CHAPTER 14

The Special Theory

of Relativity

14-1. Substitute Eq. (14.12) into Eqs. (14.9) and (14.10):

 v 
x1′ = γ  x1 − x1  (1)
 c 

 v 
x1 = γ  x1′ + x1′ 

(γ = γ ′ ) (2)
c 
From (1)
x1′  v
= γ 1 − 
x1  c
From (2)
x1′ 1
=
γ 1 + 
x1 v
 c
So

γ 1 −  =
v 1
 c  γ 1+ v

 c 
or

1
γ=
1 − v2 c2

461
462 CHAPTER 14

14-2. We introduce cosh α ≅ y , sinh α ≅ y v c and substitute these expressions into Eqs.
(14.14); then
x1′ = x1 cosh α − ct sinh α 

x1 
t ′ = t cosh a − sinh α  (1)
c 

x2′ = x2 ; x3′ = x3 
Now, if we use cosh α = cos (iα) and i sinh α = sin (iα), we can rewrite (1) as
x1′ = x1 cos ( iα ) + ict sin ( iα ) 
 (2)
ict ′ = − x1 sin ( iα ) + ict cos ( iα ) 

Comparing these equations with the relation between the rotated system and the original
system in ordinary three-dimensional space,
x1′ = x1 cos θ + x2 sin θ 

x2′ = − x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ  (3)


x3′ = x3 
x2′ x2

x1′

θ
x1

We can see that (2) corresponds to a rotation of the x1 − ict plane through the angle iα.

14-3. If the equation

1 ∂ 2 ψ ( x , ict )
∇ 2ψ ( x , ict ) − =0 (1)
c2 ∂t 2
is Lorentz invariant, then in the transformed system we must have

1 ∂ 2 ψ ( x ′ , ict ′ )
∇ ′ 2ψ ( x ′ , ict ′ ) − =0 (2)
c2 ∂t ′ 2
where
∂2 ∂2 ∂2
∇′2 = + + (3)
∂x ′ 2
∂y ′ 2
∂z ′ 2
We can rewrite (2) as
4
∂ 2ψ ( x ′ , ict ′ )
∑ ∂x ′ 2 = 0 (4)
µ =1 µ
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 463

∂2 ∂2
Now, we first determine how the operator ∑ ∂x ′ 2 is related to the original operator ∑ ∂x 2 .
µ µ µ µ
We know the following relations:

xµ′ = ∑ λ µν xν (5)
ν

xν = ∑ λ µν xµ′ (6)
µ

∑ λµν λµλ = δ νλ (7)

µ

Then,
∂ ∂ ∂xν ∂
=∑ = ∑ λ µν (8)
∂xµ′ ν ∂xν ∂xµ′ ν ∂xν

∂2 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
= ∑ λ µν ∑ λ µλ = ∑∑ λ µν λ µλ (9)
∂xµ′2
ν ∂xν λ ∂x λ ν λ ∂xν ∂xλ

Therefore,
∂2 ∂ ∂
∑ ∂x ′ 2 = ∑∑∑ λµν λµλ ∂x ∂x
µ µ ν λ µ ν λ

∂ ∂
= ∑∑ δ νλ
ν λ ∂xν ∂xλ

∂2
=∑ (10)
∂xλ2

Since µ and λ are dummy indices, we see that the operator ∑∂ 2

∂xµ2 is invariant under a
Lorentz transformation. So we have
∂ 2ψ ( x ′ , ict ′ )
∑ ∂x ′ 2 = 0 (11)
µ µ

This equation means that the function ψ taken at the transformed point (x′,ict′) satisfies the
same equation as the original function ψ (x,ict) and therefore the equation is invariant. In a
Galilean transformation, the coordinates become
x ′ = x − vx t 

y ′ = y − vy t 
 (12)

z ′ = z − vz t 

t′ = t 
Using these relations, we have
464 CHAPTER 14

∂ ∂ ∂x ∂ ∂ t ∂ 1 ∂ 
= + = −
∂ x ′ ∂x ∂ x ′ ∂t ∂ x ′ ∂x v x ∂ t 


∂ ∂ 1 ∂ 
= −
∂ y ′ ∂y v y ∂t 
 (13)

∂ ∂ 1 ∂ 
= −
∂z ′ ∂y v z ∂t 

∂ ∂ 
= 
∂t ′ ∂t 
Therefore,

∂2 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂2  ∂2 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂2   1 1 1  ∂2
+ + − =  + + − +
  + + 
∂x ′ 2 ∂y ′ 2 ∂z ′ 2 c 2 ∂t ′ 2  ∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2 c 2 ∂t 2   vx2 vy2 vz2  ∂t 2
(14)
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 2
1 ∂  2 2
− 2 + + 
 vx ∂x∂t vy ∂y∂t vz ∂z∂t 
This means that the function ψ (x′,ict′) does not satisfy the same form of equation as does
ψ ( x , ict) , and the equation is not invariant under a Galilean transformation.

14-4. In the K system the rod is at rest with its ends at x1 and x2 . The K′ system moves with a
velocity v (along the x axis) relative to K.
K
K′

x1 x2

If the observer measures the time for the ends of the rod to pass over a fixed point in the K′
system, we have
1 v  
t1′ =  t1 − 2 x1  
v c2
1− 2 
c 
 (1)
1  v  
t2′ =  t − 2 x2  
2  2
v c 
1− 2 
c
where t1′ and t2′ are measured in the K′ system. From (1), we have
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 465

1  v 
t1′ − t2′ = ( t1 − t2 ) − c 2 ( x1 − x2 ) 
2
(2)
v
1− 2
c
We also have
x1 − x2 = A (3)

v ( t1 − t2 ) = A (4)

v ( t1′ − t2′ ) = A ′ (5)

Multiplying (2) by v and using (3), (4), and (5), we obtain the FitzGerald-Lorentz contraction:

v2
A′ = A 1 − (6)
c2

14-5. The “apparent shape” of the cube is that shape which would be recorded at a certain
instant by the eye or by a camera (with an infinitesimally short shutter speed!). That is, we must
find the positions that the various points of the cube occupy such that light emitted from these
points arrives simultaneously at the eye of the observer. Those parts of the cube that are farther
from the observer must then emit light earlier than those parts that are closer to the observer. An
observer, looking directly at a cube at rest, would see just the front face, i.e., a square.

When in motion, the edges of the cube are distorted, as indicated in the figures below, where
the observer is assumed to be on the line passing through the center of the cube. We also note
that the face of the cube in (a) is actually bowed toward the observer (i.e., the face appears
convex), and conversely in (b).

(a) Cube moving toward the (a) Cube moving away from the
observer. observer.
466 CHAPTER 14

14-6.
K′
K v

x1 x2

We transform the time t at the points x1 and x2 in the K system into the K′ system. Then,

 vx  
t1′ = γ t − 21  
 c 
 (1)

 vx 
t2′ = γ t − 22  
 c  
From these equations, we have

∆t ′ = t1′ − t2′ = −γ v
( x1 − x2 ) = −γ v∆x 1
(2)
2
c c2

14-7.
K K′
v

Suppose the origin of the K′ system is at a distance x from the origin of the K system after a time
t measured in the K system. When the observer sees the clock in the K′ system at that time, he
actually sees the clock as it was located at an earlier time because it takes a certain time for a
light signal to travel to 0. Suppose we see the clock when it is a distance A from the origin of the
K system and the time is t1 in K and t′1 in K′. Then we have

 vA  
t1′ = γ  t1 − 2  
 c 


c ( t − t1 ) = A  (1)

tv = x 

t1v = A 


We eliminate A, t1 , and x from these equations and we find

THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 467

 v
t1′ = γ 1 −  t (2)
 c
This is the time the observer reads by means of a telescope.

14-8. The velocity of a point on the surface of the Earth at the equator is

v=
2π Re
=
(
2π × 6.38 × 108 cm )
τ 8.64 × 10 sec
4
(1)
= 4.65 × 10 4 cm/sec
which gives
v 4.65 × 10 4 cm/sec
β= = = 1.55 × 10 −6 (2)
c 3 × 1010 cm/sec
According to Eq. (14.20), the relationship between the polar and equatorial time intervals is
∆t  1 
∆t ′ = ≅ ∆t  1 + β 2  (3)
1− β 2  2 

so that the accumulated time difference is

1 2
∆ = ∆t ′ − ∆t = β ∆t (4)
2
Supplying the values, we find

∆=
1
2
( ) (
× 1.55 × 10 −6 × 3.156 × 107 sec/yr × 10 2 yr ) ( ) (5)

Thus,

∆ = 0.0038 sec (6)

14-9.
w v + dv
dm′ m + dm

The unsurprising part of the solution to the problem of the relativistic rocket requires that we
apply conservation of momentum, as was done for the nonrelativistic case. The surprising, and
key, part of the solution is that we not assume the mass of the ejected fuel is the same as the
mass lost from the rocket. Hence
p = γ mv = (γ + dγ ) ( m + dm)( v + dv ) + γ w dm′ w (1)

where –dm is the mass lost from the rocket, dm′ is the mass of the ejected fuel,
( )
w ≡ ( v − V ) 1 − vV c 2 is the velocity of the exhaust with respect to the inertial frame, and

γw ≡1 1 − w 2 c 2 . One can easily calculate dγ = γ 3 β dβ , ad after some algebra one obtains

468 CHAPTER 14

γ w dm′
γ 2 m dv + v dm + w (2)
γ
where we of course keep infinitesimals only to first order. The additional unknown dm′ is
unalarming because of another conservation law
E = γ mc 2 = (γ + dγ ) ( m + dm) c 2 + γ w dm′ c 2 (3)

Subsequent substitution of dm′ into (2) gives, in one of its many intermediate forms

 βw 
γ 2 m dv  1 −
  + dm ( v − w ) = 0 (4)
c 
and will finally come to its desired form after dividing by dt

m
dv
dt
+V
dm
dt
1− β2 = 0( ) (5)

The quantity dt can be measured in any inertial frame, but would presumably only make sense
for the particular one in which we measure v. Interestingly, it is not important for the ejected
fuel to have an especially large kinetic energy but rather that it be near light speed, a nontrivial
distinction. For such a case, a rocket can reach 0.6c by ejecting half its mass.

14-10. From Eq. (14.14)

x1′ = γ ( x1 − vt ) (1)

 v 
t ′ = γ  t − 2 x1  (2)
 c 

Solving (1) for x1 and substituting into (2) gives

 v  x′ 
t ′ = γ t − 2  1 + vt  
 c γ 
v v2 t
t′ + x ′ = γ t − γ t=
c 2 1
c 2
γ

 v 
t = γ t ′ + 2 x1′ 
 c 
Solving (2) for t and substituting into (1) gives
  t′ v  
x1′ = γ  x1 − v  + 2 x1  
 γ c 
or

x1 = γ ( x1′ + vt ′ )
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 469

14-11.

θ
x1

From example 14.1 we know that, to an observer in motion relative to an object, the dimensions
of objects are contracted by a factor of 1 − v 2 c 2 in the direction of motion. Thus, the x′1
component of the stick will be

A cos θ 1 − v 2 c 2

while the perpendicular component will be unchanged:

A sin θ

So, to the observer in K′, the length and orientation of the stick are

( )
12
A ′ = A sin 2 θ + 1 − v 2 c 2 cos 2 θ 

 sin θ 
θ ′ = tan −1  
 cos θ 1 − v 2 c 2 

or
12
 cos 2 θ 
A ′ = A  sin 2 θ +
 γ 2 

tan θ ′ = γ tan θ

14-12. The ground observer measures the speed to be

100 m
v= = 2.5 × 108 m/s
.4 µsec
The length between the markers as measured by the racer is

A′ = A 1 − v2 c2

2
 2.5 
= 100 m 1 −   = 55.3 meters
 3 
The time measured in the racer’s frame is given by
470 CHAPTER 14

 v 
t ′ = γ  t − 2 x1 
 c 


µ −
( )
2.5 × 10 8 m/s (100 m ) 
 .4 sec 
 c2 
=
1 − ( 2.5 3)
2

= .22 µsec

The speed observed by the racer is

A′ A
v= = = 2.5 × 108 m/s
t′ t

14-13. ∆t ′ = γ ∆t

∆t = 1.5 µs

γ = ( 1 − 0.9992 )
−1 2
 22.4

Therefore ∆t ′  34 µs .

14-14.
K K′

source receiver

In K, the energy and momentum of each photon emitted are

hν 0
E = hν 0 and p=
c
Using Eq. (14.92) to transform to K′:
 hν 
E′ = hν = γ ( E − vp1 ) ;  p1 = − 0 
 c 

 v 
= γ  hν 0 + hν 0 
 c 
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 471

So

ν = ν 0 γ  1 + 
v
 c

1+ β 1+ β
= ν0 = ν0
1− β 2 1− β

which agrees with Eq. (14.31).

14-15. From Eq. (14.33)

1− β
ν= ν0
1+ β

Since λ = c ν

1− β
λ0 = λ
1+ β

or

1− β
λ= λ0
1+ β

4 × 10 4
With λ 0 = 656.3 nm and β = , λ = 656.4 nm.
3 × 10 8
So the shift is 0.1 nm toward the red (longer wavelength).

14-16.
K′
v

K θ′ star

θ
Earth

Consider a photon sent from the star to the Earth. From Eq. (14.92)
E′ = γ ( E − vp1 )

also
E = γ ( E′ + vp1′ )
472 CHAPTER 14

Now
hν hν 0
E = hν , E′ = hν 0 , p1 = − cos θ , p1′ = − cos θ ′
c c
Substituting yields
ν 0 = ν γ (1 + β cos θ )
and
ν = γ ν 0 (1 − β cos θ ′ )
Thus

(1 + β cos θ )(1 − β cos θ ′ ) = γ −2

1 + β cos θ − β cos θ ′ − β 2 cos θ cos θ ′ = 1 − β 2

cos θ − cos θ ′ − β cos θ cos θ ′ = − β

Solving for cos θ yields

cos θ ′ − β
cos θ =
1 − β cos θ ′

where
β =v c

θ = angle in earth’s frame

θ ′ = angle in star’s frame

14-17. From Eq. (14.33)

1− β
ν= ν0
1+ β
Since
ν=c λ,

1+ β
λ= λ0
1− β

5
We have λ = 1.5 λ 0 . This gives β =
13
or

v = 1.2 × 10 8 m/sec
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 473

14-18.
K′
v

source
K θ
light

observer

Proceeding as in example 14.11, we treat the light as a photon of energy hν.

hν 0
In K ′ : E′ = hν 0 , p ′ =
c
In K : E = hν = γ ( E′ + ν p1 )

For the source approaching the observer at an early time we have

hν 0
p1 =
c
Thus

 v  1+ β
ν = γ  ν0 + ν0  = ν0
 c  1− β
For the source receding from the observer (at a much later time) we have
hν 0
p1 = −
c
and
1− β
ν = ν0
1+ β
So

1+ β
ν = ν0 source approaching observer
1− β

1− β
ν = ν0 source receding from observer
1+ β
474 CHAPTER 14

14-19.
K

source
K′ θ

v
observer

Proceeding as in the previous problem, we have

In K ′ : E′ = hν

hν hν βr
p1′ = − cos θ = −
c c β + βt2
2
r

In K : E = γ ( E′ + ν p1′ ) = hν 0

So

1   hν β 
hν 0 =  hν − c β r2 + βt2   r

1 − β r − βt 
2 2    c β r + βt2
2
 

or
ν (1 − β r )
ν0 =
1 − β r2 − βt2

ν λ0 1 − β r2 − β t2
= =
ν0 λ 1 − βr

For λ > λ 0 , we have

(1 − β r )2 > 1 − βr2 − βt2

βt2 > 2β r − 2β r2

βt2 > 2β r (1 − β r )

14-20. As measured by observers on Earth, the entire trip takes

 4 lightyears  80
2
 0.3 c  = 3 years

80
The people on earth age years. The astronaut’s clock is ticking slower by a factor of γ. Thus,
3
the astronaut ages
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 475

80  80 
1 − 0.32 = 0.95   years
3 3
So

Those on Earth age 26.7 years.

The astronaut ages 25.4 years.

  1 
    −  ( −2β ) β 
d m0 v 
v  2 
14-21. F=   = m0  +v  (1)
( )
32
dt  1 − β 2   1− β 2
1 − β2 
 

 v vββ 
= m0  +
 (  )
32
 1− β 1 − β2
2

If we take v = v1e1 (this does not mean v 2 = v 3 = 0 ), we have

 v v 
 v1 v1 1 1 
c c = m0
F1 = m0  +  v1 = mA v1 (2)
(2 32
) ( )
32
 1− β 1− β  1− β
2 2

 

m0
F2 = v 2 = mt v 2 (3)
1 − β2

m0
F3 = v 3 = mt v 3 (4)
1 − β2

14-22. The total energy output of the sun is

dE
dt
(
= 1.4 × 10 3 W ⋅ m −2 × 4π R 2 ) (1)

where R = 1.50 × 1011 m is the mean radius of the Earth’s orbit around the sun. Therefore,
dE
 3.96 × 10 26 W (2)
dt
The corresponding rate of mass decrease is
dm 1 dE
=  4.4 × 109 kg ⋅ s −1 (3)
dt c 2 dt
The mass of the sun is approximately 1.99 × 10 30 kg , so this rate of mass decrease can continue
for a time
476 CHAPTER 14

1.99 × 10 30 yr
T= −1
 1.4 × 1013 yr (4)
4.4 × 10 kg ⋅ s
9

Actually, the lifetime of the sun is limited by other factors and the sun is expected to expire
about 4.5 × 10 9 years from now.

14-23. From Eq. (14.67)

p 2 c 2 = E2 − E02

= ( E0 + T ) − E02
2

= 2E0 T + T 2

p 2 c 2 = 2T mc 2 + T 2

14-24. The minimum energy will occur when the four particles are all at rest in the center of
the mass system after the collision.
Conservation of energy gives (in the CM system)
2Ep = 4 mp c 2

or
Ep ,CM = 2mp c 2 = 2E0

which implies γ = 2 or β = 3 2

To find the energy required in the lab system (one proton at rest initially), we transform back to
the lab
E = γ ( E′ + vp1′ ) (1)

The velocity of K′(CM) with respect to K(lab) is just the velocity of the proton in the K′ system.
So u = v.
Then
vp1′ = v ( pCM ) = v (γ mu) = γ mv 2 = γ mc 2 β 2

Since γ = 2, β = 3 2 ,

3
vp1′ = E0
2
Substituting into (1)
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 477

 3  7 
Elab = γ  2E0 + E0  = 2  E0  = 7E0
 2  2 

The minimum proton energy in the lab system

is 7 mp c 2 , of which 6 mp c 2 is kinetic energy.

14-25. Let B = B0 z
v = vx i + v y j

Then
i j k
qv × B = q v x vy 0
0 0 B0

= q vy B0 i − vx B0 j

d d
F = qv × B = ( p) = γ m ( v ) gives
dt dt
d
dt
qB
(
v = 0 v y i − vx j
γm
)
Define ω ≡ q B0 γ m

Thus
v x = ω vy and v y = −ω vx

or
vx = ω v y = −ω 2 vx

and
vy = −ω v x = −ω 2 vy

So
vx = A cos ω t + B sin ω t

vy = C cos ω t + D sin ω t

Take vx ( 0 ) = v , vy ( 0 ) = 0 . Then A = v, C = 0. Then v x ( 0 ) = ω vy ( 0 ) = 0

v y ( 0 ) = −ω vx ( 0 ) = −ω v

→ B = 0, D = − v
478 CHAPTER 14

Thus
v = i v cos ω t − j v sin ω t

Then
v v
r=i sin ω t + j cos ω t
ω ω
v
The path is a circle of radius
ω
v γ mv p
r= = =
q B0 γ m q B0 q B0
From problem 14-22
12
 T2 
p =  2Tm + 2 
 c 
So
12
 T2 
 2Tm +
c 2 
r=
q B0

14-26. Suppose a photon traveling in the x-direction is converted into an e − and e + as shown
below

e+
θ
θ
e–

before after

Cons. of energy gives

pp c = 2Ee

where
pp = momentum of the photon

Ee = energy of e + = energy of e −

Cons. of px gives

pp = 2 pe cos θ (p e = momentum of e + , e − )
Dividing gives
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 479

pp c Ee
=c=
pp pe cos θ

or
pe2 c 2 cos 2 θ = Ee2 (1)

But Ee2 > pe2 c 2 , so (1) cannot be satisfied for cos 2 θ ≤ 1 .

An isolated photon cannot be converted

into an electron-positron pair.

This result can also be seen by transforming to a frame where px = 0 after the collision. But,
before the collision, px = pp c ≠ 0 in any frame moving along the x-axis. So, without another
object nearby, momentum cannot be conserved; thus, the process cannot take place.

14-27. The minimum energy required occurs when the p and p are at rest after the collision.
By conservation of energy
2Ee = 2 ( 938 MeV )

Ee = 938 MeV = T + E0
Since Ee = 0.5 MeV ,

Te+ = Te− = 937.5 MeV

1
14-28. Tclassical = mv 2
2
Trel = (γ − 1) mc 2 ≥ Tclassical

We desire
Trel − Tclassical
≤ 0.01
Trel
1
mv 2
1− 2 ≤ 0.01
(γ − 1) mc2
1 2
v
2 ≥ 0.99
(γ − 1) c 2
β2
≥ 1.98
γ −1

( )
−1 2
Putting γ = 1 − β 2 and solving gives
480 CHAPTER 14

v ≤ 0.115 c

The classical kinetic energy will be within 1% of the correct

value for 0 ≤ v ≤ 3.5 × 107 m/sec, independent of mass.

14-29. E = γ E0
For
E = 30 × 109 eV

E0  0.51 × 106 eV,

γ  5.88 × 10 4

1
( )
12
γ= or β = 1 − γ −2
1 − β2

1
β  1− = 1 − 1.4 × 10 −10
2γ 2

(
v = 1 − 1.4 × 10 −10 c )
= 0.99999999986 c

14-30. A neutron at rest has an energy of 939.6 MeV. Subtracting the rest energies of the
proton (938.3 MeV) and the electron (0.5 MeV) leaves 0.8 MeV.

Other than rest energies 0.8 MeV is available.

14-31.

θ
0.98c
θ

Conservation of energy gives

Eπ = 2Ep

where Ep = energy of each photon (Cons. of py implies that the photons have the same energy).
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 481

Thus
γ E0 = 2Ep

γ E0 135 MeV
Ep = = = 339 MeV
2 2 1 − 0.98 2

The energy of each photon is 339 MeV.

Conservation of px gives

γ mv = 2 pp cos θ where pp = momentum of each photon

cos θ =
(135 Mev/c ) ( 0.98 c)
2

= 0.98
2 1 − 0.98 2 ( 339 MeV/c )

θ = cos −1 0.98 = 11.3°

14-32. From Eq. (14.67) we have

E2 − E02 = p 2 c 2

With E = E0 + T , this reduces to

2E0 T + T 2 = p 2 c 2

Using the quadratic formula (taking the + root since T ≥ 0) gives

T = E02 + p 2 c 2 − E0

Substituting pc = 1000 MeV

E0 ( electron ) = 0.5 MeV

E0 ( proton ) = 938 MeV

gives
Telectron = 999.5 MeV

Tproton = 433 MeV

482 CHAPTER 14

14-33.
e

120˚
p
n
120˚

ν
before after

Conservation of py gives

pe sin 60° = pν sin 60° or pe = pν

Conservation of px gives

pp = pe cos 60° + pν cos 60° = pe

So
pe = pp = pν ≡ p

Conservation of energy gives

E0 n = Ee + Ep + Eν

E0 n = E02e + p 2 c 2 + E02p + p 2 c 2 + pc (1)

Substituting
E0 n = 939.6 MeV
E0 p = 938.3 MeV

E0 e = 0.5 MeV
and solving for pc gives
p = 0.554 MeV/c

pp = pe = pν = 0.554 MeV/c

Substituting into
T = E − E0

= E02 + p 2 c 2 − E0

gives ( E0ν = 0 )

Tν = 0.554 MeV

Tp = 2 × 10 −4 MeV, or 200 eV

Te = 0.25 MeV
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 483

14-34. ∆s′ 2 = − c 2t ′ 2 + x1′ 2 + x2′ 2 + x3′ 2

Using the Lorentz transformation this becomes
v 2 x12
−c 2t 2 − + 2 x1vt
c2 x12 + v 2t 2 − 2x1vt
∆s′ 2 = + + x22 + x32
1 − v2 c2 1 − v2 c2

 2 v 2 x12  2  2 v 2 2 
 x1 − c 2  − c t − c 2 t 
=    + x2 + x2
1− v c
2 2 2 3

= − c 2t 2 + x12 + x22 + x32

So

∆s′ 2 = ∆s2

14-35. Let the frame of Saturn be the unprimed frame, and let the frame of the first spacecraft
be the primed frame. From Eq. (14.17a) (switch primed and unprimed variables and change the
sign of v)
u1′ + v
u1 =
u ′v
1 + 12
c
Substituting v = 0.9 c
u1′ = 0.2 c

gives

u1 = 0.93 c

14-36. Since
d  dX µ 
Fµ =
dτ  m dτ  and X µ = ( x1 , x2 , x3 , ict )

we have
d  dx1  d 2 x1
F1 = m
 dτ  = m
dτ dτ 2

d 2 x2 d 2 x3
F2 = m F3 = m
dτ 2 dτ 2

d  d ( ict )  d 2t
F4 =  m = icm
dτ  dτ  dτ 2
484 CHAPTER 14

Thus
d 2 x1 d2
F1′ = m − m γ ( x1 − vt ) 
dτ 2 dτ 2 

d 2 x1′ d 2t
=γm = γ mv = γ ( F1 + iβ F4 )
dτ 2 dτ 2

d 2 x2′ d 2 x2
F2′ = m = m = F2 ; F3′ = F3
dτ 2 dτ 2

d   vx1  
F4′ = icm
dτ 2 γ  t − c 2  
 

d 2t d 2 x1
= γ icm − γ iβ m
dτ 2 dτ 2

= γ ( F4 − iβ F1 )

Thus the required transformation equations are shown.

14-37. From the Lagrangian

(
L = mc 2 1 − 1 − β 2 − ) 1 2
2
kx (1)

we compute
∂L
= − kx (2)
∂x
∂ L ∂β ∂ L β
= = mc (3)
∂v ∂ v ∂β 1 − β2
Then, from (2) and (3), the Lagrange equation of motion is

d  mcβ 
  + kx = 0 (4)
dt  1 − β 2 

from which

mcβ
+ kx = 0 (5)
(1 − β ) 2 32

Using the relation

dv dv dx dv
cβ = = =v (6)
dt dx dt dx
we can rewrite (4) as
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 485

mc 2 β dβ
+ kx = 0 (7)
(1 − β ) 2 32 dx

This is easily integrated to give

mc 2 1 2
+ kx = E (8)
1− β 2 2

where E is the constant of integration.

The value of E is evaluated for some particular point in phase space, the easiest being x = a;
β = 0:
1 2
E = mc 2 + ka (9)
2
From (8) and (9),
mc 2 1 2 1
+ kx = mc 2 + ka 2 (10)
1− β 2 2 2

Eliminating β 2 from (10), we have

m2 c 4
β2 = 1 − 2
 2 1 2 
 mc +
2
k a 2
− x(  )
 2 k 2 2 
 mc + 4 a − x  ( )
(
= k a2 − x 2 ) 2
(11)
 2 k 2 2 
 mc +
2
a − x  ( )
and, therefore,

β=
1 dx
=
(
k a2 − x 2 ) mc 2 + k a 2 − x 2 4 ( ) (12)
c dt mc + k a − x
2
( 2 2
) 2

The period will then be four times the integral of dt = dt(x) from x = 0 to x = a:
 2 
m
a
k
1 + 2mc 2 a − x 
2
( )
τ=4 ∫ dx (13)
k 0
a − x 1+
2 2 k
4 mc 2
a −x
2 2
( )
Since x varies between 0 and a, the variable x a takes on values in the interval 0 to 1, and
therefore, we can define
x
sin φ = (14)
a
from which
486 CHAPTER 14

a2 − x 2
cos φ = (15)
a
and

dx = a 2 − x 2 dφ (16)

We also define the dimensionless parameter,

a k
κ≡ (17)
2 mc 2
Using (14) – (17), (13) transforms into

2a
π 2
(1 + 2κ 2
cos 2 φ ) dφ
τ=
κc ∫ 1 + κ 2 cos 2 φ
(18)
0

Since ka 2 mc 2  1 for the weakly relativistic case, we can expand the integrand of (18) in a
series of powers of κ :

(1 + 2κ cos φ ) ≅ 1 + 2κ
2 2
 κ2 
( 2
)
cos 2 φ  1 − cos 2 φ 
(1 + κ cos φ )  
12
2 2 2

 1
≅ 1 +  2 −  κ 2 cos 2 φ
 2

3
= 1 + κ 2 cos 2 φ (19)
2
Substitution of (19) into (18) yields
π 2
2a  3 
τ≅ ∫ 1 + 2 κ cos 2 φ  dφ
2

κc 0 
π 2
aπ 3κ a  1 
= +
κ c 2c φ + 2 sin 2φ  (20)
0

Evaluating (20) and substituting the expression for κ from (17), we obtain
m 3π a 2 k
τ = 2π + (21)
k 8c 2 m
or,

 3 ka 2 
τ = τ 0 1 + (22)
 16 mc 2 
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 487

dp d
14-38. F= = (γ mu)
dt dt
d
=m (γ u) (for m = constant)
dt

d  u 
=m  
dt  1 − u 2 c 2 
 
  u 
( ) ( )
12 −1 2
 1− u c − u  − 2  1 − u2 c 2
2 2

 c   du
= m 
 (1 − u2 c2 )  dt
 

( ) du
−3 2
= m 1 − u2 c 2
dt
Thus

du
( )
−3 2
F=m 1 − u2 c 2
dt

14-39. The kinetic energy is

T = p 2 c 2 + m02 c 4 − m0 c 2 (1)

For a momentum of 100 MeV/c,

Tproton = 10 4 + ( 931) − 931 ≅ 936 − 931 = 5 MeV

2
(2)

Telectron = 10 4 + ( 0.51) − 0.51 ≅ 100 − 0.5 = 99.5 MeV

2
(3)

In order to obtain γ and β, we use the relation

m0 c 2
E = mc 2 = γ m0 c 2 = (4)
1 − β2
so that
E
γ= (5)
m0 c 2
and

1
β = 1− (6)
γ2
100
γ electron = ≅ 200 (7)
0.51
488 CHAPTER 14

2
βelectron = 1 −  
1
 200  ≅ 0.999988 (8)

This is a relativistic velocity.

936
γ proton = ≅ 1.0054 (9)
931
2
β proton = 1 −  
1
 1.0053  ≅ 0.1 (10)

This is a nonrelativistic velocity.

14-40. If we write the velocity components of the center-of-mass system as v j , the

transformation of pα , j into the center-of-mass system becomes

 v j Eα 
pα′ , j = γ  pα , j − 2  (1)
 c 

1
where γ =
v 2j
. Since in the center-of-mass system, ∑ pα′ ,j = 0 must be satisfied, we have
α
1−
c2
 v j Eα 
∑ pα′ ,j = ∑ γ  pα , j − 2  = 0 (2)
α α  c 
or,

vj ∑ pα c,j
= α (3)
c ∑ Eα
α

14-41. We want to compute

T1 E1 − m0 c 2
= (1)
T0 E0 − m0 c 2
where T and E represent the kinetic and total energy in the laboratory system, respectively, the
subscripts 0 and 1 indicate the initial and final states, and m0 is the rest mass of the incident
particle.
The expression for E0 in terms of γ 1 is

E0 − m0 c 2γ 1 (2)
E1 can be related to E′1 (total energy of particle 1 in the center of momentum reference frame
after the collision) through the Lorentz transformation [cf. Eq. (14.92)] (remembering that for the
inverse transformation we switch the primed and unprimed variables and change the sign of v):
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 489

E1 = γ 1′ ( E1′ + cβ1′p1′ cos θ ) (3)

where p1′ = m0 cβ1γ 1′ and E1′ = m0 c 2γ 1′ :

(
E1 = m0 c 2γ 1′ 2 1 + β1′ 2 cos θ ) (4)

Then, from (1), (2), and (4),

T1 γ 1′ 2 + γ 1′ 2 β1′ 2 cos θ − 1
= (5)
T0 γ1 −1
For the case of collision between two particles of equal mass, we have, from Eq. (14.127),
1+ γ1
γ 1′ 2 = (6)
2
and, consequently,
γ1 −1
γ 1′ 2 β1′ 2 = γ 1′ 2 − 1 = (7)
2
Thus, with the help of (6) and (7), (5) becomes
T1 γ 1 − 1 + (γ 1 − 1) cos θ
=
T0 2 (γ 1 − 1)

1 + cos θ
= (8)
2
We must now relate the scattering angle θ in the center of momentum system to the angle ψ in
the lab system.
Squaring Eq. (14.128), which is valid only for m1 = m2 , we obtain an equation quadratic in cos θ.
Solving for cos θ in terms of tan 2 ψ , we obtain

γ1 +1
− tan 2 ψ ± 1
cos θ = 2 (9)
γ1 +1
1+ tan ψ
2

2
One of the roots given in (9) corresponds to θ = π, i.e., the incident particle reverses its path and
is projected back along the incident direction. Substitution of the other root into (8) gives

T1 1 2 cos 2 ψ
= = (10)
T0 1 + γ 1 + 1 tan 2 ψ 2 cos 2 ψ + (γ 1 + 1) sin 2 ψ
2
An elementary manipulation with the denominator of (10), namely,
490 CHAPTER 14

(
2 cos 2 ψ + (γ 1 + 1) sin 2 ψ = 2 cos 2 ψ + γ 1 1 − cos 2 ψ + sin 2 ψ )
= γ 1 + sin 2 ψ + cos 2 ψ − γ 1 cos 2 ψ + cos 2 ψ

= γ 1 + 1 − γ 1 cos 2 ψ + cos 2 ψ

= (γ 1 + 1) − (γ 1 − 1) cos 2 ψ (11)

provides us with the desired result:

T1 2 cos 2 ψ
= (12)
T0 (γ 1 + 1) − (γ 1 − 1) cos 2 ψ

Notice that the shape of the curve changes when T1 > m0 c 2 , i.e., when γ 1 > 2 .
T1
T0
1.0
T1 = 0.1 GeV
0.8
T1 = 1 GeV
0.6
T1 = 10 GeV
0.4

0.2

0
0˚ 30˚ 60˚ 90˚ ψ

14-42.
y

γmec2 x
hν
φ

hν′

From conservation of energy, we have

hν + me c 2 = γ me c 2 + hν ′ (1)
Momentum conservation along the x axis gives
hν hν ′
= cos θ + γ me v cos φ (2)
c c
Momentum conservation along the y axis gives
hν ′
γ me v sin φ = sin θ (3)
c
THE SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY 491

In order to eliminate φ, we use (2) and (3) to obtain

1  hν hν ′ 
cos φ =  − cos θ  
γ me v  c c 
 (4)
hν ′ 
sin φ = sin θ
γ me v 

Then,

1   hν  2  hν ′  2  hν   hν ′  
cos φ + sin φ = 1 = 2 2 2
2 2
  +   − 2 +
 c   c  cos θ  (5)
γ me v  c   c  
1 c
Since γ = and v = γ 2 − 1 we have
v2 γ
1−
c2

γ 2 v 2 = c 2 ( γ 2 − 1) (6)

Substituting γ from (1) into (6), we have

2h h2
γ 2v2 = ( ν − ν ′ ) + 2 2 (ν − ν ′ ) 2 (7)
me me c

From (5) and (7), we can find the equation for ν′:

 hν   hν ′   hν   hν ′ 
2 2
h2
+
 c   c  − 2  c   c  cos θ = 2 hme ( ν − ν ′ ) + 2 (
ν − ν ′)
2
(8)
c
or,
 2me c 2  2me c 2
 h + 2ν ( 1 − cos θ ) ν ′ = ν (9)
  h
Then,
 
 1 
ν′ =  ν (10)
 1 + hν (1 − cos θ ) 
 me c 2 

or,
−1
 E 
2 (
E′ = E 1 + 1 − cos θ )  (11)
 me c 
The kinetic energy of the electron is
492 CHAPTER 14

 1 
T = γ me c 2 − me c 2 = hν − hν ′ = E 1 − 
2 (
1 − cos θ ) 
E
 1+
 me c 

E2  1 − cos θ 
T= (12)
me c 1 + E 1 − cos θ 
2 

me c 2
( )
 