MATTER The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.

Solids have a definite volume and a definite shape.

Liquids have a definite volume, but no definite shape (because they take the shape of the container in which they are placed). Liquids can be poured (but solids cannot) because the force of attraction between molecules is less in liquids (than in solids). Change of state from liquid to solid occurs when there is a fall in temperature. In fact, the change of state from liquid to solid occurs at a certain constant temperature with heat being released, e.g., water changes to ice at the freezing point of 0oC.

Gases have neither a definite volume nor a definite shape. Change of state from liquid to gas occurs during evaporation when molecules of the liquid escape from the surface.

Air is a mixture, and not a state of matter.

Atoms typically combine together to form molecules. Kinetic Theory states that the distances between molecules are greater than their sizes. An atom usually consists of protons, neutrons and electrons. Substances which consist of atoms that are alike are called elements.

Elements (113 in number) are systematically arranged in the modern periodic table. Of the 113 elements, 92 are natural elements.

Hydrogen is the lightest element. Its atomic number is 1 and its atomic mass is 1.01.

Uranium is the heaviest natural element. Its atomic number is 92 and its atomic mass is 238.03.

Mass is the amount of matter in a substance. Mass of a body is a constant (does not vary) and is determined by a beam balance.

Weight of a body is its mass multiplied by gravitational acceleration (W = m g). Weight of a body from the Earth decreases by a factor of about 6 when taken to the Moon because the gravity on the Moon is about 1/6th that on the Earth. Weight of a body is determined by a spring balance (where gravity comes into play).

Sir Isaac Newton discovered the Law of Gravitation. Newton's Universal Law of Gravitation states that the force of attraction F between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their masses (M and m) and inversely proportional to the square of the distance r between them. Mathematically, F = G M m / r2, where G is a proportionality constant called the Universal Gravitation Constant, whose value is 6.67 1011 N m2/kg2.

Johan Kepler formulated the following three Laws of Planetary Motion. 1. All planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at the focus. 2. The radius vector from the sun to the planet sweeps equal areas in equal time. 3. The square of the time period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis of the ellipse.

UNITS AND MEASUREMENT SI (Systeme Internationale d'Unites) system is the standard system of units used by scientists worldwide. There are seven base SI units (for length, mass, time, electric current, temperature, luminous intensity, and amount of substance) from which the other units may be derived.

SI unit for length is meter (whose symbol is m). One meter is defined as the length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths, in vacuum, of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the levels 2p10 and 5d5 of the Krypton-86 atom.

SI unit for mass is kilogram (whose symbol is kg). The standard kilogram is kept at the Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sevres, France under carefully-controlled conditions.

SI unit for time is second (whose symbol is s). One second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the hyperfine levels of the ground state of the Cesium-133 atom.

SI unit for electric current is Ampere (whose symbol is A). The unit is named after French physicist Andre Marie Ampere, who explored the link between electric current and voltage. An electric current is a flow of charged particles, typically electrons.

SI unit for temperature is Kelvin (whose symbol is K). To convert a temperature from Celsius (oC) to Kelvin (K), simply add 273.16.

SI unit for luminous intensity is candela (whose symbol is cd).

SI unit for amount of substance is mole (whose symbol is mol).

SI unit for force is Newton (whose symbol is N). It is named afer the famous British scientist, Sir Isaac Newton. One Newton is the force required to accelerate a mass of one kilogram at 1 metre/second2. Note that force is mass multiplied by acceleration (F = m a) as per Newton's second law of motion.

SI unit for pressure is Pascal (whose symbol is Pa). The scientist, Blaise Pascal, gave his name to this SI unit. 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. Note that pressure is defined as force per unit area. Another unit for pressure is bar, where 1 bar = 105 N/m2.

SI unit of energy is Joule (whose symbol is J). The unit is named after British physicist James Joule (1819-89), who discovered the first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy). Latent heat is measured in Joules (J). Heat capacity is measured in J/K and specific heat capacity is measured in J/(kg K). Specific heat capacity is heat capacity per unit mass. In electricity, one Joule is used every second when one Ampere flows through a resistance of one Ohm.

SI unit of power is Watt (whose symbol is W). Power is the rate at which work is done or the rate at which electricity is used. 1 W = 1 J/s.

Unit for electric charge is Coulomb (whose symbol is C). The unit is named after French physicist Charles Coulomb, who studied electrostatic forces.

A Coulomb is the electric charge moved in one second by an electric current of one Ampere.

Unit for electrical potential is Volt (whose symbol is V). The unit is named after Italian chemist Alessandro Volta, who invented the voltaic pile (the world's first battery). A battery or generator produces a voltage which causes current to flow in a circuit.

Unit for electrical resistance is Ohm (whose symbol is ). Electrical resistance is defined as the ratio of voltage to electric current as per Ohm's law. Resistance is the degree to which a conductor of electricity opposes the flow of current.

Unit of capacitance is Farad (whose symbol is F). Capacitance is defined as the ratio of electric charge to electrical potential as per Faraday's law.

Unit for frequency is Hertz (whose symbol is Hz). The German physicist, Heinrich Hertz, demonstrated the existence of radio waves. The unit of frequency (cycles per second) is named after him.

Unit for illumination is lux (whose symbol is lx). One lux equals one lumen per square meter.

Unit for radiation activity is Becquerel (whose symbol is Bq). The French physicist, Antoine-Henri Becquerel, is known for his discovery of radioactivity. The unit to measure radiation activity is named after him.