OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATIONS PRESENTATION REPORT

RAMAN SCATTERING

VIVEKANAND EDUCATION SOCIETYS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY [V.E.S.I.T] CHEMBUR, MUMBAI-400 071.

SUBMITTED BY:
RUPESH KOTHARI (26) SANKET KOTHARI (27) SREEHARSH MALI (31)

INTRODUCTION

A large variety of spectroscopic techniques are available for the analysis of materials and chemicals. Among these is Raman spectroscopy. This relies on Raman scattering of light by a material, where the light is scattered inelastically as opposed to the more prominent elastic Rayleigh scattering. This inelastic scattering causes shifts in wavelength, which can then be used to deduce information about the material. Properties of the material can be determined by analysis of the spectrum, and/or it may be compared with a library of known spectra to identify a substance. Since the discovery of Raman scattering in the 1920s, technology has progressed such that Raman spectroscopy is now an extremely powerful technique with many applications. Raman scattering sometimes called the Raman Effect is named after Indian physicist C. V. Raman who discovered it in 1928. Since then Raman scattering has given rise to a number of important technologies, and foremost among these is Raman spectroscopy.
RAYLEIGH AND RAMAN SCATTERING

it to a virtual energy state. This is extremely short lived (on the order of 10-14 seconds) and the molecule soon drops back down to its ground state, releasing a photon. This can be released in any direction, resulting in scattering. However since the molecule is dropping back to the same state it started in, the energy released in the photon must be the same as the energy from the initial photon. Therefore the scattered light has the same wavelength. Raman scattering is different in that it is inelastic. The light photons lose or gain energy during the scattering process, and therefore increase or decrease in wavelength respectively. If the molecule is promoted from a ground to a virtual state and then drops back down to a (higher energy) vibrational state then the scattered photon has less energy than the incident photon, and therefore a longer wavelength. This is called Stokes scattering. If the molecule is in a vibrational state to begin with and after scattering is in its ground state then the scattered photon has more energy, and therefore a shorter wavelength. This is called anti-Stokes scattering. Three different forms of scattering

Most light passing through a transparent substance undergoes Rayleigh scattering. This is an elastic effect, which means that the light does not gain or lose energy during the scattering. Therefore it stays at the same wavelength. The amount of scattering is strongly dependent on the wavelength, being proportional to -4. It is this fact that makes the sky blue, the shorter wavelength blue components in the Suns light are Rayleigh scattered in the atmosphere far more than the longer wavelengths. Blue light is then seen coming from all over the sky. The scattering of blue light from its direct path from the Sun also causes the Sun itself to appear yellow. In Rayleigh scattering a photon interacts with a molecule, polarizing the electron cloud and raising

temperature, and the difference can be used as a measure of temperature.

Only about 1 in 107 photons undergo Stokes Raman scattering and so this is usually swamped by the far more prominent Rayleigh scattering. The amount of anti-Stokes scattering is even less than this.The difference in intensity of the Stokes and anti-Stokes components is due to the different number of molecules in each state initially. The population follows the Boltzmann distribution:

FEATURES:

Therefore there are exponentially fewer molecules that start out in the higher energy vibrational state. Since it is these that give rise to the anti-Stokes scattering, this is much less intense. The disparity depends on the spacing of the energy levels. So for the less widely spaced rotational levels, the Stokes and anti-Stokes scattering are of similar magnitude. For the vibrational levels, which are spaced further apart, the anti-Stokes signal is significantly weaker than the Stokes signal. The disparity is also reduced with increased

Whether the goal is qualitative or quantitative data, Raman analysis is one of the few technique which can provide key information, easily and quickly, detailing the chemical composition and the structure of the investigated materials. Localized or extended (mapping) investigations can be done under microscope by using microRaman (Raman micro-probe, Raman laser microprobe) and, more recently, by using NanoRaman. Raman spectroscopy is :

Non destructive Non invasive No need of sample preparation Information rich

Need only some milligram (or picogram) of material (gas, liquid or solid)

Raman spectrometers detect also spin waves (magnons) in semi-magnetic crystals. As for phonons, spin waves with small wave number (near zero, that means at the centrum of the Brillouin zone) are only detected.
OPTICAL PHOTOAMPLIFIERS:

the 0 and 1. This modulated light is injected into the optical fiber and will thus be able to propagate to the output fiber. On output a photo detector translated into electrical signals emitted the message

Telecommunications systems still need more speed from the explosion of the Internet bubble. The optical amplification is a technique always pushing the limits of compromise distance / speed well known in these systems. For the past fifteen years thanks to evolution of manufacturing technologies of powerful lasers, optical amplification by Raman effect is an interesting alternative to other amplification systems.

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STIMULATED RAMAN EFFECT

TELECOMMUNICATIONS WITH OPTIC FIBER

An optical fiber is a glass or plastic fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber optics is the overlap of applied science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference. The schema of a standard telecommunications optical link is shown in the figure below. The light emitted by the laser signal is amplitude modulated to encode the message to send: a digital message the encoding is simply a series of ignition / extinction of laser light to represent respectively

Another emerging technique allows it to obtain an optical amplification in the standard silica fiber without introducing dopant. It is the transmission fiber itself will serve as amplifying medium. The energy of the laser pump - this time hold on the wavelength of 1.45 m - is then transferred to the signal through an optical nonlinear called "stimulated Raman effect". This effect may be caused again under the influence of the pump laser but without the fiber has special characteristics. The average distance was obtained today by Raman amplification without interrupting the fiber for reamplification is about 500 km

SECURITY APPLICATIONS:

Hand-held scanners called Raman scanners, weighing just one-third of a kilo, are being used by US narcotics squads and airports to detect drugs. Security experts think that Raman scanners may be the best devices to detect explosives carried by terrorists. Safety inspectors are using Raman scanners to detect hazardous chemicals and gases. Police forces are using Raman scanners for forensic work. The scanners work by detecting the molecular structure of the object they are scanning. If you shoot a beam of light on an object, a very small part of it interacts with the atoms of the object and scatters light in a pattern or spectrum unique to that particular molecule. This is the Raman Effect. It is difficult to detect, and typically needs lasers to amplify the signal. Every molecule has a different Raman pattern. This is why Raman scanning has been called the fingerprinting of the universe: it can identify substances as surely as fingerprints can identify humans.

The images above illustrate the use of Raman imaging for revealing the stress distributions produced when type Ib and type IIb diamonds are impressed at high temperatures by a cubic boron nitride (CBN) indenter.

FORENSIC SCIENCE:

CARBON AND DIAMOND:

In the field of forensic sciences, Raman spectroscopy is predominantly used for the unambiguous identification of unknown substances. Given that Raman is a non-destructive technique, it has the advantage of being able to identify trace amounts of substances without compromising the evidence in any way, even allowing identification to be performed through a glass or plastic container. The high sensitivity, confocal performance and imaging capabilities of the inVia Raman microscope are key requirements, where enforcement agencies require detailed information on materials to obtain a successful prosecution. Renishaw's Raman microscopes have gained international recognition for successfully completing difficult forensic investigations such as distinguishing active drug forms and cutting agents from illicit materials, and proving which ink was deposited first in 'crossed ink' document authentication cases.

Raman spectroscopy is an essential tool in the carbon industry, whether for quality control of diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings, characterising the structure and chirality of carbon nanotubes, or quantitatively measuring the thickness and oxidation state of graphene and related materials. The Raman and photoluminescence capabilities of Renishaw's inVia Raman systems are widely used to identify whether diamonds have been artificially treated at high temperature and pressure (known as HPHT treated or GE-POL diamonds) to change their colour and hence value.

the semiconductor device manufacturing process, starting with R&D through to the production line.

The above image shows the contamination distribution in an ecstasy tablet, revealed using StreamLine Plus fast Raman imaging capability. The figure shows a Raman image of an M-shaped shallow trench isolation (STI), a common processing technique in microelectronics. The colour scheme maps the position of the 520 cm-1 silicon peak, with compressive and tensile stress; coloured red black respectively.

SEMICONDUCTORS:

Raman spectroscopy is a versatile technique for characterising semiconductor materials and devices, enabling assessment of material crystalline quality, local stress/strain, dopant/impurity levels and even temperature in operating devices on a sub-micron scale. Renishaw Raman spectrometers are the choice for a wide range of semiconductor applications, from silicon microelectronics to compound semiconductor solar cells. A key issue in the rapidly evolving world of microelectronics is quality control during miniaturisation processes. One of the principal hurdles to overcome is strain-induced failure arising from lattice mismatch among different materials, different thermal expansion coefficients, sharp patterning, and device re- scaling. The ability of Raman microscopy to monitor stress, and other parameters such as surface/device temperature, make it an effective tool throughout

BIOSCIENCES:

Raman is fast becoming a mainstream technique in the biosciences. Advances in imaging techniques such as StreamLine Plus, combined with chemometric data analysis capabilities, make it possible to gain an unprecedented understanding of chemical changes within biological materials, without the need for any sample preparation or dye markers. Raman spectroscopy has demonstrated the sensitivity to distinguish between cancerous, precancerous and normal tissues, and its sensitivity to changes in cell metabolites and protein structures elevate it above competing spectroscopic techniques.

Biological systems and materials provide unique challenges to Raman technology. Using Raman systems with Ultraviolet (UV) and Near Infrared (NIR) laser excitations allows the spectral region with the strongest fluorescence to be avoided. In addition to fluorescence, the majority of biological samples can be classified as weak Raman scatterers, with pigmented materials (such as vascular tissue) being strong absorbers of laser energy and thus more prone to laser damage. Renishaw has risen to these challenges by developing innovative techniques such as StreamLine Plus imaging to maximise the effectiveness of Raman in studying biological and biomedical materials

primary differentiator between cells of differing maturity. CONCLUSION: Thus we have seen that Raman Scattering is the important tool for the future.With its applications in virtually every domain,it is important to give an impetus to its development. The development of optical fibre having a low cross section diameter for Raman Scattering to prefctly occur is the need and further attention should be diverted towards it.

REFERENCES 1. http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/raman/ra man_scattering.php 2. http://ffden2.phys.uaf.edu/212_spring2011. web.dir/Chaitanya_Borade/recentapplication-of-raman-effect.html 3. http://www.ramanscattering.eu/raman/texts/042_text_32.php 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raman_scatteri ng

StreamLine Plus chemical imaging is set to revolutionise spectroscopic analysis of biological materials. It allows biologists to take advantage of the superior chemical specificity and excellent spatial resolution associated with Raman spectroscopy to generate detailed chemical images at unprecedented speeds. In the image above, chemometric analysis of oesophageal tissue has identified that the concentration of glycogen is the