equipment 3. Be prepared for shale shaker screen binding 4. Use viscous sweeps before drilling 5. Ream after each connection 6. Avoid excessive swab/surge pressures 7. Avoid excessive circulation.
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 Mobile Formations These are naturally occurring plastic formations. Most commonly shales and salt. When drilled, they will tend to flow into the borehole. Preventive measures include: 1. Recognize there is a reaction time associated with these formations 2. Regular wiper trips are normally required 3. Condition the mud prior to drilling those formations 4. Use eccentric PDC bits to drill these formations 5. Increase the mud density if possible 6. Minimize open hole time Fractured/Faulted Formations These are naturally occurring formations. When the fractured or faulted formation is drilled, there will be a tendency for pieces of the formation to fall into the borehole. The size of the pieces will vary from pebbles to boulders. They will more commonly occur in limestones and shales. Preventive measures include: 1. Clean out excess fill before drilling 2. Minimize surge pressures 3. Place the jar in the heavy-weight pipe section 4. Be prepared to wash/ream when tripping in 5. Design a BHA to minimize the risk of hitting a ledge 6. Use low circulation rates/pressures to clean the hole Key seats Key seats are the result of the drillstring wearing an additional hole into the side of the borehole. This extra hole will generally have the I.D. of the drillpipe's tool joints and the drill collars will not pass through this extra hole when tripping out. Preventive measures include: 1. Minimize pipe rotation 2. Use wiper trips often 3. Minimize dogleg severity 4. Carefully design the BHA 5. Minimize the length of rathole below casing 6. Have a surface jar on location 7. If the problem is recognized, cure it before drilling ahead Borehole Geometry (Profile and Ledges) The borehole is seldom drilled in a smooth manner. Ledges and washouts are common, especially when alternating hard/soft formations are drilled. Problems
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with borehole geometry normally occur during tripping operations. Remember, when tripping in, the drillstring is in compression making it more flexible. When tripping out, the drillstring is in tension making it more rigid. Preventive measures include: 1. Minimize doglegs 2. Reduce the number of BHA changes 3. Ream if the BHA configuration is changed 4. Do not run stabilizers above a jar 5. Be prepared to run a hole opener if necessary Inadequate Hole Cleaning Inadequate hole cleaning causes overloading of the annulus. In highly deviated or horizontal wells, this results in the formation of a cuttings bed on the low side of the borehole. Preventive measures include: 1. Control the drill rate to ensure the hole is cleaned 2. Circulate bottoms-up until shakers are clean 3. Always check the volume of cuttings coming over the shaker 4. Maintain the correct drilling fluid properties 5. Control the annular velocities 6. Recognize increased overpull 7. Always reciprocate and rotate pipe while circulating 8. Use viscous sweeps 9. Recognize low-side sections of deviated holes 10. Plan to use regular wiper trips 11. On floaters, use the riser booster pumps Junk in the hole Junk is a foreign object in the borehole, which is not meant to be there. Since the clearance between casing and collars/stabilizers is not great, even a small piece of junk can stick the drillstring. Preventive measures include: 1. Ensure downhole tools are in good condition 2. Inspect downhole tools regularly 3. Be careful when working around the rotary table 4. Leave the hole covered when the drillstring is out of the borehole 5. Install drillpipe wipers whenever possible

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4.2 PREVENTION OF LOST CIRCULATION To prevent drilling fluids from flowing into holes in the well bore, the following strategies are adopted: 1. Use of loss control materials (LCM) as a regular mud additive. Examples of LCMs are nut plug, kwikseal, mica, corn fibres, calcium carbonate, sized salt, oil soluble resin (OSR). 2. Prevention of pressure surge and maintenance of annular pressure less than maximum allowable annular surface pressure (MAASP). 3. Maintain proper mud weight 4. Maintain adequate hole cleaning 5. Good estimate of fracture gradient 6. Set casing to protect weaker formations. 4.3 PREVENTION OF KICK/BLOWOUT An unexpected pressure in the subsurface can cause a blowout. The overbalance is lost and the fluids flow out of the subsurface rocks into the well in what is called a kick. When the following indicators or detection techniques of a kick are observed, the blowout preventers are immediately thrown to close the hole and heavier drilling mud is pumped into the well through a choke manifold to circulate the kick out. Incorrect hole fillup during trip Decrease in stand pipe pressure/increase in pump rate Increase/decrease in drilling weight Increase in penetration rate lost circulation changes in gas levels, mud density and conductivity

4.3.1 Incorrect fillup during trip When pulling out of the hole, if the volume of mud pumped to keep the hole full is less than that normally required, then there is an evidence of influx. The mud volume required should be equal to a slightly greater than the volume of drill pipe

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(normally five stands) already pulled. Mud loggers must follow trips even though an automatic trip monitor is usually used. Conversely during a trip into the hole, the downward movement of the drill pipe expels fluid from the annulus to the trip tank or active mud system. This return flow should cease a few seconds after pipe movement stops. If flow continues then there is a kick. 4.3.2 Decrease in stand pipe pressure/increase in pump rate Influx of fluid into the annulus creates an imbalance resulting in a decrease in hydrostatic pressure in the annulus. In such an unbalanced system, gravity helps move drilling fluid down the hole, requiring less energy from the pump. This will result in a decrease in the stand pipe pressure. 4.3.3 Increase/decrease in drill string weight Any influx into the well bore from the formation reduces the buoyancy of the annular drilling fluid. A sensitive weight indicator will register this change in weight as an increase in drill string weight. For very large kicks, fluid may enter the annulus with enough force to cause a decrease in indicated string weight. 4.3.4 Increase in penetration rate (drilling break) A marked increase in rate of penetration (ROP) may indicate either changes in the type of formation being drilled or a reduction in the differential between the mud pressure and pore pressure. Generally, the following parameter affect the ROP; rock type, formation bulk density/porosity, differential pressure, bit types/wear, hydraulic weight on bit, rotary speed, personnel/equipment. Drilling breaks are generally evidence of porosity change. Drilling rate tends to decrease with depth. Thus when a drilling breaks occurs, it may be an evidence of transition to an abnormal zone. It is crucial at this point to stop drilling and check for flows.

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4.3.5 Lost circulation Loss of substantial quantity of mud into the formation will result in reduction in hydrostatic column height. If not checked, this can result in a kick. 4.3.6 Changes in gas levels/mud density/conductivity Gas extracted from the mud comes from one or more of four sources Liberated gas: This is the measured gas from the return mud flow, released from the pore spaces of the drilled cuttings. It is the so-called background gas during circulation. If there is overbalance, and the ROP is constant with flow rate, this is liberated. Produced gas: This gas enters the well bore from adjacent permeable formations when underbalanced exists. A background gas increase when ROP is constant is evidence of produced gas. Recycled gas: Is the gas re-circulated into the hole. It appears on detection equipment as an increase in background level. Contaminated gas results from chemical breakdown of mud additives Connection gas and trip gas are short duration gas peaks caused by swabbing action. 4.4 PREVENTION OF FORMATION DAMAGE. Prevention measures for formation damage are limited to ways of ameliorating the three potential causes. The potential preventive measures are as follows: 1. Interaction of invading fluid liquid phase and reservoir fluids: combating reaction between the fluids that can lead to precipitation, emulsion or water blockage, etc requires the selection of appropriate drilling and completion fluid that are compatible with the reservoir fluids at the down hole temperature and pressure. Likewise the reduction of fluid loss through the use of appropriate control agent is essential. Total prevention of lost circulation is also very important. 2. Interaction of invading fluid liquid phase and the formation: this problem leads mainly to potential clay swelling, wettability change and potential water blocking. To minimize the problem, use of appropriate clay inhibitors/stabilizer completion fluids would be desired to prevent clay
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swelling. Most formations are usually water-wet but this may change due to completion operations. For such cases, the use of appropriate surfactant to alter wettability will be desirable. For example, for improved oil relative permeability, the formation needs to be water-wet. Thus the water wettability of the formation can be restored through appropriate surfactant treatment. 3. Interaction of invading fluid solids and formation: this generally leads to particle plugging or result of fines migration. Prevention generally involves effective solids control for drilling fluids and use of solids free brines as completion fluids. Effective well preparation before completion operation is carried out is very essential. Thus, the drilling fluid can be displaced by solids free completion fluids.

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CHAPTER FIVE CONTROL OF DRILLING PROBLEMS. 5.1 CONTROL OF PIPE STICKING. Once a pipe is stuck, it has become a fish. The only way to control stuck pipe is by initiating fishing operation. The first step in fishing operation is to evaluate the depth at which the string is stuck. This is known as free point. Even when all precautions are taken, stuck pipe may occur. To free a differentially stuck drillstring, the driller must overcome the restraining force of the drilling fluid, which is pushing the Drillstring against a permeable formation. The drillstring (drillpipe or collars) will soon become imbedded in the filter cake opposite the permeable zone if corrective action is not taken as soon as the sticking situation is noticed. The force necessary to free the drillstring will be proportional to the area of contact and pressure differential, and will increase with time because of filter cake build-up. Due to the filter cake build-up, the area of contact can double by the thickening of the filter cake. The force holding the drillstring against the borehole wall can be calculated very quickly. This force will have to be exceeded to free the drillstring. If the force is greater than the pull of the blocks or the tensile strength of the drillstring, the general practice is to add some compound (i.e. diesel, black magic, etc.) to the drilling fluid to reduce the friction between the drillstring and filter cake. The equation for determining the sticking force is: Fs = DP x A x f where: Fs = The sticking force or the total pulling force that would be required to free the pipe (lbs) DP = The pressure differential between the drilling fluid and the formation (psi) A = The area of contact between the drillstring and filter cake (in2) f = The coefficient of friction between the Drillstring and filter cake (dimensionless). If the driller is unable to free the stuck pipe or the force necessary to free the pipe is greater than the force that can be applied by the blocks, then other remedial measures must be used. Normally a lubricating fluid is spotted in the troublesome area and is used to dissolve the filter cake.
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These spotting procedures are facilitated by pin-pointing the depth at which the pipe is stuck. The depth (or free point - stuck point location) can be calculated from relatively simple measurements taken on the rig floor. The procedure to determine the variables is as follows (fig 2): 1. An upward force F1 is applied to the pipe. This must be greater than the total weight to insure that the entire string is in tension. 2. A reference point is marked on the drillpipe at the surface, normally at the top of the rotary table. 3. A greater upward force F2 is applied, causing the free portion of the drillstring to stretch by an amount e. The stretch is measured above the reference point.

Fig 2: method of freeing a stuck pipe Once the measurements have been taken, they are used in the following equation: SPL= (735 103) * ((w)(e))/(F2F1) where: SPL = Stuck Pipe Location 735 x 103 = Derivation of Youngs Modulus for steel w = Drillpipe weight (lbs/ft) e = Length of stretch (inches) F1 = Force applied when pipe is in tension (lbs) F2 = Force applied to stretch pipe to e (lbs) The stuck pipe location produced from this equation will be a best guess value for a couple of reasons: (1) Since all boreholes are crooked to some extent, there can be a considerable amount of friction between the borehole and drillpipe, and (2) If the borehole is highly deviated, it will be very difficult to place the drillstring in tension without it coming into contact with the borehole. However, this calculation is simple to perform and is much better than the industry's nomograms for stuck pipe stretch. The value from the SPL equation will
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also provide a near-enough depth for a starting point when a free-point indicator is lowered into the drillstring. Other remedial approach includes; Hydrostatic pressure reduction This method involves creating a pressure differential inside the drill pipe and outside the drill pipe in the annulus. The pressure differential is achieved by either pumping a new lower density mud, or by pumping a small volume of lower specific gravity fluid such as diesel oil into the drill pipe. This will drop the mud level in the annulus thus reducing the pressure of the mud at the stuck point. Backoff operations: When attempt to free stuck pipe fails, backoff operation is the last resort. This technique involves parting the drill string at or above stuck point and receiving the drill string. The remaining string can be freed using a combination of hydraulic jars, over shot and hook, etc. 5.2 CONTROL OF LOST CIRCULATION The first step involved in the control of lost circulation is the identification of the thief zone. The techniques used include, spinner survey, temperature survey, radioactive tracer survey, pressure transducers survey. Control of lost circulation is achieved through use of loss control materials. For high permeability formation, calcium carbonate and sized salts may be used For cracks, fissures, vugs etc mica, nut plugs, fibres etc may be used. For severe cases, spotting of gunk. Mixture of diesel/barite or cement may help Total isolation with intermediate easing cemented in place may help Drilling blind; a process in which the total mud including cutting is allowed to flow into the thief zone and plug whist being practiced in some special problem cases, is not a good technique. Where the lost circulation is severe, it is useful to displace gunk rather than drilling blind
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5.3 CONTROL OF BLOWOUT/KICK Well control is the process of maintaining pressure inside the drilled wellbore in a manner that prevents gas or fluids from underground reservoirs flowing into the wellbore and escaping at the surface in an uncontrolled manner. Shell Offshore Inc. (Shell) believes that no single operational error or equipment failure should lead to loss of well control. Therefore, Shell will apply the following layers of prevention and response to avoid well control issues: Layer I - includes proper well construction, risk identification, training, scheduled tests and drills on the rig (e.g., blowout preventer [BOP] tests, pit drills, and trip drills), all of which build a strong foundation for well control incident avoidance. Layer II - includes early kick detection and timely implementation of kick response procedures. Continuous monitoring including the use of computerized pit volume monitoring, return flow detection, returned drilling fluid analysis and data sharing with Shells Real Time Operations Center provide early kick detection. When a kick is detected, the general response is to immediately shut down the pumps, perform a flow check, shut in the well, and kill the flow using one of several methods that prevent the situation from escalating into a blowout (an uncontrolled flow at the surface). Layer III - involves the use of mechanical barriers, including but not limited to subsea wellheads with tested seal assemblies, casing, dual floats (i.e., check valves), cement, weighted drilling fluid and tested BOPs. Testing and inspections of all mechanical barriers are performed to ensure competency. Layer IV incorporates detailed relief well planning and drilling, blowout kill operations, subsea capping equipment and containment capabilities that would be implemented if all other kick control methods fail. In the unlikely event that well control is lost despite these precautions, Shell will immediately mobilize specialized emergency response personnel and equipment, including Shells capping equipment and Arctic Containment System, to the site. Shell will also consult a well control specialist, such as Wild Well Control, for the intervention and prompt action to resolve the emergency. Surface Control Options If well control is lost, every effort will be made to regain well control using dynamic surface control measures. Dynamic pressure control involves pumping weighted fluid at rates sufficient to create fluid friction in the annulus of the blowout well to match or exceed reservoir pressure.
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Once this condition is achieved, flow from the reservoir ceases and control is regained. Historically, these measures of regaining control have been rapid and effective. However, uncontrolled flow at the surface presents a safety hazard. Safety procedures are employed to protect personnel, the environment, and equipment. These procedures can involve rapid disconnection from the well and escape from the drill site. Although the specific surface control methods used will depend on the situation, potential mechanical surface control methods include the following: Induced natural bridging (or plugging) of the well Pumping mud, plugging material, and/or special fluids down the well to kill it Replacing failed equipment if control was lost due to equipment malfunction Capping (attaching a device to the well to stop the flow) Relief Well In the scenario developed for a blowout, the primary drilling vessel (either the Kulluk or Discoverer) will attempt to stop the blowout by pumping mud and/or some other specially formulated fluid down the hole. Should these efforts fail; the drilling vessel will disconnect and pull away to a site upwind and upcurrent from the blowout location and initiate relief well drilling operations. As a precautionary measure, relief well preparation operations are initiated in parallel with surface capping/intervention methods being employed on the blowout well. Unless it is damaged, the original drilling vessel can commence relief well drilling if intervention measures prove to be unsuccessful. It is noted that throughout capping/intervention efforts and relief well drilling, Shells Oil Spill Response (OSR) fleet will still be on site collecting and storing oil from the surface of the sea. The general strategy for killing a blowout using a relief well is to drill a specially designed well to intersect the blowout well at some point along its path, usually near the top of the source reservoir. Then, kill weight fluid is pumped from the relief well into the original wellbore at sufficient rates to stop formation fluids from flowing, bringing the blowout well under control. Finally, both wells are properly plugged and abandoned using procedures approved by BOEMRE. In the event that the Kulluk is drilling in Camden Bay and becomes disabled and not capable of drilling the relief well for any reason, the Discoverer will cease drilling in the Chukchi Sea, Burger Prospect, suspend the well so that it cannot flow, recover its BOP stack and moorings, and transit to the relief well drill site in Camden Bay. The Discoverer will initiate relief well drilling operations upon arrival and mooring, and will remain at the site through plugging operations on both the relief well and the blowout well before returning to the Burger Prospect in the Chukchi Sea to resume drilling operations on the suspended well.
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In the event the Discoverer is the primary drilling vessel and the Kulluk is standing by in Dutch Harbor and the Discoverer is disabled, the Kulluk will immediately rig for towing and mobilize and transit to Camden Bay. Because the Kulluk would not be drilling in this scenario, it would not be necessary to suspend a well, recover moorings, pull the riser and BOP stack. A relief well in this situation will not have a mudline cellar (MLC). Relief well drilling is rapid and the relief well drilling vessel will only be on the site temporarily. The relief well will intercept the blowout and perform the kill even if extreme ice management efforts are required. All materials, equipment and supplies including wellhead housings, casing, drillpipe, mud materials, and cement in sufficient quantities to at least start the relief well will be available at the relief well drill site. Additional materials and supplies will be mobilized quickly to ensure that there are no delays in drilling the relief well and killing the blowout. A detailed Relief Well Plan will be submitted to BOEMRE as part of the Application for Permit to Drill for each planned exploration well.

Relief Well Location and Timing The optimum location for a relief well depends on several factors, including the depth and direction of the intercept point, personnel safety, and weather conditions. The location of the relief well is selected so that it can be drilled in the most efficient manner practicable. The estimated total duration from the start of a blowout to well killing through a relief well would be approximately 25 days for a Torpedo well (20 days for a Sivulliq well) from initial mooring through kill pumping. It is expected that a total of 9 days will be required for the Discoverer to suspend the Burger well, recover its moorings, pull the BOP stack and riser and make way under her own power then transit to the Camden Bay relief well drill site. If the Discoverer is the primary drilling vessel in Camden Bay and becomes disabled the Kulluk would require approximately 18 days to reach the relief well drill site in Camden Bay. Often, relief wells intercept a deep blowout at some point above the total vertical depth depending on flowrates, reservoir pressures, and fluid types (oil, gas or salt water), so the relief well intercept could occur in less time than these estimates. In general, all available resources are quickly accessed and funneled into drilling the relief well and killing the blowout as quickly as possible. Resupply of critical supplies and equipment, mobilization of specialized equipment and assignment of drilling personnel and well control specialists occurs rapidly in this emergency situation. Normal time requirements for planning and scheduling activities are compressed and deliveries are expedited. All reasonable and safe measures are employed to kill the blowout as quickly as possible.
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Blowout Well Ignition The decision to ignite a blowout will be made only after assessing the probability of Implementing successful surface control (i.e., capping), reviewing potential safety hazards, addressing pertinent environmental considerations and obtaining necessary agency approvals. Placing human safety as the highest priority, Shell will consider the feasibility and benefits of igniting the blowout after all personnel, equipment, and vessels have been located at a safe distance from the surfacing oil and gas. The decision to ignite will be made in conjunction with BOEMRE. Ignition and sustained combustion of vapors from the surfacing gas and oil would likely result in a safer working environment for relief well operators and for responders attempting to contain and/or recover oil downstream of the blowout. This decision may or may not result in the loss of the drilling vessel; most shallow water subsea blowouts have been allowed to burn on the oceans surface to consume dangerous vapors in the area when these vapors could threaten capping and containment work and relief well drilling operations. Blowout Well Intervention Many wells bridge over naturally within 24-48 hours of blowing out. The flowrate from other wells may drop over a few days, due to near wellbore depletion or formation subsidence. In these situations, it may be possible to re-enter the blowout well and use conventional well kill methods to regain control and secure the well against further flows. If this is possible, the Discoverer (or Kulluk, as appropriate) will move over the blowout well when it is safe to do so, re-attach the Lower Marine Riser Package (LMRP) and riser to the BOP remaining on the well, test all equipment to ensure integrity, and run tools and equipment into the blowout wellbore to affect a final kill. Often, the wellbore is damaged by the blowout to the extent that it is no longer usable and permanent abandonment is indicated. The decision to continue drilling operations or plug the well after such an intervention will be made in conjunction with BOEMRE. Drilling may proceed only if doing so would not introduce the risk of a subsequent blowout from the damaged wellbore.

5.4 CONTROL OF FORMATION DAMAGE The best control technique is prevention. Therefore to control formation damage, the following preventive measures are adopted;
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1. Interaction of invading fluid liquid phase and reservoir fluids: combating reaction between the fluids that can lead to precipitation, emulsion or water blockage, etc requires the selection of appropriate drilling and completion fluid that are compatible with the reservoir fluids at the down hole temperature and pressure. Likewise the reduction of fluid loss through the use of appropriate control agent is essential. Total prevention of lost circulation is also very important. 2. Interaction of invading fluid liquid phase and the formation: this problem leads mainly to potential clay swelling, wettability change and potential water blocking. To minimize the problem, use of appropriate clay inhibitors/stabilizer completion fluids would be desired to prevent clay swelling. Most formations are usually water-wet but this may change due to completion operations. For such cases, the use of appropriate surfactant to alter wettability will be desirable. For example, for improved oil relative permeability, the formation needs to be water-wet. Thus the water wettability of the formation can be restored through appropriate surfactant treatment. 3. Interaction of invading fluid solids and formation: this generally leads to particle plugging or result of fines migration. Prevention generally involves effective solids control for drilling fluids and use of solids free brines as completion fluids. Effective well preparation before completion operation is carried out is very essential. Thus, the drilling fluid can be displaced by solids free completion fluids.

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CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 6.1 SUMMARY The major problems drillers encounter during drilling operation includes; lost circulation, stuck pipe, blowout, and formation damage. If a tool is lost or the drill string breaks, the obstruction in the well is called junk or fish. It cannot be drilled through. Special grabbing tools are used to retrieve the junk in a process called fishing. In extreme cases, explosives can be used to blow up the junk and then the pieces can be retrieved with a magnet. Some reservoir rocks can be damaged by forcing drilling mud into them. This can be caused by using too heavy an overbalance while drilling. The drilling mud clogs the pores or causes chemical or physical changes in the rock. This decreases the rock's permeability near the well bore. Formation damage prevents or reduces production from the reservoir rock when the well is completed. Lost circulation occurs when a very porous and permeable formation is encountered in the subsurface. The drilling mud flows into the formation without building up a filter cake. During lost circulation, more mud is being pumped down the well than is flowing back up. In the past, drillers solved lost-circulation problems by buying all the leather they could locally. They shredded the leather into fine pieces and pumped it down the well. The shredded leather got into the pore spaces of the lost-circulation formation and swelled up, closing off the formation and solving the problem. Today, service companies sell inexpensive fine-grained, fibrous materials such as mica flakes, ground pecan hulls, sugar cane hulls, shredded cellophane, and even shredded paper money to solve lostcirculation problems. An unexpected pressure in the subsurface can cause a blowout. The overbalance is lost and the fluids flow out of the subsurface rocks into the well in what is called a kick. As the water, gas, or oil flows into the well, it mixes with the drilling mud, causing it to become even lighter and exert less pressure on the bottom of the well. The diluted drilling mud is called gas cut, salt-water cut, or oil cut. The blowout preventers are immediately thrown to close the hole. The kick can be dangerous if it is caused by flammable natural gas or poisonous hydrogen sulfide gas. Sometimes the blowout occurs so fast that the drillers do not have time to throw the blowout preventers, and the results are disastrous. Slides and cables are located
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on the rig to evacuate the crew in such an emergency. If the blowout preventers are thrown in time, heavier drilling mud is pumped into the well through a choke manifold to circulate the kick out. A kick and possible blowout is detected by several different methods during drilling. As subsurface fluids enter the well during a kick, more fluids will be flowing out of the well than are circulating into the well. The sudden increase of fluid flow out of the well or rise of fluid level in the mud pit is detected by instruments. The drilling mud can also be continuously monitored for sudden changes in weight, temperature, or electrical resistivity that would indicate the mud is being cut by subsurface fluids. A blowout can also be caused by raising the drill string out of the well. The drill string displaces a volume of drilling mud in the well. As the drill string is raised, the level of drilling mud falls in the well and the pressure is decreased on the bottom of the well. If the level of the drilling mud is not maintained in the well, overbalance could be lost and a blowout could occur.

6.2 CONCLUSION It is concluded that a greater majority of such drilling problems could be eliminated in most cases by better planning and better trained on-site rig planning and better trained on-site rig supervisors implementing the previously agreed upon well plan.

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REFERENCES

Chisholm, Hugh (editor). (1911), Petroleum Encyclopaedia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Colin Bowes and Ray Procter (1997), Guidelines and drillers handbook. Procter and Collins Ltd, p71 Faruk Civan (2006), Formation Damage Mechanism, University of Oklahoma, p101 Faruk Civan (2007), Reservoir Formation Damage: Fundamentaals, modeling, assessment and mitigation, Elsevier Inc, 2nd edition. Gow Sandy, Gow B.A. (2005), Roughneck, Rock bits and rigs: the evolution of oil well drilling technology in Alberta, 1883-1970, University of Calgary, pp 18-48 Hahn D., Froelich N., and Steward G., (2000), Differentially stuck pipe: Early diagnostic and solution: SPE technical paper 59127,p100 Hans V. (2003), Drilling Processes, Laminating company of America, pp24.3-24.32 Mcmanus B.T., (2006), Directive 036: Drilling blowout prevention requirement and procedures, Alberta Energy and Utility Board (EUB), 3rd edition, p205 Oyeneyin M.B., Lecture notes on Basic Petroleum technology: School of mechanical and offshore Engineering, the Robert Gordon University of Aberdeen, pp18-63

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Samad V.S., Agnar A. and Pal S., Frode S., (2000), Determining root causes of drilling problems by combining cases and general knowledge, Norwegian University of Science and Technology,p13. Shell Offshore Inc, (2011), Appendix L: well control plan, Revised Outer
Continental Shelf Lease Exploration Plan, Camden Bay, Alaska. Pp6

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